4. define the following terms briefly : the cooperative principle and conversational implicature .

What
are the four maxims of the copperative principle ?

*The cooperative principle : It refers to a set of principles that govern effective and meaningful
communication between individuals. The cooperative principle suggests that in conversation,
participants generally assume that others will contribute information that is relevant, informative, and
truthful

*Conversational implicature : conversational implicature is an indirect or implicit speech act: what is

Eg:lan , "Do you have any plans tonight?"

Thu : , "I have a book I've been meaning to read."

-> The implicature here is that the person does not have any plans and intends to spend the evening
reading the book.

- Grice outlined four maxims that are considered to be part of the cooperative principle:

a. The maxim of Quantity (informativeness)

Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purpose of the exchange)

a. Not less informative

b. Nor more informative

Speaker B: 'Yes, I do. She did really well and got an A! '

->Here speaker B could have ended their reply after 'yes, I do.' However, they shared all of the
information they knew in order not to flout the Maxim of Quantity.

b. The maxim of Quality (truthfulness)

-Try to make your contribution one that is true:

+) Do not say what you believe to be false.

+) Do not say that for which you lack evidence.

Example 1:Yesterday, Hoa was sick and couldn't go to class. Coincidentally, there a Literature teacher
came to teach Hoa's class.

- Hoa asked: Did a new Literature teacher come to our class yesterday? What does she look like?

- Mai: She's very pretty, she has a slender body, waist-length hair, and a sunny smile.

=> In this case, Maxim is observed. Mai described to Hoa the exact characteristics of her teacher.

c.The maxim of Relation (relevance)

Example

In many cases the relevance of an answer needs to be inferred on the basis of information from the
context. Leech (1983: 94) provides the following example:

A: Where is my box of chocolates?

B: It’s in your room.

can be compared to

A: Where is my box of chocolates?

B: The children were in your room this morning.

B’s contribution in the first example abides by the maxim of relevance, since a direct and appropriate
answer to the question is given. B’s answer in the second example appears not to be relevant to the
question at first sight. However, the second example could still be relevant to the speaker. A will assume
that B abides by the cooperative principle and will therefore infer that specific implied meanings are
being conveyed. In the example given, such implicatures could be that the children may have eaten the
chocolate, or that the children may know where the chocolate is, as they were in A’s room.

d.The maxim of manner (perspicuity)

Be clear in what you say,avoid ambiguity or obscurity,be brief and orderly in your contribution.

Example: Two friends, John and Lisa , are planning to meet up a cafe .John arrives late, and Lisa aks him
why he was delayed.

Lisa: “John, why were you late”

John: “I apologize for being late.There was heavy traffic, and it was difficult to find parking”

=> He provides a concise and straightforward answer, focusing on the relevant information ( traffic and
parking) and maintaining clarity in his response.

5.What is presupposition? Identify types of presuppositions and give examples for illustration.

* Presupposition is the assumption the speaker makes about what the hearer is likely to accept without
challenge. Presupposition is “what a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the message already
knows.”

For example:

"Where has Faye looked for the keys?" presupposes "Faye has looked for the keys."

*Types of presupposition

a, Existential presupposition
It is the assumption of the existence of entities named by the speakers. Or the speaker is committed to
the existence of the entities or something

The existential presupposition is assumed to be present in:

+ Possessive constructions

Eg: “ tom’s car is new”-> we can presuppose that tom exists and that he has a car

+ Definite noun phrases

Eg: “the car was broken”-> presupposes that the existence of the entities it refers to , in this case the
“car”

b) Factive presupposition

It is the assumption that something is true due to the presence of some verbs such as “ know, “ realize”
and “ glad”

Eg: she didn’t realize he was ill -> he was ill ( factive presupposition)

c) Lexical Presupposition

It is the assumption that, in using one word, the speaker can act as if another meaning will be
understood.

For example:

Lisa stopped cycling at weekends. => Lisa used to cycle at weekends.

d) Structural presupposition

it is the assumption associated with the use of certain structures

wh-question constructions .

->The listener perceives that the information presented is necessarily true, or intended as true by the
speaker ..

Eg: when did she travel to the usa?-> ( she travelled)

E) Non-factive presupposition

It is an assumption referred to something that is not true .Verbs like” dream “, “imagine” and “ pretend”
are used with the presupposition that what follows is not true

Eg: I deamed that I was rich -> I was not rich

f) Counterfactural presupposition

It is the assumption that what is presupposed is not only untrue , but is the opposite of what is true, or
contrary to facts. Some conditional structures, generally called counterfactual conditionals , presuppose
that the information, in the if-clauses, is not true at the time of utterance

Eg: if I were rich I would buy a Ferrari-> I’m not rich