KAMKUS COLLEGE OF LAW

B.A.LL.B. 1st SEM

INDIAN HISTORY – I
(Ancient & Medieval Indian History)
(Paper Code: BL-1005)

SYLLABUS
1. Survey of political History of Ancient Indian, Concept of Kinship and Republics in Ancient
India with special reference to Ramayana and Mahabharata period.
2. Rise and growth of Political ideas in Ancient India with special reference to Kautilya, Manu,
Shukra, Administration of Mauryas and Guptas.
3. (a). Concept of State and government in Ancient India.
(b). Concept of Justice and Law in Ancient India.
(c). Concept of Dand in Ancient India.
4. A Brief survey of the Political History of Medieval India, Administration of Ala-ud-din
Khilji, Shershah, Akbar, Shivaji and Raja Suraj Mal.
5. Society in Medieval India with special emphasis on the condition of women, Agrarian
system, Socio- economic problems in Medieval India e.g. Sati and Untouchablity.

BOOKS RECOMMENDED
Basham A.L., The Wonder that was India.
Mojumdar R.C., Datta & Raychaudhry : An Advanced History of India.
Sharma R.S., Some Aspects of Political ideas and Institutions in Ancient India.
Sharma V.P., Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India.
Tripathi R.S., An History of Ancient India.
 UNIT-I

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q 1. GIVE THE IMPORTANCE OF RAMAYANA AND MAHABHARATHA.

Ans: SYNOPSIS
• Introduction
• Ramayana
• Mahabhartha
• Shrimadbhagwatgeeta
• Conclusion

INTRODUCTION

The Vedic literature was vast and varied. It contained the highest spiritual thought of the seers
and sages. It was understood only by the learned.

But it was impossible for common people to know of the deeper philosophies of the Vedas,
Upanishads and Aranyakas, etc.

The seers realised this. In their desire to carry knowledge to the people at large, they, therefore,
composed the two great epics in later times. The two epics were The RAMAYANA and The
MAHABHARATA. The epics were written during the latter half of the second millennium and
the first half of the first millennium before the Christian Era.

RAMAYANA
Ramayana was the work of Valmiki. It contains 24 thousand slokas and is divided into ten
parts. According to Valmiki himself, he wanted to carry the essence of the lessons of the Vedas
to the common people by singing the virtuous deeds of Ramachandra.

Ramayana describes the life of Rama, the eldest son of the king of Ayodhya, Dasaratha. When
the old king Dasaratha wanted to place Rama, the crown prince, on throne, Rama decided to
go to forest for fourteen years in order to fulfill his father’s promise to his second queen
Kaikeyee to keep her request at right time and Kaikeyee demanded the banishment of Rama to
forest so that her son Bharata could seat on the throne; death of king Dasaratha in extreme
sorrow for Rama’s departure; Rama accompanied by his devoted wife Sita and younger brother
Laxman went away to forest; a shocked Bharata went to bring Rama back, but on Rama’s
refusal he brought his foot-wear to place on throne and to rule the country on behalf of his elder
brother; departure of Rama from Chitrakuta to Dandakaranya and stay there in a hut at
Panchavati forest; abduction of Sita by the demon king of Lanka, Ravana; constructing a
bridge over sea, Rama’s invasion of Lanka; rescue of Sita after destruction of the demons; after
fourteen years of exile, return of Rama, Sita and Laxman to Ayodhya; Rama’s paternal
administration of his people; the suspicion expressed by a subject about the chastity of Sita
while in Ravana’s custody; on report of the matter to Rama by a spy, Rama’s order to Laxman
to abandon Sita in a forest even though she was pregnant; Sita’s stay in Valimiki’s Tapovan
where her two sons Kusha and Lava were born; taught and trained by Valmiki – the royal sons
grew up as heroic boys; visit of Valmiki to Ayodhya with Kusha and Lava; Kusha and Lava’s
melodious song of Valmiki’s Ramayana before the assembled gathering; on demands of all
Sita’s return; in order to prove her purity before all, her prayer to mother earth to take her back
and her disappearance when the earth split to absorb her; and at last, giving Koshala to Kusha
and North Koshala to Lava to rule as kings; Rama’s abandonment of his mortal body in the
river Saraju. This is the substance of the great epic Ramayana.

Valmiki described every episode of Rama’s life in great details. Side by side he added many
instructive stories to give the epic a vast shape. The purpose was to keep mankind on a virtuous
path. This epic has influenced and regulated the Indian way of life like a social and moral
constitution. Ramayan depicts the values of truthfulness, morality and nobility as supreme
ideals of life.

It also reflects the spirit of that time, the spirit of the people, the nature of ideal monarchy,
patriotism towards motherland and human relations in perfect form. For thousands of years,
the people of India have derived inspirations from the lessons of the Ramayana to live a nobler
and higher life.

MAHABHARATA
Great and glorious is the land of Bharata. To describe the deeds of the dynasty of Bharata that
Vyasa wrote The Mahabharata. No where on earth is to be seen such a lengthy poetic-work as
the Mahabharata. It contains one lakh ten thousand slokas.

Mahabharata was viewed in those days as a (religious) text of History. According to some
authorities, the essence of different philosophies of the Vedas and Upanishads were presented
in shape of interesting themes, episodes and stories for the understanding of the common
people. As a store-house of knowledge Vyasa’s Mahabharata has influenced the Indian thought
through centuries of time. Man and woman, the old and the young, the learned and the illiterate,
all sections of people of the Indian sub-continent knew the theme of Mahabharata since time
immemorial.
Vyasa’s Mahabharata begins with the story of the rule of the kings of the “Lunar Dynasty” at
Hastinapur. A virtuous monarch of that dynasty named Santanu had a son named Bhishma,
who was ever truthful and ever valorous. King Santanu had two other sons from his another
queen named Satyavati. They were Bichitravirya and Chitrangada. True to his vow Bhishma
did not accept the throne after the death of his father and remained a bachelor for life. The
kingdom, therefore, was ruled by Bichitravirya.

This king had two sons named Dhrutarastra and Pandu. Since the elder Dhrutarastra was
blind from his birth, his younger brother Pandu ascended the throne after the death of his father.
Pandu had five sons named as Yudhisthir, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula and Sahadev. They were
known as the Pandavas. On the other hand, the hundred sons of Dhrutarastra were known as
the Kauravas as the descendants of the former king of the dynasty named Kuru. Duryodhan
was the first among the sons of Dhrutarastra.

After the death of king Pandu his five sons were given one portion of the kingdom to rule.
Inside a forest called Khandava, the Pandava brothers built their capital and named it as
Indraprastha. This caused envy in the mind of the Kaurava brothers. They therefore invited
the Pandava brothers to play the game of Dice with them with bet over victory or defeat.

Playing with trick, the Kauravas defeated the Pandava king Yudhisthira again and again.
According to the bet the defeated brothers agreed to live the life of exiles in forests for twelve
years, and thereafter to spend one more year in disguise to escape detection.

At the end of their ordeal for thirteen years the Pandava brothers returned and asked the
Kauravas their kingdom. But the Kaurava king Duryodhan refused to give back their territory
saying that he would not give even a particle of earth without battle. Because of this injustice
a fierce battle was fought between the Pandavas and Kauravas in the field of Kurukshetra.
Many kings of India joined either the Kauravas or the Pandavas to take part in the war.

The field of Kurukshetra was also described as the Dharmakshetra because it saw the eternal
conflict between virtue and vice, righteousness and wrong-doing, between the just and the
unjust. At the end of the battle it was seen that all the Kaurava brothers were dead along with
most of their supporters. The Pandava side also lost many relations, including Abhimanyu, the
son of Arjuna, the greatest warrior of the battle.

Winning victory in Kurukshetra battle, the Pandavas got the whole kingdom and Yudhisthira
became king. But, in deep repentance over the death of his kith and kin and in order to do
penance, Yudhisthira left the throne in the hands of Parikshita, the son of dead Abhimanyu,
and left for the Himalayas with his four brothers and wife.
With this central theme Vyasa added many legends, traditions, Puranic episodes, accounts of
other royal dynasties, as well as descriptions of prevailing socio-religious systems, customs
and manners, moral values, political conditions, traditions of war and diplomacy, and faiths
and beliefs of the people. The Mahabharata described the virtues of vigour for worldly
existence as well as of the higher ideals of the life like truthfulness and righteousness. At
several places Vyasa included deeper philosophies and spiritual thoughts to create awareness
about man’s divine existence.

The Indian humanity has derived from the Mahabharata much inspiration for ages. The lessons
of this great epic have enabled man to overcome the sorrows, sufferings, distress and
misfortunes in their worldly existence. In the entire world literature there is no other work
comparable to India’s Mahabharata.

SRIMAD BHAGAVAT GITA

A small portion of the Mahabharata is famous as the Bhagavat Gita. Containing the essence of
Upanishads the Gita is considered as the core of the highest knowledge for mankind. When
the two opposites stood face to face in the battle field of Kurukshetra to fight, the supreme
commander of the Pandava forces, Arjuna, saw in front of him Bhishma – the grandfather,
Drona – the teacher, Duryodhan - the brother and many other near and dear ones against whom
he was going to fight.

A sudden remorse overtook him with the thought that should he use arms against his revered
as well as dear ones just for the sake of a country or a throne? In deep doubt about the merit of
his action, he asked his charioteer to stop the chariot and dropped down his bow and arrows
announcing his decision not to fight.

The charioteer was none other than Krishna Himself, the Supreme Being in human form. In
that moment of extreme crises Krishna uttered the words of wisdom, concerning the creation
and existence, the inner purpose of life and the value of duty, as well as the true awareness
regarding the reality and the unreality. Krishna’s spiritual utterance on Karma, Jnana
[ज्ञान] and Bhakti – Work, Wisdom and Devotion – reveals to Arjuna the real meaning of life.

He realized the truth that while he was doing a deed, he was not the ‘DOER’ himself – he was
only an instrument of the Divine will to uphold a sacred cause for sacred truth, righteousness
and justice. Work without attachment or desire for result will lead to true knowledge which
ultimately will lead man to a stage of devotion for selfless, detached and peaceful life. The holy
Gita is regarded as the sacred-most scripture of the Hindus and a unique contribution to
mankind’s spiritual consciousness.

CONCLUSION
We cannot deny the fact that rich literature of a country moulds, develops and enriches the
fertility of brains of a country. Epics like Ramayana and Mahabharatha brought this object of
penetrating into the minds of subjects the basic moral and ethical values while simultaneously
making them realize the virtues of Dharma.

Q 2. THROW LIGHT ON THE RULE OF THE EMPRESS NOORJAHAN.

Ans: SYNOPSIS
• INTRODUCTION
• LIFE HISTORY IN BRIEF
• RULE OF THE EMPRESS NOORJAHAN
o NOOR JAHAN – SCHEMING, POWER HUNGRY WOMAN
o GENIUS, FORESIGHT AND POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE
ACUMEN
o BADSHAH BEGUM
o NUR JAHAN VS SHAH JAHAN – CONFLICTS FOR THE THRONE.
• CONCLUSION

INTRODUCTION
“Nature had endowed her with a quick understanding, a piercing intellect, a versatile
temper and sound common sense. Education had developed the gifts of nature in no common
degree..” - Beni Prasad, History of Jahangir

“But there was one fatal flaw in her. She was a woman.....And in the prejudice of the age,
women had no public role and ambition was the prerogative of men..” - Abraham Eraly,
The Last Spring: The Lives and Times of the Great Mughals

LIFE HISTORY IN BRIEF

“My darling daughter, forgive your poor Ammi. Have mercy, Allah! One who looks after the
king on his throne, will look after this helpless baby in this vast desert”, Asmat Begum prayed
and wept as she hid her new born girl, her fourth child, near a thorny desert bush.

Fleeing from Persia, Ghiaas Baig and his wife Asmat had lost everything they possessed.
Starving themselves, they could not afford to feed another child. It was a sad decision no doubt,
to leave the new born baby, born in a makeshift tent during a devastating storm, in the middle
of the hot desert. But they had no choice. The other children were grown up enough to follow
their parents back if they were left somewhere. Hence, the only person fit to be discarded was
Mehr-un-Nisaa, the new born with eyes as blue as the cloudless summer sky.

What happened next is still hazy. Some opine that in the struggle between affection and
affliction, affection won and Ghiaas and Asmat retraced their steps and rescued their baby
daughter and decided to take her along for better or for worse. The other, more interesting
legend is that another caravan found the discarded baby. They followed the party that had just
left....which was Ghiaas and Asmat’s...and on reaching it, they asked around and handed the
child over to the hapless parents. Along with a bag of gold coins to provide for her and a sound
advice to never discard her again.
And this baby, once left alone to die in the desert by her own parents, would grow up to become
the mightiest Empress India had ever seen – Empress Noor Jahan. Noor Jahan’s life spanned
from 1577 to 1645.

Noor Jahan was an accomplished poetess.

RULE OF THE EMPRESS NOORJAHAN

NOOR JAHAN – SCHEMING, POWER HUNGRY WOMAN

In popular culture, Noor Jahan has been always portrayed as a scheming, power hungry woman.
Well, maybe that is true. But what does a wife and a queen do when her husband, who is
supposed to be the decision maker and ruler, whiles away his time between sickness, opium
and alcohol? Do you think it was wrong of her to stand up against a system that thought of
women as nothing else than mere wallflowers, for decorating their drawing rooms and
bedrooms? Was it wrong for her to hold up the pillars of an empire that was otherwise doomed
thanks to Jahangir’s love for narcotics?

There was love between Jahangir and Noor Jahan. Though one may feel she only used him as
an instrument to achieve the status of the “power behind the throne”, on careful study, it can
be noticed that after Jahangir’s demise, Noor Jahan doesn’t show any further interest in holding
on to authority.

“The Conqueror of the World was the slave of a woman – his consort, Nur Mahal or
Mehrunnisa...” - William Foster, The Embassy of Sir Thomas Roe to India

But in his own words, Jahangir claims no one loved him more than Mehru.

“A few days passed in this manner, and I only imparted this to Nur Jahan Begum than whom
I did not think anyone was fonder of me..” - Emperor Jahangir,(on his continued illness)
Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri (Translated by A. Rogers)

However, the way she expressed her love for her husband wasn’t the run-of-the-mill, docile,
subservient way. Mehr-un-Nisaa had entered the Mughal harem as the twentieth wife of
Jahangir. Surely it was a rank of hardly any consequence. She had a lot of other wives,
concubines and mistresses to compete with. So she chose a radically different path. She was a
demanding wife. She chose to argue with him at times and not speak to him when such
arguments happened. She made sure in some way or the other she was always the centre of his
attention. Instead of her giving in completely to him, it was the other way round...she made
him give in to her.

“she gave Jahangir to understand that the only way of being pardoned for the affront was
to throw himself at her feet...” – William Irvine, Translation, Storia de Mogor by Niccolao
Manucci

And yet, disregarding the counsel of all his ministers and friends, the Emperor of India,
Jahangir always turned to his wife for advice. She was more of a best friend, philosopher and
guide to him. He knew she loved him and was always there by his side and she knew she’d be
a non-entity without him. While she did object to some of his annoying habits, Mehr-un-Nisaa
was immensely indebted to Salim for having brought her out of a widow’s miserable life and
made her the most important woman in the whole empire. And from this gratitude and sense
of mutual trust, sprung devoted love.

GENIUS, FORESIGHT AND POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE ACUMEN

“He hath one beloved wife..that wholly governeth him” - William Foster, The Embassy of
Sir Thomas Roe to India

Jahangir saw in her the talent that everyone else at court couldn’t or refused to see. She had
genius, foresight and political and administrative acumen. And she could balance all this with
feminine charms. While on one hand Mehru had her own army and a fleet of powerful ships
that traded on international waters with China and other foreign countries, on the other hand,
she designed exquisite and innovative garments, made perfume out of Damask roses, gave
generously to the cause of women and paid off the dowry for poor girls. She commissioned the
most painstakingly beautiful gardens, monuments and inns. She was a brave hunter and is
known to have shot down tigers on many occasions. She was a poetess and a philosopher of
great talent and a patroness for bright young poets. No wonder then, in a palace full of air
headed females and a court full of murderous wazirs, Jahangir chose to trust the brilliant and
suave Mehr-un-Nisaa.

BADSHAH BEGUM
“Her abilities were uncommon; for she rendered herself absolute, in a government in which
women were thought incapable of bearing any part....Noor Jehan stood forth in public; she
broke through all restrain and custom and acquired power by her own merit...” - Alexander
Dow, The History of Hindostan

Such was her power at court and hold upon the Emperor that soon after she was declared
Badshah Begum (the first lady of the court), she started signing royal decrees with an authority
even the Emperor could not invalidate. No other Mughal empress ever had her name imprinted
on currency. But Noor Jahan had her’s...in style

“By the order of Jahangir, Gold attained a hundred times its beauty when the name of Nur
Jahan, the first lady of the court, was impressed on it !” – Inscription on coin from the
latter years of Jahangir’s rule

Upon gaining power, one of the first things she did was to depute Mahabat Khan, Jahangir’s
childhood friend and advisor and her own sharp critic to the extreme north western frontier of
the empire, Afghanistan (Qandahar) on the pretext of work.

Noor Jahan wanted to marry off her daughter Ladli Begum to her step son Khurram (later Shah
Jahan), for he was the brightest of Jahangir’s sons. But it was the meeting of the ethereally
beautiful Arjumand and Khurram which made her tweak her plans slightly. Arjumand was her
own niece. So she pushed forward their wedding. For her own daughter she had to suffice with
the rather idiotic and alcoholic Shahryar. This arrangement would make sure that Mehru’s
bloodline would be a part of the Mughals for at least another generation.

Noor Jahan had already garnered Khurram’s support long back. But, with wife Arjumand in
the picture, Khurram wanted his right...the Mughal throne. He did not want to remain merely
the support behind Noor Jahan’s sovereignty. Also, Noor Jahan was now inching steadily
towards Shahryar as he was her own daughter’s husband....Arjumand was merely a
niece...Ladli was her own blood. In this conflict of interests, Noor Jahan persuaded Jahangir to
send Khurram into the troubled lands of the Deccan. He would either die fighting the rebels
and if at all he survived, he’d be made a small time “subedaar” of some region. Ladli had to be
empress after her...not niece Arjumand.

NUR JAHAN VS SHAH JAHAN – CONFLICTS FOR THE THRONE.

“In a single empire there was no room for two such masterful spirits as Nur Jahan and
Shah Jahan. Each had known the other too well to be under any delusion. The issue was
perfectly clear – Nur Jahan must either soon retire from public life or supersede Shah Jahan
by a more pliable instrument.” - Beni Prasad, History of Jahangir

But as luck would have it, Khurram rebelled. Some say it was wife Arjumand’s idea that he
should fight for his right. At this juncture, another calamity struck Mehr-un-Nisaa....the man
who had helped her to become the formidable power she was...Jahangir, left for his heavenly
abode.
In a quick succession of events, her brother Asaf Khan put her under house arrest, Shahryar
was killed, Khurram took the throne, styled himself Shah Jahan, and Noor Jahan was tried at
court for her various “schemes” and attempts “to take power in her hands by unfair means” and
“influencing an Emperor’s free will”.

By now all Mehru wanted was to leave. She had no further desire or energy to remain the centre
of attention. She defended herself in her trial and when she was exiled, she requested to be
exiled to Lahore, where her beloved husband Jahangir was interred. With the small pension
given to her, she commissioned Jahangir’s mausoleum and a little distance further from that,
her own, in Shahdara Bagh, Lahore.

For a woman who wanted nothing but the best for herself, who challenged convictions of her
time, lived unapologetically and had supremely refined and expensive tastes, who defied the
defined perimeters for a Mughal queen and a woman, who held in her dainty hands the reigns
of one of the mightiest and wealthiest empires in the world, Noor Jahan’s tomb is surprisingly
unremarkable, threadbare and simple. No marble domes or proud minarets or inlay of
expensive gems for her resting place....just a simple structure made of bricks where she lies in
eternal sleep with her daughter Ladli Begum.

CONCLUSION
Many authors, other than Jahangir, have written extensively about the life of Nur Jahan and
have formed opinions about her personality, despite her never having written anything about
herself. As discussed earlier, contemporary European writers felt negatively about Nur Jahan.
However, female writers of the twentieth century, such as Ellison Banks Findly, often write
about Nur Jahan in a more positive light, heralding her as a sort of early feminist hero.
Obviously both of these opposing opinions have clear cultural biases. In the case of European
writers, the idea of a powerful queen, even one who had the support of her husband, was always
seen as suspect. Yet the same information analyzed by a female writer in the late twentieth
century could be seen as a female ruler fighting for women’s empowerment because of the
influence the modern feminist movement may have had on the writer.
In any case, the contribution of Noor Jahan shows the outside influences on the architecture
commissioned by Nur Jahan. She was able to patronize her own structures which reflected the
culture surrounding her. It is through this duality of cultures in the empire and her unusual
situation as the most powerful person in the Mughal court that allowed her to commission the
many complexes she did during the time. It was this unusual amount of power, which has
created such varying opinions about her by historians, that allowed her to create the works she
did.
Q.1. GIVE A BRIEF SURVEY OF POLITICAL HISTORY OF ANCIENT INDIA.

ANS. SYNOPSIS

• INTRODUCTION
• VEDIC AGE
• ARYANS SOCIAL LIFE
• CONCEPT OF DHARMAS
• VILLAGE AND REVENUE ADMINISTRATION
• PANCHAYAT SYSTEM
• CONCLUSION

INTRODUCTION
Political system of a country indicates the structure of organizations that constitute the State
and its Government. Ancient India is no different and it had also developed government and
political institutions to give figure and form to the fundamental ideology. The developed
political institutions in ancient India as follows:

VEDIC AGE
The characteristics of its government belong to the ancient Vedic age. Ancient Indian Political
System goes back to about five thousand years or more. Ancient India is a land that has been
shaping civilizations through settlement patterns. Therefore, history of India becomes enriched
with the description of the Indus Valley civilization. The people formed urban societies with
agriculture as an occupation. Moreover this pattern gave rise to large units or clans formed by
a group of village. The circle continued with several clans forming the tribe and their leader
was Rajan or the Vedic king. He protected his people from enemies and was accompanied with
a senani or commandant, the Sabha and the Samithi in administration. However, the invasion
by the Aryans had changed the whole scenario. Indian civilisation was again predominated by
the nomadic culture.

ARYANS SOCIAL LIFE

The Aryans can be identified as the pioneers in introducing the concept of society in Indian
culture. This civilization was subjected to various forms of kingdoms with a flow of political
boundaries. In the later Vedic age, the Gangetic Valley or Aryavartha became the centre of
political activity.

A different concept of society in India developed with the Aryans, in the early Vedic period.
The Early Vedic saw the rise of kingdom which was tribal in character. Each tribe formed a
separate kingdom. The basic unit of the political organization was family and a number of
families formed a Village. A reflection of the Ancient Indian Political System can be traced in
the social life of the Aryans. These villages were headed by Gramani. Various Kingdoms like
Kosala, Videha, Kuru, Magadha, Kasi, Avanti and Panchala came into existence. The king was
the highest authority and his position was considerably supreme. Kingship became hereditary
and the he was responsible for defence and maintaining law and order of their kingdoms.
Moreover, they had vast empires and tried to extend their territories. In Manu Samhita the
history of kingship is described. In Hinduism, Manu is considered to be the first king of the
earth.

CONCEPT OF DHARMAS
In earliest Indian Political System, the king was bound by Dharma’s or rule of law which were
code of duties. Though a king, yet he had limited powers. The king was required to take oath
and loyalty of the people. The king was not assigned with arbitrary powers and he was
functional according to the approval of the people. The king was then only a constitutional
monarch and the guardian, executor and the servant of Dharma. Besides, monarchies several
republics also evolved. After the Battle of Kurukshetra, large empire began to fade away and
several republican states emerged. The rulers were hereditary kings or sub kings who ruled
with the assistance of faithful ministers appointed by them. Ancient Indian Political System
revolved round the autocracy of the king and he was assisted by councilors or ministers to share
the multifarious activities of the state. The council of ministers was given great power and they
continued to advice the kings on their day to day handling of administration.

VILLAGE AND REVENUE ADMINISTRATION

Ancient Indian village administration was a significant part of the Political System. In the
Vedic period, the Aryans had built up small villages and the administration of the area was
looked after by the village councils. A system of giving taxes also prevailed in the ancient
society. Taxes such as Pali, Sulk and Bhaga were collected from the people. The revenue was
spent for the benefit of the subjects. Mentions of village administration are found during the
fourth century B.C. when republican federation existed in the society of India.

PANCHAYAT SYSTEM
At village level panchayat system is one of the essential democratic institutions which
developed in India. Panchayat system originated in ancient India and references are found in
the age of Mahabharata. This system is an institution of the Local Self Government found at
the village level. It constitutes of a village council consisting of village elders. These local self-
government perform administrative and judicial function. The Panchayat system used to serve
since ancient times and at present it has become an integral part of Indian Administration. At
present Panchayat system is a three tier institution and continues to administer the villages.

CONCLUSION
Ancient political system of the country laid down the edifice to the current political system,
though the current political system developed over decades, and transformed accordingly.

Q.2. DISCUSS THE CONCEPT OF KINGSHIP IN ANCIENT INDIAN (VEDIC AGE.)

ANS. SYNOPSIS
• INTRODUCTION
• MEANING OF KINGSHIP
• KINGSHIP IN VEDIC AGE
• KINGSHIP IN LATER VEDIC AGE
• KINGSHIP IN RAMAYANA PERIOD
• CONCLUSION

INTRODUCTION
The concept of Kingship came into picture when the famous Demons and Gods war happened,
which resulted into the defeat of the God as there was lack of a leader. Gods decided to make
Indra as King of the Gods, and hence the concept took birth.
MEANING OF KINGSHIP
Kingship means hereditary rule i.e. rule by the members of the same family. In other words in
Kingship after the death of the king generally the eldest son of the king becomes the king, while
in republics the people choose their representatives to rule themselves.

As we know that, of the Undecipherment of Indus valley script we cannot say with authority
about Kingship and Republic in Indus valley period. Various kind of dominance is required to
govern the people, to run a society or an Institution. Rig Vedic Aryans were semi nomadic
people who probably came from central Asia around 1500 B.C. and settled down in the north
western region of India, Sapt sindhu means the area of seven rivers.

Aryans came to India for two causes –

a. Population force

b. Paucity of grazing land.

The idea of kingship not only arises after the formation of tribes or rashtra but if we go back
in time we find that the concept of kingship perhaps took birth simultaneously with the rise of
any culture and civilization. Aryan society was a rural society and family was the basic unit of
the society. Family was headed by Kulpati. Gram was headed by Gramini. Vish was headed
by Vishpati. Jana was headed by Janapati.

Essential purpose of all was to protect their community. We see it was the need of the time as
mentioned in Aiterya Brahman. There was a war between Gods and Demons in which Gods
were defeated. They realized that their defeat was because they had no King. The God said let
us elect our king. Here the institution of Kingship created because of the situation of the Gods.
Prajapati installed Indra as a King because he was strong and powerful. Kingship was
normally hereditary but there are occasional references to the selection of the ruler through
their choice, but usually from the imperial family.

KINGSHIP IN VEDIC AGE

Kingdom was traditional but elective monarchy or election of the king was also there from, the
majestic family was also there. King’s command was checked by Sabha, council of elder
people and Samiti council of common people plus Gana and Vidath. King was helped by a few
officials – Purohit, Senani and Gramini. No regular taxation was there but people voluntary
offered Bali (a sort of tax). The King had no right over the land. There was no officer for
administering justice and it was: discharged by the King himself. There was no standing army
and the military functions were performed by different Tribal groups, Vidhth, Gana etc.

KINGSHIP IN LATER VEDIC AGE

Traditionally monarchy continued Sabha, Samiti lost their importance. The term Rashtra which
indicates territory first appeared in this period. Now the wars were fought for territories not for
cows. The term Rashtra appears for the first time in this period. The King’s influence was
strengthened by rituals like Ashwamedha, Rajasuya, Vajapeya etc.

KINGSHIP IN RAMAYANA PERIOD

Ramayana was written by Valmiki in that Lord Rama of Ikshwaku family (Dynasty) son of king
Dashratha has been explained in detail. The king Dashartha Kingdom belonged to Awadh
state. His capital was Ayodhya and Rama’s rule is well-known for the golden age. In
Ramayana we obtain a reasonable idea about their rule and the ruling policy. In Ramayana we
see that relevance of a state depends upon the existence of the king and the expansion of a state
depends upon the power of the king. A strong king would have a large area and a weak king
would have a small area. It seems that the source of the state depends upon the theory of
survival of the fittest. Existence of the state depends upon the power of the king. That is why
on the death of the King Dashrath the priests asked Vashisth that on the same day there must
be a new King of Ishwaku family. In the absence of a new king, the state could not continue to
exist even a single day. Guru Vashisht says that people should always be aware of the seven
parts of the state. After the death of king Dashrath there arose the question who would be the
king and this question was placed in front of Vashisth. Generally the eldest son in succession
would become the King, who was well versed in Vedas, far sighted respected by people,
popular in the entire three worlds, indulged in religious ceremony and rituals, strong, brave and
who was always ready to protect his people. In Ramayana fine and accountable of Kings are
follow the religious practices, moral values and patronage to knowledge.
According Ramayana there were two kinds of state:

a. Sovereign state

b. Dependent state.

1. Sovereign State: Sovereign were those which were strong, prevailing and used to collect
taxes and gifts from the reliant states. In Ramayana, King and state were two sides of a
single coin and the existence of the state lay in the existence of a king. To enlarge their area
of influence they acted according to religion and moral values. And there was also control
and power on the position of the king who used to rule according to the desires of the people
and there are instances when an evil King was disposed by public.
2. Dependent state: A dependent state does not exercise the full range of power over external
affairs. The controlling or protecting state may also regulate some of the internal affairs of
the dependent state. Formal treaties and the conditions under which the status of dependency
has been recognized by other states govern the balance of sovereign powers exercised by
the protecting state and the dependent state.

1. Balkand: Balkand is first chapter of Ramcharitra Manas which is written by Tulsi Das,
in this chapter of Balkand Vishvamitra advises Ram to kill Tarka because to kill her
would be a victory of good over evil and to kill demons (mischief sprite) to defend
general people or community is not a sin but a decent act and above all it’s the obligation
of the King to protect his public.
2. Ayodhya Kand: Ayodhya Kand is second chapter of Ramcharitra Manas, in Ayodhya
Kand make out how a king should run his administration when Ram says to Bharat his
younger brother, that an emperor should be pious and regimented (disciplined). Valmiki
said that relation between the King and his subject was not of a master and slave but,
which followed parental principle. Public protested when Bharat was being coronation
as the King instead of Ram, which shows that people had influence in royal affairs and
even the opinion of the representative of people was measured.
3. Kishkindaha Kand: Kishkandaha Kand is another chapter of Ramcharitra Manas, in
this chapter when Rama hurt Bali with an arrow, Bali says to Ram that he is from a
dignified family, pious who acted according to time, need and religion, helpful to needy
and he has all the required character of an emperor.
 4. The Lanka Kand: In this chapter Ramcharitra Manas gave idea how was kingship of
Ravana in Lanka. Ravana was great king and Ravana’s ten heads represent the ten
crowns he wore as a result of his being the sovereign of ten countries. According to
Ramayana, ‘Sone ki Lanka’ or Golden Lanka was the place where the demon king
Ravana dwelled in the “Treta yuga.” Lanka flourished under his rule and Ravana had
proceeded on a series of campaigns conquering humans, celestials and demons. It is said
that Ravana ruled Lanka for several hundred years prior to the times of Ramayana, when
he was killed by Prince Rama for kidnapping his wife Sita. He pushpaka vimana or the
aeroplane which he flew is held as an example of great scientific achievements made
during his regime while Ravana also holds a high position as a physician and there
exists, to this day, seven books on Ayurveda in his name. He is also believed to have
authored Ravana Sanhita, an anthology of Hindu astrology and his description as a ten-
headed person, Daśamukha or Daśagrīva, is believed to be a reference to his vast
knowledge and intelligence. His Kingdom had mainly concentrated around the Eastern
and Southern corners of the country and believed to have been lost to the sea with the
years.

CONCLUSION
After going through different chapters of Ramayana and Ramcharitra manas like
Kishkindakand, Ayodhyakand, Balkand, Lankakand etc. in Vedic Age, we can come to the
conclusion that Hereditary Monarchy was generally famous there. The impious king was
removed by the people. King was controlled by Sabha and Samiti and helped by Senani,
Gramini, and Purohit. But in later Vedic age, Sabha and Samiti lost importance. Hereditary
Monarchy was there besides this there was an important factor the spirituality of the King was
added in which King was assumed as the God himself. After observation of different chapters
it’s can say that King would rule accordingly to religion, moral values welfare of the people
and state punished the wicked to protect the common people. In other word, it can say that the
benefit of King existed in the benefit of the state and people and Lord Rama left no stone
unturned in establishing his state as an ideal state, through his character of Kingship.

Q.1. EXPLAIN IN BRIEF THE KINGSHIP DURING MAHABHARAT PERIOD.

ANS. KINGSHIP DURING MAHABHARAT PERIOD

Mahabharata consists of eighteen chapters and about one lakh couplets and consists of twenty
thousand slokas or verses, Mahabharata written by Ved Vyas. According to the orthodox view,
Mahabharata belongs to Dwapar Age. But the modern historians believed that it was written
in 950 B.C. According to a tradition view Krishna passes away at the commencement of the
Kalyug after the lapse 36 years from the Mahabharata War. During this there were a large
number of states in India and normal form of government was Kingship but there were
republics also which got developed form in Buddha age. The King was compulsory to act
according to rule of fairness and ethics.

Mahabharata is related to the feud between the Kauravas (the hundred sons of Dhitrastra)
with their capital at Hastinapur and the pandavas (the five sons of Pandu). The Pandvas
became the heirs to kuru throne, since Dhritrastra was blind and therefore not eligible to rule.
The Pandavas were resented by the Kauravas, who plotted against them and finally forced
them to leave the country. Dhritrashstra divided the kingdom and gave half to the Pandavas,
who ruled from Indraprashta. But this arrangement did not satisfy the Kauravas and they
invited Pandavas to a gambling match. Pandavas lost their kingdom. Pandavas went into exile
for thirteen years as a compromise to get back their kingdom. The Kauravas refused to give
back not only the kingdom but even five villages. A famous struggle at Kurukshetra lasted
eighteen days and resulted in the annihilation of the Kuravas. We find all the tribes and people
of the sub-content participated in the battle.

Mahabharat believes the divine theory of kingship i.e. the King is an ambassador of God. In
the Mahabharat Shantiparv, Bhishm says that kingship is of divine source and the king as a
God is come in person form. The King should not at all be insulted, because Agni, Aditya, Vayu
and Kuber all exist in inside the King. The King should forever indulge in interests and
prosperity of citizens. The importance of a king depends upon the value of administration. A
King who is not competent of fulfilling his duties is liable to be deposed by public or even
could be killed by the people, for example a emperor named Ven, father of Venya, was killed
by seers because he was not able to rule efficiently. In brief, it can say that during this period
the king was not an autocrat but an ambassador of the people. The people played an important
role in appointing or deposing King.

ADMINISTRATION
The King was head of the government or state who was the head of justice and military
department. In Shantiparv of Mahabharata Bhishm says that basically it is riot possible to have
all the character in a single person. That why require of a council of ministers i.e. Sabha arose.
In Mahabharata there is refer to of appointment of Brahamans who skilled in medicine,
scholars, and of fine moral principles, and character, eighteen & shatriyas’ who are versed in
war affairs and twenty one Vaishyas who are economically sound and three Shudra who are
well versed in serving and a scholar of mythology. These forty seven members of sabha
perform the administrative purposes but the ultimate authority was vested in the Rashtra.

It can state that in monarchical shape of government the King would be the centre of and power
and the common people have personally no right in the appointment and deposition of the King
but this right was enjoyed by members of royal family and people of upper strata of the society.
In the administration, Amatya, Sabha, Rashtra, Janpad all played important role and Brahaman
played a chief role.

LAW AND JUSTICE

In Shantiparv of Mahabharata, Bhishm says that the safety of the state and his people is
stranded on the rule of law that’s means state should be governed according bylaw and fairness.
Fountain head of was justice King, in the administration of justice punishment of Dand always
played an essential role. And the purpose of punishment was to punish the guilty and to save
from harm the innocent without any
prejudice, so that crime should be restricted. In brief, it can say that during Mahabharata age
position of law and justice was satisfactory.

Q.3. EXPLAIN THE CONCEPT OF REPUBLIC STATE IN ANCIENT INDIA.

OR

DESCRIBE THE MAIN FEATURES OF REPUBLICS IN ANCIENT INDIA.

ANS. SYNOPSIS

• INTRODUCTION – CHARACTER OF REPUBLICS

• CONCEPT OF REPUBLIC IN VEDIC PERIOD
• REPUBLICS DURING BUDDHA PERIOD [16 MAHAJANPADAS]
• CONCLUSION

INTRODUCTION – CHARACTER OF REPUBLICS

In Chapter 107/108 of the Shantiparv of Mahabharat, Yudhishtar asked to Bhishm “Your
Excellency, I want to have facts about the character of republics, is how they come in existence,
how one could save them from inner confliction and how they should overcome their
opponents”. Bhishma said, “Voracity, desire and anger among the emperors of the republics
produce confliction among them and after that they usually leave no stone unturned in getting
satisfied their selfish means. Republics split mainly because of disunity between the republics.
That is why republics ought to try to unite themselves in the confederation of republics by which
they get the monetary prosperity and maintain of other republics. They could development only
if they pursue the path of Dharma. The rulers of the republic should keep their Kings under
their control by following the path of Dharma and religion. Republic should follow the
diplomatic policy to settle issues with their enemies. As soon as the conflictions emerge among
the republics their heads and other elders should find the solutions at once”. That is why he
laid importance on the unity of the republics for their continued existence. Bhishm in
Shantiparv favours the thought of unity and this idea of unity is definitely relevant to present
time history too.

CONCEPT OF REPUBLIC IN VEDIC PERIOD

In relation to republic in Vedic Age, different academics have given views. Some academics
articulate that monarchy was the only form of government known to the public of earliest India.
And what are maintained to be republics, were nothing more than tribal states. But this view
was not accepted by famous scholars Dr. A. S. Altekar and Dr. R. Sharma Shastri who are of
the observation that there were some types of republic in the Vedic Age. According to Dr. R.
S. Sharma Vedic Gana was prevailing, Tribal republic and the Vedic Gana were self active
armed organizations and were forerunners of the Ayudhyajivi Sangh of Panini and Vedic Gana
was primarily in a tribal republic (state). The view of Shyam Shastri is that when the Aryans
invaded India, they were separated in number of Gana and Jans and during the Vedic and
Brahaminic period a number of Jans passed into elective monarchy while a few retained their
republic form as late as Buddhist time. There were individual republic and confederation of
republics. Gana was the individual republics, and confederation of republics was
sanghatangan. Lack of unity was there between individual republics, but not among the
sanghthan republics. The republics of Yadav, Kukara, Bhoj, Andhakas and Vrishinis formed
themselves into a sangh presided over by Lord Krishna. The village was the unit of
administration. It was under a Gramani (Headman).

REPUBLICS DURING BUDDHA PERIOD [16 MAHAJANPADAS]

The Buddhist literature, particularly the Anguttara Nikaya lists the sixteen mahajanapadas
given as Kashi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vatsa, Avanti, Gandhara, Kamboja, Matsya, Kurus,
Panchala, Surasena, Chedi, Vajjis, Mallas, and Assaka.
1. Kashi: its capital was Banaras; among the sixteen states Kashi was at first the most powerful
state and Kashi played a vital part in the subversion of the Videhan monarchy. Eventually
it had to submit to the power of Kosala and later annexed to Magadh by Ajatasatru.
2. Kosala: It embraced the area occupied by eastern Uttar Pradesh and has its capital at
Shravasti, which is identical with Sahet – Mahet in the borders of Gonda and Bahraich
districts in Uttar Pradesh. Kosala was bounded on the west by the river Gomati, on the south
by the Sarpika or Syandika (Sai), on the east by the Sadanira (Gandak) which separated it
from Videha and on the north by the Nepal hills.
3. Anga: Anga in the east of Magadha roughly corresponds to the modern districts of Monghyr
and Bagalpur. Its capital Champa, situated on the bank of the river of the same name, was
noted for its wealth and commerce. It was annexed to Magadha in the time of Bimbisara.
4. Magadha: Between Anga and Vatsa there lay the kingdom of Magadha, corresponding to
modern Patna and Gaya districts, bounded on the north and west by the rivers Ganga and
Son, on the south by the Vindhya outcrop and on the east by the river Champa. Rajagriha
or Girivraja, rendered impregnable by a perimeter of five hills, was the Magadhan capital.
The earliest dynasty of Magadha was founded by Brihadratha. However, Magadha came
into prominence under Bimbisasra and Ajatsatru.
5. Vatsa: The Vatsa country had a monarchical form of government. Its capital was Kausambi
(identified with the village of Kosam, 38 miles from Allahabad. Kausambi, a very
prosperous city was the most important entre pot of goods and passengers from the south
and the west. Udayana, the ruler of this country in the sixth century B.C. had to struggle
against king Ajatasatru of Magadha and king Pradyota of Avanti.
6. Avanti: The state of Avanti roughly corresponded to modern Malwa. The river Vetravati
divided Avanti into north and south. Terrirorially, it was a big kingdom and its capital was
Ujjayini or modern Ujjain. The ruler of Avanti in the time of Buddha was Chanda Pradyota.
He was a contemporary of Udayana of Kausambi. Although he was given the nickname of
Chanda on account of his ferocity, he became a convert to Buddhism. Avanti became a very
important centre of Buddhism. The kingdom of Avanti was finally annexed to Magadhan
Empire by Sishunaga.
7. Gandhara: The state of Gandhara roughly corresponded to modern Kashmir and extended
upto the Kabul valley. Its capital was Taxila which was a famous seat of learning where
scholars came from all over the world. According to the Buddhist tradition, the Gandhara
King Pukkusati exchanged gifts with Bimbisara in Magadha and went on foot to see the
Buddha. Later it formed the twentieth province of the Achaemenid Empire (Persian)
according to the Greek historian, Herodotus.
8. Kamboja: It was the country adjoining Gandhara in the extreme North-West with Dwarka
as its capital. A little before 530 B.C. Cyrus, the Achaemenid emperor of Persia, crossed
the Hindukush and received tributes from the people of Kamboja, Gandhara and the trans-
Indus area. During Kautilya’s time, Kamboja transformed from a monarchy to a republic.
9. Matsya:The Matsyas were to the south of the Kurus and west of the Yamuna. The Matsya
country corresponded roughly to the former state of Jaipur in Rajasthan.
10. Kurus: The Kuru state approximately to the modern Delhi and the adjoining doab area. It
was the very important kingdom of the later Vedic age but during the sixth century B.C. the
Kurus did not occupy the same position. They set up their capital at Hastinapur located in
the district of Merrut in Uttar Pradesh.
11. Panchala: The Panchala Empire, which covered the modern districts of Bareilly, Badaun
and Farukhabad of Uttar Pradesh state, lost its well-known position as in the Vedic period.
The Panchala capital was at Kampilla, perhaps modern Kampil in Farrukhabad district in
Uttar Pradesh.
12. Surasena: The Surasena was situated at the south east of Matsya state with capital at
Mathura. The capital also knows at the time of Megasthenes as the centre of Krinshna
worship. Later on the kingdom became an integral part of the Maghadh Empire.
13. Chedi: The .kingdom of the Chedis corresponded roughly to the eastern parts of
Bundelkhand and adjoining areas, and their king lists occur in the Jatakas.
14. Vajjis: The Vajji region lay north of the Ganga and expanded as far as the Nepal hills. Its
western limit was the river Sadanira (Gandak), which separated it from the Malla and
Kosalan cities. The Vajji state is said to have been a union of eight clans (atthakula), of
whom the Videhans, the Lichchhavis, the Jnatrikas and the Vrijjis were the most essential
place.
15. Mallas: The region of the Mallas, a republican, was divided into two parts, both having its
own capital. The two principal cities were Kushinara (known with Kasia in the Gorakhpur
district), and Pava (present Padrauna). The importance of these two cities is very great in
the history of Buddhism as Buddha took his last meals and was taken ill at Pava, and at
Kusinara, he died.
16. Assaka: The Empire of Assaka (Asmaka) was located nearthe river Godavari in the South,
and it became commercially significant in course of time. Its capital was Patlia or Potna.
All the 16 Mahajanapadas did not play the same role in contemporary politics, Kashi, which
was most important at first, lost its situation to Kosla and Magadha. These two empires vied
with each other for manage of the Ganga basin, which, owing to the riverine commercial
traffic, had certain clear strategic and economic reward.

CONCLUSION
In short we can say the existence of the republic cannot be definitely proved during Rigvedic
period. There is reference in Vedic literature which referred to democratic system of govt. The
kings mentioned here are probably the heads of Kshatriya family assembling probably at the
time of the coronation of the king. The sovereign powers thus did not belong to the masses but
to the few leaders of the aristocratic classes. Public opinion had attained importance shown by
the existence of sabha and samiti. Samiti sometimes elected their king also. The presence of
the king in it was considered to be essential. From these examples we come to the conclusion
that public opinion was sufficiently important.
 UNIT – II

Q.1. EXPLAIN IN BRIEF THE POLITICAL IDEAS OF KAUTILYA. WHAT ARE THE
SEVEN PILLARS FOR AN ORGANISATION AS SUGGESTED BY KAUTILYA?

ANS. SYNOPSIS
• BRIEF INTRODUCTION OF KAUTILYA
• CHANAKYA AND CHANDRAGUPTA
• CHANAKYA AND BINDUSARA
• KAUTILYA’S ARTHASHTRA
• SEVEN PILLARS FOR AN ORGANISATION
• CHANAKYA SUGGESTION FOR A COUNTRY

BRIEF INTRODUCTION OF KAUTILYA

Kautilya is estimated to have lived from 350-283 B.C. He was an Indian political thinker in
ancient India Chanakya is hyped as the economist of India”. Kautilya was the adviser and Prime
Minister of Emperor Chandragupta. Kautilya was a professor at the University of Takshila
(located in present time in Pakistan) and was an expert in commerce, warfare, economics, etc.
His well-known works contain Chanakya Neeti, Arthashastra and Neetishastra. Chanakya was
also named as Kautilya, Vishnu Gupta.

At time of Kautilya birth he had a full set of teeth, which is a symbol that he would become a
king or ruler. But since Chanakya was born in a Brahmin family, it was well thought-out
improper. Consequently, his teeth were broken and it was forecasted that he would make
another person an emperor and rule by him. During in child age, Chanakya had the qualities of
a born leader. His level of awareness was beyond children of his time.

CHANAKYA AND CHANDRAGUPTA

Chanakya was thrown out of the court of King Nanda who was Magadh emperor as he was a
blunt man and spoke his mind clearly. Chanakya swore he would take revenge. He comes
across Chandragupta as a young child. Yet at that age, he was a born leader and showed the
qualities of a talented ruler. He was the guiding force behind Chandragupta and the crucial
person who made him a capable ruler.

Kautilya puts in poison in little amounts daily in Chandragupta’s food in order to make him
immune to poisonous, lest some rival tries to toxic emperor Chandragupta’s. Though
Chandragupta was unknown this fact and once gave a little parts of food to his wife after eaten
that food she died she was in the ninth month of pregnancy also. After that Chanakya cut open
her belly and took out the baby. This baby grew up to turn into capable emperor and famous
named Bindusara.

CHANAKYA AND BINDUSARA

In Bindusara emperor had a minister Subandhu who dislike Chanakya. He misguides Bindusara
that Chanakya had killed his mother. Without evaluating real facts, Bindusara confronted
Chanakya. After some time knowing the whole and real story, he felt embarrassed at his speedy
actions and begged for forgiveness. He ordered Subandhu to go and apologize and make
Chanakya come back. Subandhu was very cunning and on the pretext of going to apologize to
Chanakya, he killed him. Therefore, ended the life of a great person like Chanakya just because
of political jealousy.

KAUTILYA’S ARTHASHTRA
Kautilya’s Arthashtra, a book on statecraft was written in the Maurya period in 4th century B.C.
the text was divided into 15 chapters, 380 Shlokas and 4968 Sutras known as books. Different
books deal with different subject matters concerning polity, economy and society, the king’s
duties, the code of conduct of officers, agriculture and industry, the inter-state relations.

Kautilya was the chief advisor of the king Chandra Gupta Maurya, in his rule the biggest Hindu
empire came into being. Kautilya’s wish was for his king to triumph over the world. In his
book Chankaya focused on king diplomacy related to Peace, War, Neutrality, Marching,
Alliance, Double Policy war, diplomacy and various parts of life. His book is still being
analysed and discussed in the strategic society.

SEVEN PILLARS FOR AN ORGANISATION

In book Arthashastra, Kautilya lists seven pillars for an organisation. “The king, the minister,
the country, the fortified city, the treasury, the army and the ally are the constituent elements
of the state” namely:
1. The King (The leader): All great organisations have great leaders. The leader is the
visionary, the captain, the man who guides the organisation. In today’s corporate world we
call him the Director, CEO, etc. Without him we will loose direction.
2. The Minister (The manager): The manager is the person who runs the show – the second-
in-command of an organization. He is also the person whom you can depend upon in the
absence of the leader. He is the man who is always in action. An extra ordinary leader and
an efficient manager together bring into existence a remarkable organization.
3. The Country (Your Market): No business can exist without its market capitalization. It is
the area of your operation. The place from where you get your revenue and cash flow. You
basically dominate this territory and would like to keep your monopoly in this segment.
4. The Fortifid City (Head Office): a place from where all planning and strategies are made.
It’s from here that your central administrative work is done. It’s the nucleus and the center
of any organization.
5. The Treasury: Finance is an extremely important resource. It is the backbone of any
business. A strong and well-managed treasury is the heart of any organization. Your treasury
is also your financial hub.
6. The Army (Your Team): When we go to war, we need a well-equipped and trained army.
The army consists of your team members. Those who are ready to fight for the organization.
The salesmen, the accountant, the driver, the peon – all of them add to your team.
7. The Ally (Friend / Consultant): In life you should have a friend who is just like you. Being,
in the same boat, he can identify with you and stay close. He is the one whom you can
depend upon when problems arise. After all, a friend in need is a friend in deed.

CHANAKYA SUGGESTION FOR A COUNTRY

Chanakya in his book Arthashatras suggested idea of a country reaching the following levels
of development in terms of ideologies and social and economic development:
• A self-sufficient economy which is not dependent on foreign trade.
• An egalitarian society where there are equal opportunities for all.
• Establishment of new colonies for the augmentation of resources. He also advocated the
development of the already annexed colonies. His imperialistic views can be interpreted as
the development of natural and manmade resources.
• According to Chanakya, the efficient management of land is essential for the development
of resources. It is essential that the state keeps an eye on the occupation of excess land by
the landlords and unauthorized use of land. Ideally the state should monitor the most
important and vital resource – Land.
• The state should take care of agriculture at all times. Government machinery should be
directed towards the implementation of projects aimed at supporting and nurturing the
various process; beginning from sowing of seeds to harvest.
• The nation should envisage constructing forts and cities. These complexes would protect
the country from invasions and provide internal security. The cities would act as giant
markets increasing the revenue of the state.
• Internal trade was more important to Chanakya than external trade. At each point of the
entry of goods, a minimal amount of tax should be collected. The state should collect taxes
at a bare minimum level, so that there is no chance of tax evasion.
• Laws of the state should be the same for all, irrespective of the person who is involved in
the case. Destitute women should be protected by the society because they are the result of
social exploitation and the uncouth behaviour of men.
• Security of the citizens at peace time is very important because state is the only saviour of
the men and women who get affected only because of the negligence of the state. Antisocial
elements should be kept under check along with the spies who may enter the country at any
time.
• Chanakya envisioned a society where the people are not running behind material pleasures.
Control over the sense organs is essential for success in any endeavour. Spiritual
development is essential for the internal strength and character of the individual. Material
pleasures and achievements are always secondary to the spiritual development of the society
and country at large.
Q. EXPLAIN IN BRIEF THE CONCEPTS LAID DOWN BY MANU IN MANUSMRITI.

ANS. CONCEPT OF MANU

Manu is a term found with various meanings in different mythologies of Hinduism. In early
texts, it refers to the representative man, or to the first man (progenitor of humanity). In later
texts, Manu is the title or name of mystical sage-rulers of earth, or alternatively as the head of
mythical dynasties that begin with each cyclic kalpa (aeon) when the universe is born anew.
The title of the text Manusmriti uses this term as a prefix, but refers to the first Manu
Svayambhuva, the spiritual son of Brahma.

On the other hand in some Puranic mythology, each kalpa consists of fourteen Manvantaras,
and each Manvantara is headed by a different Manu. The current universe, in this mythology,
is asserted to be ruled by the 7th Manu named Vaivasvata. In Vishnu Purana, Vaivasvata, also
known as Sraddhadeva or Satyavrata, was the king of Dravida before the great flood. He was
warned of the flood by the Matsya (fish) avatar of Vishnu, and built a boat that carried the
Vedas, Manu’s family and the seven sages to safety, helped by Matsya. The myth is repeated
with variations in other texts, including the Mahabharata and a few other Puranas. It is similar
to other flood myths such as that of Gilgamesh and Noah.

MANUSMRITI
Manusmriti, translated “Laws of Manu” or “Institutions of Manu,” is the most important and
authoritative Hindu Law Book (Dharmashastra), which served as a foundational work on
Hindu law and jurisprudence in the ancient Indian society. Until the modern times it was the
standard reference for both the rulers who patronized Vedic faith and the people who practiced
it.

According to Hindu tradition Manu is considered to be the first sons of Brahma and a
progenitor of human race, so it is very difficult to decide the period of Manusmriti. It considered
to that law of Manu might have been identified to the Vedic people for a long time before they
were codified into their present form sometime during the post Vedic period. In ancient India
the people believed in the order and regularity of the world as the manifestation of God’s will
and intent, and the clear victory of the divine forces over the demonic. Therefore, the laws
governing the performance of individuals and the order and regularity of Hindu society were
prepared by many scholars and sages in ancient India since the primitive times.

SCHEMES AN IDEAL SOCIETY AND BEST HUMAN CONDUCT

Manusmriti schemes an ideal society and best human conduct as the basis to establish a
systematically society and divine centred life. To support those principles and implement
divine will, it offers numerous laws to minutely govern human life and conduct as applicable
to each individual according to her or his society category, responsibilities and functions. Their
object is to maintain control, provide a basis for the rulers to enforce lawful conduct, and ensure
the orderly progression of the world through righteous conduct and observation of obligatory
duties by individuals. The power to implement the laws is carefully circulated among the rulers
and the guardians of society who support him in taken decision.

RELEVANCE OF LAWS LAID DOWN BY MANU

The laws that were proposed by Manu to govern human conduct and society reflect the
conditions, needs and values of the times in which they were formulated. Most of them do not
fit into the present day value system. They acknowledge prevailing social and gender
inequalities as natural conditions of human existence, and propose laws to govern the behaviour
of individuals without providing scope for any changes that time may bring in the conditions
of society or the lives of people. Hence, today you may find many laws of Manu archaic,
outdated, and even primitive. The laws favour a paternalistic society and family system, vesting
the authority to regulate them with men, and proposing rather a subordinate status and
subservient role to women. They also betray a clear lack of trust in the integrity and sexual
choices of women, thereby suggesting that they should always be guarded by men and should
never be left alone in the presence of men outside their families. At the same time, they do not
ignore or undermine the role of women in family and domestic matters, and urge men to treat
them with honour and respect and not let them suffer.

CASTE SYSTEM

Manusmriti recognize and validate the caste system as the foundation of order and regularity
of society. It identifies four classes of people like Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras,
and their own roles in the protection of dharma. Brahmanas and Kshatriyas are given many
civil liberties and superior leniency in matters of sentence for misbehaviour, whereas Sudras
are given the least number of civil liberties but the harshest of punishments even for minor
misdemeanours. Thus, it is important to study Manusmriti with an open mind to understand its
historical and religious importance in the development of Hinduism from its early days to its
current shape.
 UNIT – III

Q. EXPLAIN IN BRIEF THE CONCEPT OF STATE AND GOVERNMENT IN ANCIENT

INDIA.

ANS. CONCEPT OF STATE AND GOVERNMENT IN ANCIENT INDIA

India is a federal state with a parliamentary form of government. It is governed under the 1949
constitution (effective since Jan. 26, 1950). The President of India, who is head of state, is
elected for a five-year term by the elected members of the federal and state parliaments; there
are no term limits.

In ancient India there was the presence of concept of republic prevailing in various states. The
kingdom of Magadha, ruled by Bimbisara, is the most powerful state in India. The three
theories of origin of state in ancient India are as follows:
1. Social Contract Theory
2. Divine Origin Theory
3. Organic Theory.

The core issues in the study of political science are the state and the government. The institution
of state is studied in relation to its origin, nature, aims and functions of the state in ancient
India. The dawn of civilization was stated to have marked the beginning of the origin of state.
The state in ancient India was considered necessary, for it ensures peace, order and happiness.
It was a social organization with political power. However, ancient scholars were not
unanimous in their opinion with regard to the origin of the state. According to some, state was
the outcome of a contract mainly political in nature between the rulers and the ruled. They
opine that prior to the origin of state there was something called a golden age, wherein the
people enjoyed a life of peace, order, self-discipline and happiness. Similarly, several theories
like force theory, patriarchal theory, matriarchal theory, divine origin theory and finally the
evolutionary theory advanced the origin of the state.
1. Social Contract Theory: The social contract theory, one of the common theories of the
origin of state, believes that state is a result of a contract between the king and his subjects
or representatives. The king, thus appointed, was expected to save the state and the subjects
from external aggression and establish order and security within the state. However, the
earliest Vedic works never stated that state was the result of a contract. But, they clarified
that king was elected to wage a successful war against the demons.
2. Divine Theory: The Divine theory of origin of kingship as well as the state was not widely
acclaimed in the ancient Indian polity. The emperor, according to this theory, was a
subordinate to law, which was made by the community and not him. The society as a whole
was given greater importance than the king. The king was not allowed to act
indiscriminately and was expected to act as a father to his subjects, and treat them with
affection and kindness.

The Divine theory holds the vision that state is like an organism and that each department
has a specific function to perform. The theory believes that the healthy functioning of the
whole organism depends upon the healthy conditions of each part of the body or organism
and its efficient performance.
 The seven parts of the body, that is, state are the king or the sovereign, the minister, the
territory and population, the fortified city or the capital, the treasury, the army, the friends
and the allies. Among all the seven elements or parts, it is the king who is most important.

It was also stated in Manusamhita that ‘when the world was not without a king and
dispersed in fear in all directions, the lord created a king for the protection of all. And
because, he’s formed of fragments of all those gods, the king surpasses all other beings in
splendor’.

3. Organic Theory: Organic theory deals the view that state is like an organism and that each
department has a definite role to execute. The theory deals that the healthy functioning of
the whole organism depends upon the healthy conditions of each part of the body or
organism and its efficient functioning. The seven parts of the body, likes state are the king
or the sovereign, the minister, the territory and population, the fortified city or the capital,
the treasury, the army, the friends and the allies. Among all the seven elements or parts, it
is the king who is most significant.

Q. DISCUSS IN DETAIL THE CONCEPT OF JUSTICE AND LAW IN ANCIENT IN

INDIA.
OR
WRITE AN ESSAY ON JUSTICE AND LAW IN ANCIENT INDIA.

ANS. JUSTICE AND LAW IN ANCIENT INDIA

Administration of justice was not a part of the state’s duties in early times. We do not find
references to any judicial organizations in Vedic literature. The aggrieved party in order to get
its wrong redressed used to sit before the accused house and not allow him to move till his
(aggrieved party) claims was satisfied or wrong righted. Later justice was administered by the
tribe and clan assemblies and the judicial procedure was very simple. But with the extension
of the functions of the state and the growth of the royal powers, the king came gradually to be
regarded as the origin of justice and a more or less elaborate system of judicial administration
came into existence. The Dharma Shastras, Niti Shastras and the Arthashastra provide us
information about the well-developed judiciary. According to these literatures the king is the
fountain head of all justice and he was required to spend every day about a couple of hours in
adjudication. The paramount duty of the king is the protection of his subjects which involves
the punishment of the wrongdoer. The law to be administered is the Dharma Shastras subject
to local and other usages which are not inconsistent with the shastras.

TYPES OF COURTS
According to Brihaspati there are four types of courts likes –
1. Movable courts
2. Stationary courts
3. Courts deriving authority from the king and
4. Courts presided by the king himself.

Brihaspati also mentioned three types of nomadic courts as following:

First: For the profit to forest dwellers.
Second: For the profit of caravan merchants.
Third: For the advantage of military men.
According to Bhrighu rishi: There were some of the prominent courts for justice as follows:
1. The Kings Court: At the head of the judicial system stood the kings court at the capital and
presided by the king himself. But more often a learned Brahmana was appointed for the
purpose and he was known as Adhyaksha or Sabhapathi. Earlier the Adhyaksha was selected
for each particular occasion and in course of time became a permanent officer of state and
held the position of the Chief Justice (Pradvivaka). Apart from the king, this court consisted
of the Pradvivaka and three or four jurors.
2. Court presided by the Chief Justice: The court presided by the Chief Justice appointed by
the king called Pradvivaka was the second type of court.
3. Principal Courts: Another court of importance were the principal courts in large town
where royal officers assisted by learned person administered justice. They were presided by
Adhyakshas appointed by the central government.
4. Popular Courts: One special feature of ancient Indian judicial system is the existence of
popular courts.

According to Yajnavalkya for the first time refers to three types of popular courts.
1. Kula: The Kula has been defined by the Mitakshara as consisting of a group of relations,
near or distant. The Kula or joint families were often very extensive in ancient India. If there
was a quarrel between two members the elders used to attempt to settle it. The Kula court
was this informal body of family elders.
2. Sreni: When the effort at family arbitration failed, the matter was taken to Sreni court. The
term Sreni was used to denote the courts of guilds which became a prominent feature of the
commercial life in ancient India from 500 B.C. Sreni had their own executive committees
of four or five members and it is likely that they might have functioned as the Sreni court
also for settling the disputes among their members. This was an assembly of persons
following a particular profession like betel sellers, weavers, shoe makers and such like.
3. Puga: Puga was an association of persons drawn from various castes and following
different professions but staying in the same village or town. The Sabha or the village
assembly of the Vedic period and Gramavriddha court of the Arthashastra were the
forerunner of the Puga court.

Q. GIVE A BRIEF NOTE ON THE CONCEPT OF DAND IN ANCIENT INDIA.

ANS. DANDA
The word Danda is derived from the words Dam and Dand, which refer to tame, subdue, to
conquer or to restrain and the like. This term also means a stick. Danda, in fact, is one of the
elements of a state. The main reason for institution of Danda is to bring about discipline in the
lives of human beings who by nature are evil and corrupt. According to Manu, it is only the
king who can protect the entire mankind and for this protection, the king uses Danda as a means
or as an instrument. In the ancient Indian political system, it was the responsibility of the king
to maintain Dharma by means of Danda. It was widely believed that it is only through fear of
punishment that the mankind can be made more disciplined. It is this punishment that keeps a
check on their actions consciously or subconsciously.

THE PURPOSES OF PUNISHMENT

Punishment has five recognized purposes as follows:
1. Deterrence: Deterrence prevents future crime by frightening the defendant or the public.
The two types of deterrence are specific and general deterrence. Specific deterrence applies
to an individual defendant. When the government punishes an individual defendant, he or
she is theoretically less likely to commit another crime because of fear of another similar or
 worse punishment. General deterrence applies to the public at large. When the public learns
of an individual defendant’s punishment, the public is theoretically less likely to commit a
crime because of fear of the punishment the defendant experienced. When the public learns,
for example, that an individual defendant was severely punished by a sentence of life in
prison or the death penalty, this knowledge can inspire a deep fear of criminal prosecution.
2. Incapacitation: Incapacitation prevents future crime by removing the defendant from
society. Examples of incapacitation are incarceration, house arrest, or execution pursuant to
the death penalty.
3. Rehabilitation: Rehabilitation prevents future crime by altering a defendant’s behaviour.
Examples of rehabilitation include educational and vocational programs, treatment centre
placement, and counselling. The court can combine rehabilitation with incarceration or with
probation or parole. In some states, for example, nonviolent drug offenders must participate
in rehabilitation in combination with probation, rather than submitting to incarceration. This
lightens the load of jails and prisons while lowering recidivism, which means reoffending.
4. Retribution: Retribution prevents future crime by removing the desire for personal
avengement (in the form of assault, battery, and criminal homicide, for example) against
the defendant. When victims or society discover that the defendant has been adequately
punished for a crime, they achieve a certain satisfaction that our criminal procedure is
working effectively, which enhances faith in law enforcement and our government.
5. Restitution: Restitution prevents future crime by punishing the defendant financially.
Restitution is when the court orders the criminal defendant to pay the victim for any harm
and resembles a civil litigation damages award. Restitution can be for physical injuries, loss
of property or money, and rarely, emotional distress. It can also be a fine that covers some
of the costs of the criminal prosecution and punishment.
 Unit-IV

Q. ENUMERATE THE POLITICAL CONDITION OF NORTHERN INDIA IN THE

EARLY TWELFTH CENTURY.

OR

Q. WRITE A BRIEF SURVEY OF THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA.

ANS. SURVEY OF THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA

Medieval period refer to the phase of Indian history that stretches from the fall of the Gupta
Empire and advent of Islam into India in other words the beginning of the Sultanate period in
the 13th century. Numeral Delhi Sultanates were in power from 1210 AD to 1526 AD. The
Delhi Sultanate was established Muhammad Ghori by defeating Prithviraj Chuhan (Rajput
king) in the battle of Tarain-II in 1192 AD. In 1206 death of Muhammad Ghori, Qutb ud-Din
became himself sultan of Delhi and established the Slave dynasty; it came to an end in 1290
AD. The sultanate of Delhi was in regular change as five dynasties (families) as follows:

1. Slave dynasty (1206 AD to 1290 AD)

2. Khalji dynasty (1290 AD to 1320 AD)
3. Tughluq dynasty (1320 AD to 1413 AD)
4. Sayyid dynasty (1414 AD to 1451 AD)
5. Lodi dynasty (1451 AD to 1526 AD).

THE SLAVE DYNASTY (1206-1290)

Muhammad Ghuri or Muhammad Gori left his Indian empire in the care Qutb-ud-din Aibak.
Qutb-ud-din Aibak was his trusted former slave. On Muhammad’s death, Qutb-ud-din severed
his ties with Ghazni. Muhammad Ghuri dynasty referred to as the ‘mameluks’ or slave dynasty.
The founders of these dynasties were Qutb-ud-din Aibak, Iltutmish and Balban who did not
descend from a common ancestor. This dynasty ruled over Delhi during the period 1206 to
1290.

QUTB-UD-DIN AIBAK (1206-1210): After Muhammad Ghuri, Qutb-ud-din Aibak received

title of Sultan of Delhi from Ghiyas-ud-din Mahmud, nephew and successor of Muhammad of
Ghur. He reinforced his position by political matrimonial coalitions. He was very religious
Muslim, his devotion to Islam is known by the two mosques, Quwwat-ud-Islam built at Delhi
and Arhai Din ka Jhonpara built at Ajmer. He also started the construction of Qutub Minar.
He died in 1210, from the effects of a fall from his horse while playing polo. He was known
as lakh bazirs or ‘giver of lakhs’.

ILTUTMISH (1210-1236): Qutb-ud-din Aibak son was Aram Shah but incompetent for post
of sultan. Illtutmish challenged to Qutb-ud-din Aibak’s son Aram Shah. After defeating Aram
Shah in 1211 Iltutmish made himself secure as the Sultan. His full name was Shams-ud-din
Iltutmish. He was Aibak’s son-in-law also. On his accession to the throne he had to face many
complexities. But Iltutmish proved himself equal to the every situation. After defeated all
rivals, and was honoured with the patent of investiture from the Caliph of Baghdad in 1229.
He was the first ruler to adopt a monetary standard the silver ‘tanka’, the ancestor of modern
rupees. Iltutmush built other three more stories, and in 1368, Firoz Shah Tughlak constructed
the fifth and the last storey of Qutub Minar.

RAZIYA SULTAN (1236-1240): Razia Sultan, a brave sultan belonged to slave dynasty and
was the first mulim women to rule India and only women to occupy the throne of Delhi. She
succeeded her father Shams-ud-din Iltutmish to the Sultanate of Delhi in 1236. She was
talented, wise, brave, excellent administrator, and a great warrior that attracted her father which
resulted that she became the next sultan of Slave dynasty. Though her reign was just for three
years, her bravery, her struggle and her undaunted spirit has been preserved in the treasures of
history. Razia Sultan’s Tomb in Delhi is one of those places, which relives the uncharted spirit
of the brave woman who ruled Delhi once and for all.

KHILJI DYNASTY (1290-1320)

After the decline of the Slave reign, the Sultanate became even more fragile and instable due
to the numerous revolts and internal aggression. The Khilji dynasty started with the crowning
of Jalaluddin Khilji by the nobles. This was around the year 1290 A.D. But within a few years,
he was killed by his nephew Alauddin Khilji under a conspiracy hatched by the latter. The
Khilji dynasty is also known by the name of Khalji dynasty. The history of Khilji dynasty is
marked by brutal wars and internal conflicts among the rulers. Read on about the history of the
Khalji dynasty. The next territory that Alauddin Khilji conquered was that of Gujarat. Around
1301 A.D, he captured Ranthambhor and murdered the Rajput Hamir Deva. Then, he killed
Rana Rattan Singh and captured Chittor. By 1305, he had captured territories like Malwa,
Ujjain, Mandu, Dhar and Chanderi but couldn’t capture Bengal. He had conquered almost
entire north India by the year 1311 A.D. and established his kingdom successfully.

JALAL UD-DIN FIRUZ KHILJI: The founder of the Khilji dynasty was Jalal-ud-din Firuz
Khilji, who ruled from 1290-1294. He attacked India and built his empire which was capital in
Delhi, however he never really ruled from Delhi. He builds another capital at Kilokhri, and
reigned from there for around 6 years. At the time Mongols attacked on country, Jalal-ud-din
Khilji confront very bravely due to his daring Mongols depart. They came back after, five years
later and attack once again when his nephew ascended on the throne. Jalal-ud-din Khilji was
murdered by his own nephew which known as Ala-ud-din Khilji, when he was going to visit in
Kara.

ALA-UD-DIN KHILJI: After Jalal-ud-din Khilji throne ascended by the second ruler Ala-ud-
din Khilji, whose real name was Juna Khan. He reigned in India from 1296-1316. He was the
nephew and son-in-law of the first Khilji ruler Jalal-ud-din Khilji killed the first Khilji ruler (or
his father-in-law) and proclaimed himself as the ruler of Delhi. Ala-ud-din extended his
territory into the peninsular India very rapidly. Due to an acute health condition Ala-ud-din
Khilji died on January 1316 A.D.

QUTB-UD-DIN MUBARAK SHAH: The last and third ruler of the Khilji dynasty in India
was Qutb-ud-Din Mubarak Shah. The third ruler of the Khilji dynasty was the weakest ruler,
during his reign, all taxes and penalties were eradicated. He released all prisoners of war. Qutb-
ud-Din Mubarak Shah killed by Khusru Khan, hence ended the Khilji dynasty in India.

THE TUGHLAQ DYNASTY

The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320 AD to 1413 AD):

Ghyasuddin Tughlaq, who was the Governor of Punjab during the reign of Ala-ud-din Khilji,
ascended the throne in 1320 A.D. and founded the Tughlaq dynasty. He conquered Warrangal
and put down a revolt in Bengal. Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq succeeded his father and extended
the kingdom beyond India, into Central Asia. Mongols invaded India during Tughlaq rule, and
were defeated this time too.

Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq: First shifted his capital from Delhi to Devagiri in Deccan.

However, it had to be shifted back within two years. He inherited a massive empire but lost
many of its provinces, more particularly Deccan and Bengal. He died in 1351 A.D. and his
cousin, Feroz Shah Tughlaq succeeded him.

Feroz Shah Tughlaq: The invasion of Delhi by Taimur in 1398 may be said to mark the end
of the Tughlaq Empire. When ascended to the throne of Delhi, Firoz was a man of 45 years.
His mother was a Hindu princess of Dipalpur, who gave herself to his father Razzab (the
younger brother of Ghazi Malik) to save her people from the demands and oppressions of the
half-breed Turks. Firoz was trained in the art of the administration under his late cousin, the
“man of ideas” Muhammad bin Tughlaq. Muhammad kept him with himself like his son. Once
becoming Sultan, he reversed every order of his predecessor. Firuzshah Kotla (in Delhi) is the
city established by him. It was destroyed by the later rulers. The empire which was broken
during his cousin Muhammad’s reign was to be recovered back. He campaigned against Bengal
for two times, planned a new city Jaunpur in memory of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq.

General administration – Since he was half Muslim, got a religious temperament, probably to
prove himself equal to the Pure Muslims. He started seeking advice of the Ulemas and ruled as
per the Shariat. All the taxes which were unlawful as per Shariat were abandoned by him.

THE SAYYID DYNASTY (1414-1451)

It was the fourth dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate and ruled the Sultanate from 1414 AD to 1451
AD. Khizr Khan was the founder of Sayyid Dynasty. After Taimur invasion in 1398 AD, the
Tughlaq Dynasty became extremely weak. After the massacre, people lived a completely
chaotic life without a central powerful authority for more than one decade. In 1414 AD Khizr
Khan acquired the Delhi Sultanate and founded the Sayyid Dynasty.

Khizr Khan (1414-1421): Taimur’s nominee captured Delhi and was proclaimed the new
Sultan and the first of the Sayyid Dynasty. They ruled over Delhi and surroundings districts.

Mubarak Shah (1421-1434): He succeeded Khizr Khan at the throne after his successful
expeditions against Mewatis, Katehars and the Gangetic Doab area. He was killed by the
nobles in his own court.

Muhammad Shah (1434-1443): The nobles put Muhammad Shah on the throne, but could not
survive the in-fighting among the nobles in the court. He was authorized to rule a meagre area
of around 30 miles and rest of the Sultnate was ruled by the nobles.

Alam Shah (1443-1451): The last Sayyid king descended in favour of Bahlol Lodhi and himself
retired. Thus began the Lodhi dynasty, which confined to Delhi and a few surrounding areas.
Lodhi Dynasty was the last dynasty of Delhi Sultanate and ruled from 1451 AD to 1526 AD.
The Lodhi Dynasty was of Afghan origin and Bahlol Lodhi was the founder of Lodhi Dynasty.
In 1451 AD, Alam Shah, the last ruler of Sayyid Dynasty voluntarily abandoned the throne of
Delhi Sultanate in favour of Bahlol Lodi. In 1526 AD, the Lodhi Dynasty came to end after the
first Battle of Panipat and marked the beginning of Mughal Empire.

THE LODHI DYNASTY (1451-1526 AD)

Bahlol Lodhi (1451-88 AD): Bahlul Lodi was the first ruler of the Lodi Dynasty. He ruled the
Delhi Sultanate from 1451 AD to 1489 AD. He was first Afghan dynasty of India. He also
knew as Pathans sultans. Sikandar Lodi established himself in Punjab after invasion of Taimur
founded of Lodhi dynasty. He tried to restore the glory of Delhi by conquering territories
around Delhi. Extending his authority over Jaunpur, Rewail, Itawah, Mewar, Sambhal,
Gwalior etc. Though he was himself illiterate, he extended his patronage to art and learning.

Sikandar Lodhi (1489-1517 AD): His real name was Nizam Khan. After the death of Bahlol
Lodhi, his son Sikandar Lodi succeeded him and ascended the throne of Delhi Sultanate in
1489 AD. He ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1489 AD to 1517 AD. Sikandar Lodi was a good
and caring ruler for his Muslim subjects but he was extremely strict and harsh for Hindus. He
founded Agra in 1504 AD as his second capital after Delhi. In 1504, he founded the city of
Agra and made it his capital. Set up an efficient spying system and introduced the system of
auditing of accounts. He was a poet himself and wrote verses in Persian under the pen-name of
Gulrukhi. He also repaired Qutab Minar. He was a fanatical Muslim and he broke the sacred
images of the Jwalamukhi Temple at Nagar Kot and ordered the temples of Mathura to be
destroyed.

Ibrahim Lodhi (1517-26 AD): Ibrahim Lodi, the youngest son of Sikandar Lodi succeeded his
father in 1517 AD and ruled the Delhi Sultanate till 1526 AD. He was the last Sultan of Lodi
Dynasty as well as the Delhi Sultanate. At last Daulat Kan Lodhi, the governor of Punjab
invited Babur to overthrow Ibrahim Lodhi. Babur accepted the offer and inflicted a crushing
defeat on Ibrahim Lodi. Defeated & killed by Babur in the first battle of Panipat in 1526. In
1526 AD, the Mughal Emperor Babur defeated him in the first Battle of Panipat and established
the Mughal Empire. Ibrahim Lodi died in the battle. He was the only Sultan who had killed in
battle. This battle is considered as ending of Lodi Dynasty and beginning Mughal Empire in
India.

Q. EXPLAIN IN BRIEF THE ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM OF ALAUDDIN KHILJI.

OR

WRITE AN ESSAY ON ADMINISTRATION OF ALAUDDIN KHILJI.

ANS. ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM OF ALAUDDIN KHILJI

Alauddin Khilji was a stern despot and exercise complete authority over his vast empire.
Alauddin combined efficiency with sternness. He suppressed rebellions with a strong hand. To
 prevent future troubles he enacted various laws by which he put a ban on the consumption of
wine, prohibited social meetings among the nobility, and even forbade inter-marriage among
them without his special permission. He employed many spies who kept him informed of the
doings of his subjects. He burdened his subjects with heavy taxes. Naturally, the wealthier
classes were subjected to more taxes. Sultan Alauddin Khilji realized the need of keeping an
efficient army. This could only be done at heavy expenses. To reduce heavy military
expenditure the Sultan fixed a price of every article and attempted to make goods available in
cheap rates.
1. Fountain head of administrative system: The Sultan was the fountain head of the
administrative system. The earlier Muslim rulers carried on their administration by the
Quranic principles and the Ulemas or Muslim divines had a large say in the formulation of
policies. However, Alauddin Khilji differed from that of his predecessors in this respect. He
did not allow the Ulemas to lay down the principles of administration. As he used to say, “I
do not know what is lawful and what is unlawful; whatever I consider to be for the good of
my kingdom I do.” These words sum up his attitude towards government and its objects.

Ibn Batuta describes Alauddin Khalji as one of the best Sultans. This observation,
however, is not justified either by the manner in which he came to power or by the way he
carried on the government. However, when the vastness of his conquests is taken into
consideration, then only perhaps the remark that he was a great Sultan can be justified.

Sir Wolseley Haig has remarked, “With the reign of Alauddin begins what may be called
the imperial period of Sultanate which lasted about half a century.”

2. Central Administration: Sultan Alauddin Khalji established a strong central government

during his reign in which the Sultan was the head of the administration. AH executive”,
legislative and judicial powers were centred in the hands of the “Suttan and he had the
supreme power in all the three departments. K. M. Ashraf remarks, “The Sultan of Delhi
was in theory an unlimited despot bound by no law, subject to no material check and guided
by no law or will except his own.”

There were two powerful classes—nobility and ulema in the Sultanate throughout the 13th
century. Alauddin snatched all the powers from the nobility and deduced them to the
position of mere servants. He also minimized the powers of Ulema in the affairs of State
and religion.

Dr. Ishwari Prasad writes, “Alauddin was opposed to the interference of the Ulema in
matters of State and in this respect, he departed from the tradition of the previous Sultans
of Delhi. The law was to depend upon the will of the monarch and had nothing to do with
the laws of the prophet. This was the guiding maxim of the new monarch.”

3. Ministers: A powerful ministry was organized by the Sultan for the smooth running of
administration. Each minister was attached to one Particular department. Their duties were
to tender advice to the Sultan but there was not bound to act according to their counsel. The
post of minister was not reserved for any class. It was the privilege of the Sultan to appoint
or suspend a minister. The ministers had to work in their respective departments according
to the will of the Sultan. The following were the notable ministers during the reign of
Aluddin Khalji.
4. Wazir: Wazir was the most powerful minister of the Sultan. His position was next to the
Sultan in the Sultanate. He was both a civil and military officer. He was in charge of revenue
department and he had a right to inspect the departments of other ministers.

Various appointments were made by the Sultan in consultation with the Wazir. He used to
command the royal forces at the time of war.

1. Diwan-i-Ariz – This was a department pertaining to the army and war and the incharge of
this department was named Ariz-i- Mamalik. He assisted the Sultan in recruitment of
soldiers, organization of the army and expeditions.
2. Qazi-ul-Quzat – He was incharge of judicial department. He was expected to administer
justice according To Islamic law.
3. Mir Arigf – He was the lord of petitions. People could not approach the Sultan directly.
They could only send their petitions to the Sultan through the Mir Ariz.
4. Diwan-i-Ashraf – He was the accountant general. He used to maintain the accounts of the
Sultanate.
5. Mustaafi -The auditor general was known as Mustaufi. He audited the accounts of the
Sultanate.
6. Bakshi-i-Fauj -He was the pay master of the royal army.
7. Amir-i-Kohi -He was in charge of the agriculture department.
8. Diwan-i-Riyasat and Shahana-l-Mandi – They looked after the affairs of the market. They
used to keep close watch on the prices.
9. K. Kotwal – During pre-Mughal period the post of Kotwal was very significant. The person
who worked on it had to maintain law and order in the city. He was also expected to check
thefts and robberies. To provide peaceful life to the citizens was the first and foremost duty
of the Kotwal.

Besides the above referred officials, there were several other officers who looked after the
affairs of administration, out of which the following were significant:

a. Vakil-l-Dar (Incharge of the keys of the gates of palace.

b. Amir-i-Hajib (Incharge of festivals).

c. Amir-i-Akhur (In charge of royal stables).

d. Amir-i-Shikar (Lord of the Hunts).

e. Sar-i-Jandar (Head of the bodyguards).

4. Provincial Administration – The empire of Alauddin was divided into several provinces
due to its large extent. The incharge of each province was known as governor. They were
almost kings in miniature but they had to obey the orders of the Sultan. They had all
executive, legislative and judicial powers. People could prefer appeal against their decisions
to the Sultan or to Qazj-ul-Quzat. They had independent army and ‘hey made use of it in
realizing revenue. At the time of war, they sent their army for assistance of the royal army.

The vast empire of Alauddin Khalji was divided into eleven Provinces:

1. Gujarat,
 2. Multan and Sehwan,
3. Dipalpur,
4. Samana and Sunam,
5. Dhar and Ujjain,
6. Jhain,
7. Chittor,
8. Chanderi,
9. Badaun,
10. Avadh,
11. Kara.

Besides these provinces there were some States which accepted supremacy of the Sultan.
The rulers of these States were more independent than the Governors. Owing to strong
monarchy of Alauddin veteran governors like Ghazi Malik, Malik Kafur and others dared
not disobey the commands of the Sultan.

Towns were the lower units. The administration of the towns was in the hands of separate
officers. Villages were the smallest units of administration. Alauddin used to keep a close
watch over local and village administration.

5. Judicial System – Alauddin Khalji was a lover of justice. Dr. K. S. Lai has remarked, “The
Sultan was as relentless and unflinching in administering justice as Balban.” He was the
fountainhead of justice. He listened to the appeals and gave his judgements.

Qazi-ul-Quzat was next to him. Justice was administered by Qazis (junior officers) in the
provinces. Panches and Panchayats used to settle the disputes in the villages. Alauddin was in
favour of awarding impartial and immediate justice’.

Severe punjshmeala were in vogue during the reign of Alauddin. Mutilation of limbs was very
common. Nobody could escape justice on the basis of his piety or wealth. The criminals were
tortured to accept their crimes. Contemporary historian, Barani has written that owing to cruelty
of Alauddin and his barbarous justice thefts and dacoities were not heard of in his reign.

6. Police and Intelligence System – Alauddin established a strong and effective police and
intelligence system in his territories. The Kotwal was the chief police officer and it was his first
and foremost duty to establish law and order in the Sultanate. Alauddin is also known for
establishing a strong spy system in the country. Intelligence department was the base of his
strong autocratic rule.

Without an effective espionage system, he might not have achieved success in establishing
control over the Amirs and nobles. Barani has also written, “No one could stir without his
(Alauddin’s) knowledge and whatever happened in the houses of Maliks and Amirs, officers
and great men, was communicated to the Sultan. The fear of spies led barons to cease speaking
anything aloud in the Hazur Sultan and if they had to say anything they said through gestures.
Day and night did they tremble in their own houses on account of the activity of the patrol?
Neither did they do anything nor did they utter a single word which could subject them to
reproof or punishment.”

Q. EXPLAIN IN BRIEF THE VARIOUS MARKET REFORMS OF ALAUDDIN KHALJI.

ANS. MARKET REFORMS OF ALAUDDIN KHALJI

The market reforms of Alauddin Khalji were oriented towards administrative and military
necessities. Medieval rulers believed that necessities of life, especially food grains, should be
available to the city folk at reasonable prices. But few rulers had been able to control the prices
for any length of time. Alauddin Khalji was more or less the first ruler who looked at the
problem of price control, in a systematic manner and was able to maintain stable prices for a
considerable period. It has been pointed out that Alauddin Khalji instituted the market control
because after the mongol seige of Delhi, he wanted to recruit a large army. All his treasures
would have soon exhausted if he was to spend huge resources on army. With low prices the
sultan could recruit a large army with low expenses. Whatever may be the reason for the market
reforms, elaborate administrative arrangements were made to ensure that the market control
was followed strictly.

Alauddin fixed the prices of all commodities from grain to cloth, slaves, cattles etc. He also set
up three markets at Delhi, the first for food grains, the second for cloth of all kinds and for
expensive items such as sugar, ghee, oil, dry fruits etc. and the third for the horses, slaves and
cattle. For controlling the food prices, Alauddin tried to control not only the supply of food
grains from the villages, and its transportation to the city by the grain merchants, but also its
proper distribution to the citizens. A number of measures were taken to see that prices laid
down by the Sultan were strictly observed.

Market for cloth, dry fruits, ghee etc. was called Sarai-i-adl. All the clothes brought from
different parts of the country and also from outside were to be stored and sold only in this
market at government rates. To ensure an adequate supply of all the commodities, all the
merchants were registered and a deed taken from them that they would bring the specified
quantities of commodities to the Sarai-i-adl every year. The Merchants who, brought
commodities from long distances including foreign countries were given advance money on
the condition that they would not sell to any intermediaries. In cases of costly commodities an
officer was to issue permits to amirs, maliks etc. for the purchase of these expensive
commodities in accordance with their income. This was done to prevent any black marketing
of these expensive products. The third market dealt with horses, cattle and slaves. The supply
of horses of good quality at fair prices was important for the army.

Q. GIVE A BRIEF NOTE ABOUT THE ADMINISTRATION OF SHER SHAH SURI.

OR
IN HIS ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS, SHER SHAH WAS PREDECESSOR TO
AKBAR. EXPLAIN.

ANS. SHER SHAH SURI

Farid Khan to Sher Khan

On the death of Ibrahim Lodi, Bahar Khan had proclaimed himself as the Sultan of Bihar,
assuming the title of Muhammad Shah Nuhani. Farid joined the service of Sultan Muhammad
Shah, who rewarded him the title of Sher Khan, for killing a tiger with his bare hands during a
hunting expedition. Impressed by his service, Muhammad Shah made him the deputy to his
minor son, Jalal Khan. After some time, Sher Khan took leave to visit his Jagirs. During his
absence, Muhammad Sur poisoned the Sultan’s ears that Sher Khan was planning to join
Mahmud Lodi, a brother of the late Sultan Ibrahim Lodi, and requested him to confer his Jagirs
on Suleiman. Muhammad Sur sent a force to occupy the Jagirs and defeated Sher Khan’s army.
Thus Sher Khan was once again deprived of his paternal Jagir.

During the Service of Babur, with the intention of recapturing his Jagirs, he joined the services
of Junaid Birlas, the Mughal governor of Jaunpur. Junaid was much pleased with Sher Khan
and gave him troops to recover his parganas. Unable to resist, Muhammad Sur and Sulaiman
fled; Sher Khan got possession of his own parganas as well as Muhammad Sur’s. He then
befriended Muhammad Sur and returned him the possession of Chaundh. After leaving Nizam
(his own brother) in charge of the Jagirs, he went to Junaid Birlas and was presented to
Emperor Babur at Agra in 1527. He accompanied Babur in the siege of Chanderi. He remained
for some time among the Mughals, where he had the opportunity to observe their military
arrangements and the character of their nobles.

Once he said to his Afghan fellows, “if luck and fortune favour me, I will very shortly expel
the Mughals from Hind, for the Mughals are not superior to the Afghans in battle or single
combat; but the Afghans have let the empire of Hind slip from their hands, on account of their
internal dissensions. Since I have been amongst the Mughals, and know their conduct in action,
I see that they have no order or discipline, and that their kings, from pride of birth and station,
do not personally superintend the government, but leave all the affairs and business of the State
to their nobles and ministers, in whose sayings and doings they put perfect confidence. If
fortune extends a hand to me, the Shaikh shall soon see and hear how I will bring the Afghans
under my control, and never permit them again to become divided.”

ADMINISTRATION OF SHER SHAH SURI

Sher Shah Suri, also known as Sher Khan or the Lion King, was one of the greatest
administrators of medieval Indian. The Sher Shah Suri administration was based on the old
institutions in a new spirit, and in this task attained too much success that he almost transformed
the medieval Indian administration and made it serve the interest of the people. He created no
new ministry and his administrative divisions and sub-divisions were borrowed from the past,
and so also the titles of his officer.

The Central administration: Like all rulers of the Sultanate of Delhi, Sultan Sher Shah was a
despot and was at the top of the Central administration. But unlike his predecessors, he was a
benevolent despot, exercising power for the benefit of the people. Still, all the strings of policy
and civil and military powers were concentrated in his hands. His ministers were in charge of
the daily routine work of administration and had no authority to initiate policy or to propose
radical changes in the mode of transacting business or in the administrative setup.

The Empire assisted by ministers. Thus, Sher Shah had four ministers after the model of the
Sultanate period. They were as such:

1. Diwan-i-Wazarat,
2. Diwan-i-Ariz,
3. Diwan-i-Risalat, and
4. Diwan-i-Insha.

Thus, there were minor officers, two of whom (the chief Qazi and the head of the news
department) enjoyed quite high rank and are placed by some writers in the group of minister.
Hence it may be said that the machinery of the central government under Sher Shah Suri was
just the equal as under earlier Slave dynasty.

Ariz-i-Mamalik (Army Ministry): After central administration second category ministry was
Ariz-i-Mamalik, who was the army minister. He was not the commander-in-chief of the army.
He was in charge recruitment cell and maintains discipline. He had to make planning for
payment of salaries of the army and their officers and to look after the disposition of army on
the field of battle. However, in the military department Sher Shah was personally interest, he
generally interfered with the work of Diwan-i-Ariz. Sher Shah fixed the salary of individual
soldiers and looked their welfare also.
Diwan-i-Risalat or Diwan-i-Muhtasib Foreign minister: The third category ministry was the
Diwan-i-Risalat or Diwan-i-Muhtasib (Foreign minister). He was in charge of not only
diplomatic correspondence, but also the charity and endowment department. His work was
related to ambassadors and representatives.
Diwan-i-Insha: The fourth types of ministry were known as Diwan-i-Insha. The heads of
Diwan-i-Insha had to draft imperial announcement and dispatches. His responsibility was also
to communicate with governors and other local executive officers. He maintained Government
record also.
Diwan-i-Qaza and Diwan-i-Barid: The other departments which were sometimes reckoned as
ministers were Diwan-i-Qaza and Diwan-i-Barid. The chief qazi was the head of the first. He
had to supervise the administration of justice besides deciding cases, whether in the first
instance or appeals from the courts of provincial qazis.

The Barid-i-Mamalik: He was the head of the Intelligence department, and it was his duty to
report every important incident to the king. He had a host of news writers and spies who were
posted in towns, markets and in every important locality. He also made arrangements for the
posting of new-carriers at various placed to carry the royal dak.

There seems to have been a high official in charge of the royal household and the various
workshops attached to it. His duty was to administer the king’s household department and to
keep watch over crowds of servants attached to it. He was very near the royal person and
therefore, enjoyed a high prestige.

PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION OF SHER SHAH

Dr. Saran maintains that Sher Shah did have large military governorship. Throughout the
Sultanate period, including the reign of Sher Shah and his son Islam Shah, there were
administrative divisions corresponding to provinces, but they were not uniform in size or
income. They were not called subas or provinces, but were known as iqtas which were assigned
to important chiefs. Besides these, there were numerous of vassalage under the sultans of Delhi.
Such states and the iqtas did not enjoy a uniform political status and were not governed by the
same system of administration. But while during the reign of earlier sultans of Delhi the control
of the central government over them was nominal, under Sher Shah it was substantial and strict.

It will, thus, be seen that there were military governorships in the time of Sher Shah, such as
those of Lahore, the Punjab, Malwa and Ajmer. The officials in charge of these provinces were
commanders of large armies. Sher Shah established a new type of provincial administration in
Bengal, which he divided into a number of sarkars, placing each in charge of an Afghan officer.
At the head of the entire province he placed a civilian with a small army under his command.
His principal duty was to supervise the work of the officers of the sarkars and to settle their
disputes. This was done to guard against rebellions.
All other provinces had governors and a few other officers who seem to have enjoyed the same
designation in various provinces, barring which there was no uniformity in their administrative
machinery or method. In fact, we have not means of ascertain the names and number of officers
appointed to various provinces; nor do we know whether the governor was authorized to
appoint his colleagues or they were appointed by Sher Shah himself. In short, the provincial
administration under Sher Shah was not so much organized as that under Akbar. But it was
definitely a good step forward.

LAND REVENUE SYSTEM OF SHER SHAH

Before Sher Shah, the land rent was realized from the peasants on the basis of estimated
produce from the land but this system did not seem to be faultless as the produce was not
constantly the same. It increased or decreased year after year. Sher Shah introduced a number
of reforms in the fields of revenue. These are as follows.
1. Sher Shah was the first Muslim ruler who got the whole of the land measured and fixed the
land-tax on it on just and fair principles.
2. The land of each peasant was measured first in “bighas” and then half of it was fixed as the
land tax. According to More land in certain portions of the empire such as Multan the land
tax was however one-fourth of the total produce.
3. The settlement made between the Govt. and the peasant in respect of the land revenue was
always put in black and white. Every peasant was given as written document in which the
share of the Govt. was clearly mentioned so that no unscrupulous officer might cheat the
innocent peasant. This is known as ‘Patta’.
4. Each and every peasant was given the option to pay the land-tax either in cash of in kind.
The subjects of Sher Shah used to Kabul (Promise) that they should pay taxes in lieu of
Patta.
5. The peasants were required to credit the land-tax direct into the Govt. treasury, to be on the
safe side, so that the collecting officers might not charge them any extra money.
6. Strict orders had been issued to the revenue authorities that leniency might be shown while
fixing the land tax, but strictness in the collection thereof should be the inevitable rule.
7. But suitable subsidy was granted to the farmers in the time of drought, famine or floods
from the royal treasury.
8. Special orders were issued to soldiers that they should not damage the standing crops in any
way. According to Abbas Khan, the cars of those soldiers, who disregarded these orders,
were cut off. Even when Sher Shah led an expedition to the territory of his enemy, he was
very particular about it that no harm shall come to the farmers in any way from the excesses
of his soldiers.
9. In case of damages compensation was granted to the former by the Govt. This arrangement
of Sher Shah was as reasonable as was adopted not by Akbar only but was followed by the
British Govt. also. The well-known ‘Ryatwari System’ which has been in vague till now,
was not founded by Akbar but by Sher Shah.

Q. GIVE A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE MUGHALS EMPIRE IN INDIA.

ANS. INTRODUCTION

The founder of the Mughal Empire in India, was the descendant of as Changez Khan. Ousted
by his cousins, he came to India and defeated Ibrahim, the last Lodi Sultan in 1526 at the First
Battle of Panipat. There was a brief interruption to Mughal rule when Babur’s son Humayun
(reign – 1530 to1540 AD) was ousted from Delhi, by Sher Shah, an Afghan chieftain. It was
Babur’s grandson Akbar (reign – 1556 to1605), who consolidated political power and extended
his empire over practically the whole of north India and parts of the south. Jahangir (reign-
1605 to 1627 AD) who succeeded Akbar was a pleasure loving man of refined taste. Shah
Jahan (reign 1628 to 1658 AD) his son, ascended the throne next. Shah Jahan’s fame rests on
the majestic buildings he has left behind – the Taj Mahal, the Red Fort and the Jama Masjid.
Aurangzeb (reign – 1658 to 1707 AD) was the last Great Mughal ruler.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

In India, the Mughal Empire was one of the greatest empires ever. The Mughal Empire ruled
hundreds of millions of people. India became united under one rule, and had very prosperous
cultural and political years during the Mughal rule. There were many Muslim and Hindu
kingdoms split all throughout India until the founders of the Mughal Empire came. There
were some men such as Babar, grandson to the Great Asian conqueror Tamerlane and the
conqueror Genghis Khan from the northern region of Ganges, river valley, who decided to
take over Khyber, and eventually, all of India.

BABAR (1526-1530)
The great grandson of Tamerlane and Genghis Khan, was the first Mughal emperor in India.
He confronted and defeated Lodhi in 1526 at the first battle of Panipat, and so came to establish
the Mughal Empire in India. Babar ruled until 1530, and was succeeded by his son Humayun.

HUMAYUN (1530-1540 AND 1555-1556)

The eldest son of Babar, succeeded his father and became the second emperor of the Mughal
Empire. He ruled India for nearly a decade but was ousted by Sher Shah Suri, the Afghan ruler.
Humayun wandered for about 15 years after his defeat. Meanwhile, Sher Shah Suri died and
Humayun was able to defeat his successor, Sikandar Suri and regain his crown of the
Hindustan. However, soon after, he died in 1556 at a young age of 48 years.

SHER SHAH SURI (1540-1545)

He was an Afghan leader who took over the Mughal Empire after defeating Humayun in 1540.
Sher Shah occupied the throne of Delhi for not more than five years, but his reign proved to be
a landmark in the Sub-continent. As a king, he has several achievements in his credit. He
established an efficient public administration. He set up a revenue collection system based on
the measurement of land. Justice was provided to the common man. Numerous civil works
were carried out during his short reign; planting of trees, wells and building of Sarai (inns) for
travellers was done. Roads were laid; it was under his rule that the Grand Trunk road from
Delhi to Kabul was built. The currency was also changed to finely minted silver coins called
Dam. However, Sher Shah did not survive long after his accession on the throne and died in
1545 after a short reign of five years.

AKBAR (1556-1605)
Humayun's heir, Akbar, was born in exile and was only 13 years old when his father died.
Akbar's reign holds a certain prominence in history; he was the ruler who actually fortified the
foundations of the Mughal Empire. After a series of conquests, he managed to subdue most of
India. Areas not under the empire were designated as tributaries. He also adopted a conciliatory
policy towards the Rajputs, hence reducing any threat from them. Akbar was not only a great
conqueror, but a capable organizer and a great administrator as well. He set up a host of
institutions that proved to be the foundation of an administrative system that operated even in
British India. Akbar's rule also stands out due to his liberal policies towards the non-Muslims,
his religious innovations, the land revenue system and his famous Mansabdari system. Akbar's
Mansabdari system became the basis of Mughal military organization and civil administration.
Akbar died in 1605, nearly 50 years after his ascension to the throne, and was buried outside
of Agra at Sikandra. His son Jehangir then assumed the throne.

JEHANGIR
Akbar was succeeded by his son, Salim, who took the title of Jehangir, meaning "Conqueror
of the World". He married Mehr-un-Nisa whom he gave the title of Nur Jahan (light of the
world). He loved her with blind passion and handed over the complete reins of administration
to her. He expanded the empire through the addition of Kangra and Kistwar and consolidated
the Mughal rule in Bengal. Jehangir lacked the political enterprise of his father Akbar. But he
was an honest man and a tolerant ruler. He strived to reform society and was tolerant towards
Hindus, Christians and Jews. However, relations with Sikhs were strained, and the fifth of the
ten Sikh gurus, Arjun Dev, was executed at Jehangir's orders for giving aid and comfort to
Khusrau, Jehangir's rebellious son. Art, literature, and architecture prospered under Jehangir's
rule, and the Mughal gardens in Srinagar remain an enduring testimony to his artistic taste.
He died in 1627.

SHAH JAHAN
Jehangir was succeeded by his second son Khurram in 1628. Khurram took the name of Shah
Jahan, i.e. the Emperor of the World. He further expanded his Empire to Kandhar in the north
and conquered most of Southern India. The Mughal Empire was at its zenith during Shah
Jahan's rule. This was due to almost 100 years of unparalleled prosperity and peace. As a result,
during this reign, the world witnessed the unique development of arts and culture of the Mughal
Empire. Shah Jahan has been called the "architect king". The Red Fort and the Jama Masjid,
both in Delhi, stand out as towering achievements of both civil engineering and art. Yet above
all else, Shah Jahan is remembered today for the Taj Mahal, the massive white marble
mausoleum constructed for his wife Mumtaz Mahal along the banks of the Yamuna River in
Agra.

AURANGZEB:
Aurangzeb ascended the throne in 1658 and ruled supreme till 1707. Thus Aurangzeb ruled
for 50 years, matching Akbar's reign in longevity. But unfortunately he kept his five sons
away from the royal court with the result that none of them was trained in the art of
government. This proved to be very damaging for the Mughals later on. During his 50 years
of rule, Aurangzeb tried to fulfill his ambition of bringing the entire Sub-continent under one
rule. It was under him that the Mughal Empire reached its peak in matter of area. He worked
hard for years but his health broke down in the end. He left behind no personal wealth when
he died in 1707, at the age of 90 years. With his death, the forces of disintegration set in and
the mighty Mughal empire started collapsing.

Q. EXPLAIN IN DETAIL THE ADMINISTRATION OF AKBAR IN MUGHAL PERIOD.

ANS. THE ADMINISTRATION OF AKBAR IN MUGHAL PERIOD

The administrative machinery of the Mughuls, which functioned during the Mughul’s rule, was
launched by Akbar. ‘Mughul Administration means Akbar’s Administration. Akbar was not
only a brave warrior, a successful leader and a great religious reformer but also a great
administrator. He initiated various reforms in every parts of the administration.

CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION
Akbar was the overall in-charge of the central government. All the executive, judicial and
legislative powers of the state were combined in him. There were no limitations on his
despotism and his word was law. But Akbar had always the welfare of his people in his mind
and so his was a benevolent despotism. He himself supervised all the branches of his
administration and worked hard to discharge his manifold duties. He would hold an open court,
listen to the complaints of his subjects and try to pacify them.

Akbar administration was assisted by a numerous ministers. The most important ministers were
Vakil, Diwan, Mir Bakshi, Sadar-i-Sadur, Khan-i-Saman, Muhtasib Daroga-i-Dak, Chowki.
There works were as follows:

1. The Vakil – He maintained a general control over all the central departments and acted as
the chief adviser of the King, who was in-charge of finance and revenue also.
2. Mir Bakshi – He maintained the records of all the Mansabdars and distributed pay among
the high officials.
3. Sadar-i-Sadur – He acted as a religious adviser to the king, disbursed royal charity and
discharged the function of the Chief Justice of the empire.
4. Khan-i-Saman – Beside these ministers, there were other ministers of lower rank- Khan-i-
Saman, who was in-charge of the royal household; Muhtasib, who saw that the people
(Muslims) led a highly moral life according to the Muslim law.
5. Daroga-i-Dak Chowki – Daroga-i-Dak Chowki an officer who was in-charge of the postal
and intelligence department.

PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION
Akbar divided his vast empire into fifteen Subas or provinces. In each suba or province there
was a Subedar, a Diwan, a Bakshi, a Sadar, a Qazi, a Kotwal, a Mir Bahr and Waqa-i-Nawis.
1. The Subedaror Governor – He was the head of the provincial administration. He enjoyed
vast powers and was in-charge of the provincial military, police, judiciary and the executive.
2. The Diwan- was in-charge of the provincial finance and all bills of payments were signed
by him.
3. The Bakshi – He looked after the management of the provincial army. The Sadarwas in-
charge of the judicial charity department.
4. The Qazi – He was in-charge of the judicial department of his province. He supervised the
work of Qazisin the districts and towns.
5. The Kotwal– Was the supreme administrator of all the ‘thanas’ of the province and was
responsible for the maintenance of law and order in all the cities. The Mir Bahr was in-
charge of customs and taxation department.
6. The Waqa-i-Nawis – Was in-charge of the secret service of the province.

The provinces were further divided into Sarkars and Sarkars into Parganas. The head of the
Sarkar was Faujdar who kept his own small force and maintained law and order in his area.
He was assisted by a number of other officials who collected the revenue, maintained the
accounts and deposited the money into the state treasury. The head of the Parganas was called
Shikdar whose functions were the same as those of the Faujdar in a Sarkar. Each Pargana
comprised several villages. Each village was under the charge of a Muqaddam, a Patwari and
a Chowkidar who carried on the work of administration with the help of the village panchayat.

MILITARY ADMINISTRATION
Akbar paid much attention towards the organization, equipment and discipline of the army. For
efficient military administration he introduced a new system known as the Mansabdari System.
The Mansabdars had to maintain soldiers according to his grade or rank. There were thirty three
grades of these Mansabdars who maintained soldiers ranging from 10 to 10,000. They were
paid salaries in cash and the system of assignments of lands was discouraged. They were
directly under the charge of the emperor and were promoted, degrade or dismissed at his will.
He also revived the practice of taking the descriptive rolls of the soldiers and branding the
horses. A large number of troops were, no doubt, supplied by these Mansabdars but Akbar had
maintained a standing army of his own. The Mughul army consisted of infantry, cavalry,
artillery, elephants, and navy. The cavalry was the most important wing of the army and special
attention was paid towards its organization and equipment.

LAND REVENUE ADMINISTRATION

Land Revenue was the chief sources of income of the Government. So, Akbar paid special
attention towards the organization of the land revenue administration. With the help of his
Diwan (Revenue Minister), Raja Todar Mal, Akbar introduced many reforms in his revenue
department. First of all, the land was measured into ‘bighas’, secondly, all the cultivated land
was classified into four divisions – Polaj, Parauti,Chachar and Banjar. The Polaj land was
always cultivated and was never allowed to fallow; the Parauti land was allowed to fallow for
a year or two to recover its strength; the Chachar land had to be left uncultivated for three or
four years and Banjar land had to be left fallow for five years or more. Thirdly, the total produce
of each land was determined separately. Fourthly, the share of the state was fixed at one-third
of the total produce. Land revenue was paid in cash or in kind, but cash payment was preferred.
Loans with small interest were advanced to the cultivators. In case of famine, drought or
another unexpected calamity, remission was granted and even loans were advanced for
purchase of seeds and animals. The revenue collectors were asked to be friendly towards the
cultivators and not to oppress them on every account. As a result of these measures the revenue
of the state greatly increased, the cultivators became better off and the country became
prosperous. The abundance of food also made the life of the common man better and happier
than before.

JUDICIAL ADMINISTRATION (JUDICIAL REFORMS)

Akbar set up various reforms in the administration of justice. Previously to Akbar almost all
the cases were decided according to the Islamic law. For the first time, Hindu law was
administered in deciding the cases where the parties Hindus, but Islamic law continued to
function where the parties involved were Muslims. The emperor was the highest court of
appeal. Capital punishment was given only in severe cases.

SOCIAL REFORMS
Despite his multifarious activities Akbar found time to undertake several social reform
measures for wedding out the evils of both the Muslim and non-Muslim societies. His principle
of religious toleration did not, however, make him blind to certain evils in the Hindu society.
In 1563, the Pilgrim Tax, which was a great burden on the Hindus, was abolished. In 1564,
Jaziya, a tax which was imposed on non-Muslims, was also abolished. Akbar tried to stop the
practice of Sati. Child marriage was discouraged and female-infanticide was forbidden.
Widow-marriage was encouraged. in 1582, an order was passed appointing a number of
officers to regulate the transactions of sale and purchase of a certain number listed articles. In
the same year (1582) a very important proclamation was made liberating all the slaves in the
empire.

From the above account it is quite clear that Akbar was a great administrator and the
administrative machinery that he set up continued to function throughout the Mughul period.
Q. EXPLAIN IN DETAIL THE ADMINISTRATION OF SHIVAJI.

ANS. ADMINISTRATION OF SHIVAJI

INTRODUCTION OF SHIVAJI
Shivaji was born in 1627. He was the son of Shahji Bhonsle and Jija Bai. Shahji Bhonsle acted
as the king maker in Ahammednagar. After its extinction, transferred his service to Bijapur.
Shivaji spent his childhood under the protection of a Brahmin official called Dadaji Kondadev.
While Jija bai built up the character of Shivaji, Kond Dev trained him in the art of fighting and
administration. Shivaji aimed to create an independent kingdom of his own right from the
beginning of his career. His primary aim was to carve out an independent kingdom for himself
in Maharashtra.

At the age of 20 years he started his adventures on a wider scale. Many courageous Maratha
leader gathered round him. In 1643 Shivaji captured the fort of the singhgarh from Bijapur and
then gradually the forts of Chaken, Purandar, Varanati, Torna, Supa, Tikona, Lohgarch, Rairi
were taken over. Shivaji had won over many of his officers of Bijapur to his side by bringing
them. The conquest of Javli made him in disputed master. Shivaji came into conflict with the
Mughals first in 1657. Aurangazeb had attacked Bijapur, which sought his help Shivaji could
realize that it was in his interest also to check the power of the Mughals from penetrating in the
Deccan. Therefore he helped Bijapur and attacked south west territory of the Mughals. He
looted Junar and troubled the Mughals at several places. But when Bijapur made peace with
the Mughals, he also stopped raids on Mughals territory. With Aurangazeb away in the north,
Shivaji resumed his career of conquest at the expense of Bijapur. He captured Konkan. Bijapur
now decided to take stern action Afzalkhan who was a reputed commander of Bijapur was
deputed for his task in 1659. With a large army, He tried to terrify Shivaji by wholesale
destruction of temples, agriculture and populace with in his territories Afzalkhan assured
Shivaji that if he would come to meet him in person and agreed to accept the suzerainty of
Bijapur he would so given the a additional territory as Jagir.

Shivaji got scant of Afzalkhan and decided the pay him in the some coins. He agreed to meet
Afzalkhan after a solemn promise of his personal safety. Shivaji went prepared and murdered
khan in cunning but daring manner, Shivaji put his leaderless army to rout captured all goods
and equipment including his artillery. Flushed with victory, the Maratha troops overran the
powerful fort of Panhala and poured in to south Konkan and Kolhapur districts making
extensive conquest. Shivaji’s exploits made him a legendary figure. His name passed from
house to house and was credited with magical powers. People flocked to him from the Maratha
areas to join his army. Meanwhile, Aurangazeb was anxiously watching the rise of a Maratha
power so near the Mughal frontier. Aurangazeb instructed the new Mughal governor of Deccan,
Shiasta Khan to invade Shivaji dominion.

At first the war went badly for Shivaji Shaista Khan occupied Poona and made it his
headquarter. He sent army to capture Konkan from Shivaji. Mughal secured their contest on
north Konkan. Driven into a corner Shivaji made bold stroke. He infiltrated in to the camp of
Shaista Khan at Poona and at night attacked Khan, killing his son, and one of his captains and
wounding khan. This daring attack put the Khan in to disgrace. In anger Aurangazeb transferred
Shaista Khan to Bengal. Meanwhile Shivaji made another bold move. He attacked Surat and
looted it in to his heart’s content, returning home laden with Treasure. After the failure of
Shaista Khan Aurangazeb deputed Raja Jai Singh of Amber to deal with Shivaji.
In 1670 AD Shivaji again started fighting against the Mughals and succeeded in capturing
many farts from among those which he had surrounded to by the treaty of Purandar. He
conquered forts like singhgarh, Purandar, Kalyan Mahuli etc. and successfully raided to the
territories of the Mughals in Deccan. He also plundered Surat in 1670 for the second time. Thus
within a few years; Shivaji captured many farts and territories from the Mughals and Bijapur.
In 1674 Shivaji held his coronation, assumed the title Chatrapathi and made Raigarh his
capital.In 1677-78 AD Shivaji attacked east Karnatak on the pretext of getting share of his
fathers jagir from his brother. He then conquered the forts of Jinji and vollore and the territory
between rivers Thungabhadra and Kaveri in Karnataka. The Karnatak expedition was the last
major expedition of Shivaji. Shivaji died in 1680 shortly after his return the Karnatak
expedition.

SHIVAJI ADMINISTRATION SYSTEM

Shivaji had laid the foundation of a sound system of administration. His administrative system
was largely borrowed from the administrative practices of the Deccan state.Like all other
medieval rulers, Shivaji was a despot with all powers concentrated in his hands.He possessed
all executive and legislative power. ‘Shivaji’ was a great organizer and constructive civilian
administrator. The one of the novelty of Shivajis administration was the introduction of
Maratha language as the state language.

1. Central Administration: The administration was divided into eight departments headed
by ministers who are sometimes called Ashta pradhan. The eight ministers were:
(1) Peshwa who looked after the finances and general administration.
(2) Sar-i-Naubat who was the Senapati.
(3) Majumdar looked after the accounts.
(4) Waqai navis looked after the intelligence, post and household affairs
(5) Surnavis or Chitnis looked after official correspondence
(6) Dabir looked after foreign affairs
(7) Nyayadhish looked after justice and
(8) Pandit Rao looked after ecclesiastical affairs.

The ashtapradhan was not a creation of Shivaji. Many of these officers like Peshwa,
Majumdar, Waqai navis, Dabir and Surnavis had existed under the Deccani rulers also.
All the members of the astha pradhan except Pandit Rao and Nyaydhish were asked to
lead military campaigns. Under Shivaji these offices were neither hereditary nor
permanent. They held the office at the pleasure of the king. They were also frequently
transferred. Each of the ashta pradhan was assisted by eight assistants’ diwan,
Majumdar, Fadnis, Sabnis; Karkhanis, Chitnis, Jamadar and Potnis.Chitnis dealt with
all diplomatic correspondences and wrote all royal letters. The Fadnis used to respond
to the letters of commanders of the forts. The potnis looked after the income and
expenditure of the royal treasury.
2. Provincial and Local Administration: The provincial administration was also
organized on the Deccani and Mughal system. All the provincial units already existed
under the Deccani rulers. Shivaji reorganized and in certain cases renamed them. The
provinces were known as Prants. The Prants were under the charge of subedar. Over a
number of Subedar there were Sarsubedar to control and supervise the work of subedar.
Smaller than prant were Tarfs which were headed by a havaldar. Then there were
Mauzas or villages which were the lowest unit of administration. At the level of village,
Kulkarni used to keep accounts and maintained records while Patil had legal and
 policing power. At the level of Pargana, Deshpande used to keep account and maintain
records while Deshmukh had legal and policing powers. The Police officer in rural area
was called Faujdar and in urban area was called Kotwal. The Maratha polity did not
have unified civilian-cummilitary rank. Under the Marathas performance based
Brahmin elites manned the central bureaucracy and the local administration. In this
capacity they were called Kamvishdar who enjoyed wide powers of tax assessment and
collection. They adjudicated cases, provided information about local conditions and
kept records. Later on, the British District collector was modelled on this Maratha
officer only.
3. Army: Cavalry and infantry constituted the primary part of the army of Shivaji. The
paga cavalrymen were called the bargirs. They were provided horses by the state while
the silahdars purchased their armies and horses themselves. The paga cavalry was well
organized. Twenty five horsemen formed a unit which was placed under a havildar.
Shivaji preferred to give cash salaries to the regular soldiers, though some time the chief
received revenue grants strict disciplines was maintained in the army. The plunder taken
by each soldiers during compaign was strictly accounted for, farts and security occupied
an important place in the army organization of Shivaji. Shivaji maintained a navy as
well. Shivaji had 400 ships of different kind. The navy was divided in to two parts and
each part was commanded by darive Nayak and mai Nayak respectively.
4. Finance and Revenue: The revenue system seems to have been patterned on the system
of Malik Ambar land revenue; Trade Tax etc. were the primary source of the fixed
income of Shivaji. But income from these sources was not sufficient to meet the
expenditure of the state. Therefore Shivaji collected the chauth and Sardeshmukhi from
the territory which was either under his enemies or under his own influence. The chauth
was 1/4 part of the income of the particular territory while the Sardeshmukhi was 1/10.
Shivaji collected these taxes simply by force of his army. These taxes constituted
primary source of the income of Shivaji and after wards helped in the extension of the
power and territory of the Marathas. The revenue system of Shivaji was Rytowari in
which the state kept direct contact with peasants. Shivaji mostly avoided the system of
assigning Jagir to his officers and whenever he assigned Jagir to them, the right of
collecting the revenue was kept with state officials.

Long Answer Type Questions [20 marks each] Attempt any Three.
Q 1. Write an essay on Raja Surajmal.
Q 2. What was the importance of jagirdari system in Mughal Rule?

ANS: IMPORTANCE OF JAGIRDARI SYSTEM IN MUGHAL RULE

The term ‘jagir’ commonly found in official papers of the seventeenth century to describe
revenue assignment is not seen in any work compiled before Akbar. It apparently gained
currency with the transition from the semi-permanent territorial assignments of the Lodi period
to the revenue assignments of the Mughal Empire.

By the end of the sixteenth century, the term came to be accepted as the official term for a
revenue assignment, having been derived from the Persian jaygir, meaning possessing, occu-
pying a place, fixing a habitation making a settlement. It seems petty officials used it as a jargon
in the early years of Akbar, and it found its way in official papers only gradually. Abul Fazl
and Badauni tended to spell it as ‘jaygir’ and in the third volume of Akbarnama, Abul Fazal
substituted it for the expression ‘iqta’ presumably showing his disinclination to use a term of
somewhat vulgar origin.

It seems the varying frequency of the term jagir resulted due to the changing nomenclature for
different kinds of assignments in the original documents referred to by the chroniclers.
Assuming that the terms used by the chroniclers reflect the changing administrative jargon of
official papers, the inference drawn by Irfan Habib that initially the term was meant to designate
the petty assignees of revenue (and not the commanders or nobles holding large charges) is
validated.

The year 1561 appears to mark a watershed in the evolution of the jagir system, because this
was when a few significant and far-reaching changes were introduced. In fact, these changes
were the forerunners of the measures introduced by Akbar in 1574- 5. The first of these
changes, brought about in 1561, concerned the manner in which the jagirs were assigned.
From this time on, as a conscious policy, the jagirs of great nobles came to be assigned in
fragments scattered over a number of parganas located at considerable distances from each
other. Synchronized with this change was the beginning of a new concept of assignment, which
could be regarded as pre-sanctioned income determined in accordance with the status and
obligations of the assignee.
A consequence of the process of fragmentation of jagirs was that it separated the jagirs from
administrative jurisdiction, which, in turn, slowed down the regional concentration of the jagirs
of the nobles. Nonetheless, there was also a definite policy of not allowing the clans to remain
concentrated in particular regions.
Summing up, therefore, it may be said that the arrangement of jagirs during the first twenty
years of Akbar’s reign was an evolving process and the emerging system was a different kind
of arrangement from the military-cum-revenue assignments of Babar. It is also in order to
suggest that the origin of the Mughal assignment system lay in the administrative policy of the
Sur dynasty, though the findings so far in this regard are not quite conclusive.
According to Abul Fazl, the division of the Mughal empire at the time of Humayun’s death
into a number of military zones under the charge of senior nobles was as per a scheme thought
of by Humayun in 1555, sometime before his demise. Professor Nurul Hassan called it a plan
for the decentralisation of authority by delegating powers to the nobles administering the
military zones. However, the assignments sanctioned during the first four years of Akbar’s
reign seem to indicate that the military command which Humayun passed on to him was
superimposed on a revenue system under the close control of the central government.
The system in use after 1575 was conditioned by a new method of revenue assessment and
collection as also by the introduction of an extensive military hierarchy and its obligations.
Theoretically, the emperor was the sole claimant of the land-revenue and other taxes. However,
by using a system of temporary alienations of the claim in specific areas, the jagirs, a small
ruling elite was permitted to share the revenue among themselves. The ruling elite consisted of
persons who were granted mansabs or ranks by the emperor.
The mansabs were numerically expressed ranks which entitled the holder or mansabdar to a
particular amount of pay or talab. Normally, this could be given in cash from the exchequer of
the state, but more often it was the practice to assign an area which was officially estimated to
yield an equivalent amount of revenue.
In order to ensure exactness in assigning jagirs, the standing estimates of the average annual
income from revenues, known as jamas or jamadanis were prepared for every administrative
divisions right down to the villages. Khalisa or the land not assigned in jagirs was the main
source of income of the king’s treasury, and the king’s officers were responsible for its
collection. The size of the khalisa was not constant.
Under Akbar, it amounted to 25 per cent of the total jama in at least three of the provinces
during the later years of his reign. (In Jahangir’s times, it’s proportion went down to one-
twentieth, while Shahjahan raised it to one-seventh.) The rest of the country, comprising of
the vast bulk of the territories were in the jagirs.
This practice of assigning overwhelmingly large portion of land in jagirs meant that a small
number of people were in effect controlling nearly all the agricultural surplus in the form of
revenue of the country. In other words, much of the GNP of the country was in the hands of
these small number of people. Among them, yet another small portion belonged to the class
of the zamindars, for example, the Rajput, Baluch and Ghakkar chiefs. The majority of the
jagirdars were immigrants, such as Turanis, Iranis, Afghans, etc., while a small number was
from the local intelligentsia or petty bureaucrats like shaikhzadas, khatris and so on.
The ranks or mansabs they held were usually not inheritable. However, normally such ranks
were conferred on sons and relations of nobles or higher mansab holders, thereby creating
almost a dynasty of khanzfids who made their living out of mansabs from generation to
generation.

Although the power and the resources enjoyed by the ruling classes were considerable, the

mansabdar’s dependence on the emperor’s will was quite significant. This control over the

mansabdar was further increased by giving the jagirs a purely temporary character.

A mansabdar no doubt was entitled to a jagir; but not a specified piece of land in jagir. and
definitely not the same land in perpetuity, year after year. This principle was introduced

deliberately, as mentioned earlier, and was an unavoidable consequence of the working of the

mansabdari system.

Promotions and demotions from time to time required revisions of the mansabs and each such

alteration in mansab required a change in the mansabdar’s jagir. However, this was not

possible without changing the other mansab holder’s assignments. Likewise, officials were
transferred from one province to another, when in such instance, a place had to be allocated

for the jagir of the official in the new province. This again required adjustments of jagirs.

“The result was that no one could be sure of how long he would remain in possession of a

particular area. The average period of term would be manifestly impossible to work out; but

the fact that Sehwan in Sindh, for example, was transferred no less than 17 times in a period

of 43 years (1591- 1634), lends point to general statements such as that jagirs were

transferred yearly or half yearly, or every two or three years” (Dr Irfan Habib, The
Cambridge Economic History of India).

ADVERTISEMENTS:

The jagirdar’s assignment was thus not permanent and his remuneration was limited to the

authorized land-revenue and taxes. It was necessary for him to keep a copy of every revenue

paper with the permanent state official or qanungo, from whose record he had to draw his

revenue assignments.

He was not empowered with any judicial powers; the qazi appointed by the emperor

dispensed justice. He had no police force either; the faujdar, again an appointee of the

emperor, was the one who maintained such forces. The faujdar was also a person of some

consequence.

These were, however, of theoretical importance; in practice, the jagirdar’s powers were not
that limited. Especially if he was a big jagirdar enjoying faujdari or police jurisdiction as
well. Actually, the larger portions of the country’s territories lay within the jagirs of such
satraps.

It has been figured out that in 1646, 36.6 per cent of the total jama was under the control of 68
princes and nobles, while the next category comprising of 587 officials held 25 per cent of the
territories. The still lower rank of mansabdars numbering 7555 shared among themselves
between twenty-five to thirty-three per cent of the revenues.

Even after taking into account the fact that some of them got their salaries in cash, these
proportions would still indicate the high concentration of jagir holdings in a few hands. The
bigger jagirdars had large establishments for administrative purposes (sarkar) to collect
revenues in their places of assignment. They maintained a large military force, and, due to
their power and prestige, they were somewhat immune to complaints made against them in
the imperial court.

The jagirdars were quite famous for their enormous clout and there was a saying that the hakim
(jagirdar) for a day could remove a zamindar of five hundred years tradition, installing there a
destitute since birth. It was within his authority to detain his peasants and to bring them back
if they ran away. Consequently, it was widely believed that the jagirdars were all inclined to
treat their peasants with severe oppression.

There was also a reason for this unusual severity. As they were not quite sure of the time they
would continue in the jagirs, they tried to extract as much money as possible within the shortest
period regardless of its baneful effects on long term revenue collection. No doubt, the Mughal
administration tried to put a curb on the excesses committed by the jagirdars, but such efforts
did not appear to be particularly successful.

Incidentally, there was a small but quite vocal section enjoying some small share of the
empire’s revenue resources. They were the people who were granted madad-i-muash, also
known as sayurghal, by the emperor. These awards entitled them to collect revenues from
specified lands, usually for life. When the awardee died, the award was usually confirmed upon
his successor under certain conditions.

These people belonged generally to Muslim scholarly and theological classes and included
retired government officials, widows and women of families of some social eminence.
However, the revenue given away through such awards was not very large.

In 1595, the revenue so distributed amounted to four per cent in Agra suba and to five per cent
in Allahabad suba. As their assignments were more or less permanent, the assignees tried to
acquire zamindari rights in the assigned areas and elsewhere. In this manner, some of them
transformed themselves into small zamindars. Apart from this, they had no effect on the
agrarian economy of the country.

Q 3. What were the duties of king according to Kautilya?

ANS: DUTIES OF KING ACCORDING TO KAUTILYA

Duties of a King as mentioned in chapter XIX of Arthashastra guides and underlines the duties
of the king and his division of time so that he is able to attend and discharged all his duties in
such a manner that he is able to attend to all the administrative as well as domestic problems
in due course of the day.

Duties of a King, as discussed chapter XIX of Book I in Arthashastra, has been divided into
two parts. While in the first part the king is supposed to divide his time schedule in such a way
that he is able to attend to all the demands of his people. In the second half the king is supposed
to attend to the duties of the harem and wives which includes his domestic responsibilities
towards his family. Like Protection of Prince the king is also responsible for the protection of
his wives and other dependents.

Duties of the King in the first part advises the king to firstly divide his time according to the
sun clock which shall divide both day and night into one and half hours. Accordingly the king
is advised to utilise every hour for different activities. It is expected that an energetic king shall
be able to make every hour fruitful. During the one-eighth part of the day the king shall attend
to accounts of receipts and expenditure; shall look into the affairs of both the citizen as well as
country people; shall bathe, dine and study in the third part; receive revenue in gold; shall
attend to the appointments of the superintendents; shall correspond in writs with his council of
ministers and receive secret information from the spies; may engage himself in favourite
amusements and self-deliberations in the sixth part; may resolve to the supervision of the
elephants, horses, chariots and infantry in the seventh part while considering various military
plans with his commander in chief in the eighth part of the day.

Duties of the King then demarcate how the eight parts of the night are to be utilised by the king.
During the first one-eighth part of the night, he shall receive secret emissaries; shall attend to
bathing and supper and study; shall enter the bedchamber amid the sound of trumpets and enjoy
sleep during the fourth and fifth parts; having been awakened by the sound of trumpets during
the sixth part, he shall recall to his mind the injunctions of sciences as well as the day's duties;
during the seventh, he shall sit considering administrative measures and send out spies; and
during the eighth division of the night he shall receive benedictions from sacrificial priests,
teachers and the high priest, and having seen his physician, chief cook and astrologer, and
having saluted both a cow with its calf and a bull by circumbulating round them, he shall get
into his court. As his health permits the king shall be free to revise his course of the day and
night.

Duties of the king do not allow king when in court to make his petitioners wait outside for
decisions. Rather it advises the king to be spontaneous and firm in his decisions and be as
accessible as possible for his own people. He shall therefore attend to the business of god and
listen to the immediate call of his people .Accordingly the king should place himself in the
company of learned people and practitioner of 'trived' who shall share not only religious by
other methods like witchcraft and Yoga to reach success .All this concludes his duties towards
within himself and the court.

Duties of the King regarding the women and harem and wives are included in the chapter XX
of Book I as well. Duties towards the harem mainly described the construction of the harem
which has to be protected from fire, insects, animals as well as enemies. Kautilya takes full
measures to secure the harem of the king as it is supposed to be the best possible place for the
king to hide at a time of danger. The king can get his personal chamber located in the midst of
the harem. Also Kautilya takes full care to check the purity of the queen as well as all the
women living in the harem. The harem should primarily consist of separate chambers for all, a
bath, secret passages made into the walls, underground chambers with the idols of goddesses,
with large number of passages made in the walls and their staircases inside the pillars so that it
gives easy roots to esc ape. The whole building is created with superior mechanical
contrivances so that it can be easily pulled down whenever required.

Regarding duties towards the women the king is advised to be careful and should take all
measures towards their security by keeping them away from ascetics with shaven heads.
Everyone shall stay in the same place which is allotted to him and every seals which are going
outside and coming in the harem are to be checked.

Thus, Duties of the King has been enunciated in such a manner so that the king keeps complete
watch on corner of the palace. This chapter includes the king's exposure with his country men,
personals of court room, priests, queen, concubines and others. It is mainly intended to make
the king more accessible to the people with minimum rigidity.
 UNIT – V

Q. EXPLAIN IN BRIEF ABOUT THE SOCIETY IN MEDIEVAL INDIA GIVING

SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON THE CONDITION OF WOMEN.

ANS. CONDITION OF WOMEN IN MEDIEVAL INDIA

Medieval India was not women’s age it is supposed to be the ‘dark age’ for them. Medieval
India saw many foreign conquests, which resulted in the decline in women’s status. When
foreign conquerors like Muslims invaded India they brought with them their own culture. For
them women was the sole property of her father, brother or husband and she does not have any
will of her own. This type of thinking also crept into the minds of Indian people and they also
began to treat their own women like this.

One more reason for the decline in women’s status and freedom was that original Indians
wanted to shield their women folk from the barbarous Muslim invaders. As polygamy was a
norm for these invaders they picked up any women they wanted and kept her in their “harems”.
In order to protect them Indian women started using ‘Purdah’, (a veil), which covers body.
They were not allowed to move freely and this lead to the further deterioration of their status.
These problems related with women resulted in changed mindset of people. Now they began
to consider a girl as misery and a burden, which has to be shielded from the eyes of intruders
and needs extra care. Whereas a boy child will not need such extra care and instead will be
helpful as an earning hand. Thus a vicious circle started in which women was at the receiving
end. All this gave rise to some new evils such as Child Marriage, Sati, Jauhar and restriction
on girl education.

SATI
The ritual of dying at the funeral pyre of the husband is known as “Sati” or “Sahagaman”.
According to some of the Hindu scriptures women dying at the funeral pyre of her husband go
straight to heaven so it’s good to practice this ritual. Initially it was not obligatory for the
women but if she practiced such a custom she was highly respected by the society. Sati was
considered to be the better option than living as a widow as the plight of widows in Hindu
society was even worse. Some of the scriptures like ‘Medhatiti’ had different views it say that
Sati is like committing suicide so one should avoid this.

JAUHAR
It is also more or less similar to Sati but it is a mass suicide. Jauhar was prevalent in the Rajput
societies. In this custom wives immolated themselves while their husband were still alive.
When people of Rajput clan became sure that they were going to die at the hands of their enemy
then all the women arrange a large pyre and set themselves afire, while their husband used to
fight the last decisive battle known as “Shaka”, with the enemy. Thus protecting the sanctity
of the women and the whole clan.

CHILD MARRIAGE
It was a norm in medieval India. Girls were married off at the age of 8-10. They were not
allowed access to education and were treated as the material being. The plight of women can
be imagined by one of the shloka of Tulsidas where he writes “Dhol, gawar, shudra, pashu,
nari, sakal tadana ke adhikari”, meaning that animals, illiterates, lower castes and women
should be subjected to beating. Thus women were compared with animals and were married
off at an early age. The child marriage along with it brought some more problems such as
increased birth rate, poor health of women due to repeated child bearing and high mortality rate
of women and children.

RESTRICTION ON WIDOW REMARRIAGE

The condition of widows in medieval India was very bad. They were not treated as human
beings and were subjected to a lot of restrictions. They were supposed to live pious life after
their husband died and were not allowed entry in any celebration. Their presence in any good
work was considered to be a bad omen. Sometimes heads of widows were also shaved down.
They were not allowed to remarry. Any woman remarrying was looked down by the society.
This cruelty on widows was one of the main reasons for the large number of women committing
Sati. In medieval India living as a Hindu widow was a sort of a curse.

PARDAH SYSTEM
The veil or the ‘Pardah’ system was widely prevalent in medieval Indian society. It was used
to protect the women folk from the eyes of foreign rulers who invaded India in medieval period.
But this system curtailed the freedom of women.

GIRL EDUCATION
The girls of medieval India and especially Hindu society were not given formal education.
They were given education related to household chores. But a famous Indian philosopher
‘Vatsyayana’ wrote that women were supposed to be perfect in sixty four arts which included
cooking, spinning, grinding, knowledge of medicine, recitation and many more. Though these
evils were present in medieval Indian society but they were mainly confined to Hindu society.
As compared to Hindu society other societies such as Buddhism, Jainism and Christians were
a bit lenient. Women in those societies enjoyed far more freedom. They had easy access to
education and were more liberal in their approach.

According to these religions gender was not the issue in attaining salvation. Any person
whether a man or a woman is entitled to get the grace of god. During the time of king Ashoka
women took part in religious preaching.

According to Hiuen Tsang, the famous traveller of that time, Rajyashri, the sister of
Harshavardhana was a distinguished scholar of her time. Another such example is the daughter
of king Ashoka, Sanghmitra. She along with her brother Mahendra went to Sri Lanka to preach
Buddhism. The status of women in Southern India was better than the North India. While in
Northern India there were not many women administrators, in Southern India we can find some
names that made women of that time proud. Priyaketaladevi, queen of Chalukya Vikramaditya
ruled three villages. Another women named Jakkiabbe used to rule seventy villages. In South
India women had representation in each and every field. Domingo Paes, famous Portuguese
traveller testifies to it. He has written in his account that in Vijaynagar kingdom women were
present in each and every field. He says that women could wrestle, blow trumpet and handle
sword with equal perfection. Nuniz, another famous traveller to the South also agrees to it and
says that women were employed in writing accounts of expenses, recording the affairs of
kingdom, which shows that they were educated. There is no evidence of any public school in
northern India but according to famous historian Ibn Batuta there were 13 schools for girls and
24 for boys in Honavar.

Devadasis
‘Devadasis’ means servant of God. In Southern India Devadasis custom was prevalent. In
Devadasis system girls were dedicated to temples in the name of gods and goddesses. These
Devadasis were supposed to live the life of celibacy. All the necessities of Devadasis were
fulfilled by the grants given to the temples. Devadasis used to spend their full life in worship
of god and by singing and dancing for the God. After some times Devadasis converted to
Rajadasis (palace dancers) prevalent in some tribes of South India, for example Yellamma cult.

Q. EXPLAIN THE CONCEPT OF SATI PRATHA IN INDIA.

ANS. CONCEPT OF SATI PRATHA IN INDIA

Sati literally means ‘a pure and virtuous (worthy) woman’. Sati Pratha or tradition of widow
burning at the funeral pyre of her husband has been a shameful social evil and an age old
practice in Indian society. A widow was burned either with her tacit consent (implied) or most
of the times forcefully by her in-laws after the death of her husband. This practice shows a dark
and evil side of Hindu society, especially of ancient and medieval India.

The practice of Sati or self-immolation by the widow was associated with a kind of virtue. The
‘virtue’ of this practice was defined by a religious logic that it was inauspicious for widow to
live after the death of her husband. A widow who agreed to self-immolate herself at the funeral
pyre of her husband was considered to be very virtuous and attained to the status of Sati Mata
or Sati Goddess. We can still find Temples of Sati Mata in some States of India such as in
Rajasthan and M.P.

ORIGIN OF SATI PRATHA

The root of this inhuman practice lies in the patriarchal traditions of Hindu society where
women are always considered as subservient and inferior to men. Origin of sati pratha as
follows:
1. Mythological Story: About the origin of Sati Pratha says that Sati was the wife of Shiva and
she self-immolated herself in protest against her father who had disrespected Shiva.Though
in this story, Sati immolated herself while her husband, Shiva was still alive.
2. Historical Reality: The practice took a different form and women were being forced to die
by sitting on their husband’s funeral pyre. How this transformation took place is not clear
from historical sources but one thing is clear that the evil practice somehow became part of
Hindu society. The earliest literature of Hindus such as Vedas does not mention the practice
of Sati.
3. According to Hindu Texts: It is only in the later Hindu texts such as Puranas, one finds the
mention of Sati. Furthermore, the practice was mainly associated with the so-called high
castes (Brahmin and Kshatriya) in the early history.
4. During the Muslim Period: According to one version it became fairly wide spread during
the muslim period when invasions and conquests played its role and it was considered
necessary to preserve the honor of Hindu women. However, there are evidences to show
that the practice of Sati was also there in western and southern India even before the advent
of Muslims.
5. Customs and Rituals: Gradually, the practice was adopted by the so-called Lower Castes
in their quest to aspire for higher ranking in social order by emulating the customs and
rituals of higher castes. The practice of Sati was not, therefore, peculiar to one caste or one
region of the country and we find evidences across the spectrum of the contemporary Hindu
society.
ELIMINATION OF SATI
Attempted in Muslims Period – As far as stopping or banning this evil practice is concerned,
it was tough a task as it had been given a religious sanction by the conservative religious pundits
of the time. But some enlightened Indian rulers had taken steps to curb the cruel practice; for
instance, Akbar attempted to restrict it, the Marathas had forbidden it in their dominions.
However, the East India Company, early in their rule over India, stays to its policy of non-
interference into socio-religious customs of the people of India.

British India: But in the early Nineteenth-century-British India, the English view about India’s
socio-religious aspects began to change. This change of view was mainly for two reasons.
Firstly, there was a genuine concern among some good-hearted English officials that the social
conditions especially of women were in urgent need of reforms; and
Secondly, the English rulers wanted to get a moral sanction of their illegal and unethical
exploitation of the native people by maintaining that it was a moral duty and ‘Whiteman’s
burden’ to civilize the uncivilized people of the country.

Therefore, the British began to depart from their earlier stand of non-interference. Some serious
efforts were made in 1813 when a Circular was issued which prohibited the burning of women
in all cases where the widows was below 16 years of age or pregnant or intoxicated or in any
other way coerced. But these measures proved inadequate and unsuccessful.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy – The real change occurred during the time of Governor-General Lord
William Bentinck when he took charge in 1828. He tried to tackle several social problems
facing the society such as abolition of Sati and suppression of infanticide and crushing the
gangs of Thugs. Several sane and educated Indians also began to question this inhuman
practice of Sati despite the opposition and pressure from the religious leaders. Prominent
among them was Raja Ram Mohan Roy. Roy is rightly considered to be the first leader of the
Indian social enlightenment in the early Nineteenth century. It was Raja Ram Mohan Roy who
urged and pressed Bentinck to take necessary steps and declare the practice of Sati illegal.

Due to his great efforts and work through publication of pamphlets and newspaper reports etc,
he was able to awaken the conscience of the masses. In December 1829, Regulation No- XVII
was issued by the Governor-General declaring the practice of Sati or burning or burying alive
of widows illegal and punishable by the criminal courts as culpable homicide. The Regulation
of 1829 was initially applicable to Bengal Presidency alone but in 1830 it was extended in
different forms to Madras and Bombay Presidencies also.

Thus, after the Regulation of 1829, the inhuman practice of Sati was more or less abolished
from the customary practices of Hindu society; though opposition was made from some
quarters of orthodox Brahmins but overall the abolition proved successful.

In recent past one notable incidence came into light when in September 1987, in Rajasthan
village of Deorala, 17-year-old Roop Kanwar, a bride of eight months immolated herself on
her husband’s funeral pyre. Thousands were present at the venue. This shocking incident once
again brought into light the fact that still in the sub-conscious memory of traditional Hindu
society people consider the practice of Sati as some kind of virtuous act.
But apart from this infamous exception no other such event came into light anywhere in the
country. Therefore, it can be said that the inhuman practice now has no place in the modern
outlook of Twenty-first-century society of India.
Q. DEFINE THE CONCEPT OF UNTOUCHABILITY AND PROBLEMS IN INDIA

ANS. CONCEPT OF UNTOUCHABILITY AND PROBLEMS IN INDIA

Untouchability is major problem of India. It is basically a rural problem. Its seeds are only
found in rural soils. Untouchability is an ancient concept traditionally. Indian society was
broadly divided into four groups such as Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra. In the caste
hierarchy the lowest place was given to the Sudras and they were regarded as untouchables by
the rest members of Hindu Caste. Since untouchability is a very old concept, therefore, the
untouchables were identified by the different names in different periods.

In Vedic period – they were known as ‘Chandala’.

In Medieval age – they were addressed as ‘Achhuta’.
In the British period– they were known as ‘Exterior Caste’.
In the present time – they were generally known as the ‘Scheduled Caste’ by the Indian
Constitution.

Though the untouchables are theoretically considered as a part of Varna organisation, they are
closely linked with the Hindu Social Life. The presence of untouchables is very indispensable
for the smooth functioning of Hindu Society because they perform certain polluting
occupations like scavenging, removal of the dead cattle and so on.

MEANING AND DEFINITION OF UNTOUCHABILITY

It is extremely difficult to define untouchability. Therefore, it is usually defined in terms of
disabilities suffered by define untouchability those who are considered to be the untouchables.
Thus it may be said that suffering from all kinds of disabilities is the sign of untouchability.
Vradharita Smiriti says that persons belonging to different Non-Vedic religions or semi-
religions sects are to be treated as untouchables[80].
According to Manu Smritis: The people who follow the lowest kind of occupations include
scavenging, leather work, removal of the carrion etc, are to be regarded as untouchables.
According to Mahatma Gandhi: The father of nation says “Untouchability is the hate fullest
expression of Caste System and it is a crime against God and man”. Further he lovingly called
the untouchables as Harijan means the people of God.
According to G. S. Ghurye: Defines Untouchability as “ideas of purity whether occupational
of ceremonial or ceremonial, which are found to have been a practice of untouchability.
According to Dr. D. N. Majumdar: “Untouchables castes are those who suffer from various
social and political disabilities many of which are traditionally prescribed and socially
enforced by higher castes.”
According to K. M. Pannikar: The system of communal slave-holding contrasted with
individual owning slaves. No social or personal consideration was there to relax the rigors of
the evil system. The untouchables lived within their own system. Thus they formed a parallel
society to Hindu social system. They had the lowest ritual position in the society. They also had
the lowest socio-economic position in society. These exterior castes were a depressed
community who were subjected to all kinds of social and civic discriminations.
Thus, untouchables are those castes which are subject to all kinds of disabilities in every walk
of life such as social, economic, religious and political in other words, the persons who have
no right to enjoy any privilege, who do not touch the shadow of higher caste, who follow the
lowest kind of occupations, who have occupied the lowest place in the caste hierarchy and
deprived from all sorts of things are called to be the untouchables.

TYPES OF UNTOUCHABLES
1. Social untouchables: From the social point of view, the untouchables suffered following
disabilities.
i) Lower Social Status: Since social status was fixed for different castes, therefore, the
untouchability was placed at the lowest place in the caste hierarchy and enjoys lowest
status in the society. Their social status was just like a golden zero. Moreover, they were
considered as the symbol of pollution by the higher caste people. Consequently, the
untouchables are deprived of all kind of commercial contacts.
ii) Educational untouchables: Traditionally, the untouchables were forbidden from
receiving any education. They were not entitled to acquire the knowledge of Vedas. Even
if they were not permitted to touch the religious books. The untouchables were not
allowed to get education from the public institution. Only recently they have given
educational facilities.
iii) Disabilities relating to Social habits: Till recently, the untouchables are faced many
problems in various social habits like food, drink and social intercourse. They are not
permitted to take food or drink from the house of high caste people. They are eating only
‘Kachha’ foods which are prepared by the ordinary things. In the social intercourse, they
are also faced the same problem.
iv) Prohibition in the use of public places: In fact, the untouchables were not allowed to
use village wells, ponds, public hospitals, roads and so on. They were not permitted to
live in those places where the higher caste people reside. The untouchables were forced
to live in the worst type of village slums. Moreover, they were leading a life just like the
domestic animals.
2. Economic untouchables: Economically, to the position of untouchable’s castes was very
pitiable. They were deprived from all kinds of economic privileges in the society following
are the main economic disabilities of untouchables.
i) No right to property: Traditionally, the untouchables were not allowed to have any
land or property of their own. They were prevented from entering in various types of
enterprises. They were not permitted to acquire wealth or to buy land in village. Even
if, the untouchables have no right to sell their landed property to any one. Moreover,
they were deprived from all sorts of right to property.
ii) No right to choose occupation: In the past, the untouchables were not allowed to
engage themselves in occupations which were reserved fro the members of higher
castes. They were compelled to struck to their traditional occupations. They were largely
engaged in agricultural and other associated works as wage-earners. The untouchables
were traditionally associated with such lower occupations like scavenging, leather
works, basket making and so on.
iii) Landless labourer: The untouchables were traditionally known as landless laborers
because they have no land in the village. They were leading a landless laborer life.
Before the abolition of zamidari system, their primary duty was to work for a landlord
without any remuneration. Thus their position was just like a slave and in certain
circumstances worst than a slave. In this context, Gandhiji has said that, “the
untouchables performed the most essential service of society yet at the same time they
were the lowest paid ones. Only such amount of wages is given to them that are
necessary to unite, their cursed soul and their physical frames.
3. Religious untouchables: Though, the untouchables are known as the Hindus by religion,
yet they were not permitted to enter into the Hindu temple and pilgrimages nor were they
allowed to use public bathing Ghats. The untouchables were not allowed to study religious
books. They were also deprived from the Jajman of Brahmin priests. For example, a
Brahmin never accepts to perform the religious ceremony of an untouchable. Only recently,
 efforts have been made by the Government for removing these religious disabilities by
legislators.
4. Political untouchables: In the past, the untouchables were also deprived from all kinds of
political privileges. They were not allowed to participate in political administration and
general election of the traditional India. They were also not permitted to hold any public
post. Only during the British rule, they for the first time got the right to vote.

But, now-a-days, they have enjoy maximum political rights on the ground that some seats in
Parliament and State Assemblies are reserved constitutionally for them, but it is doubtful,
whether they can properly utilise this political rights without their economic development. It
means without their economic improvement, they cannot utilise the political rights which they
have got.

Short Answer Type Questions [10 marks each]

[Short answer is required not exceeding 200 words.]
1. Write a short note on Gupta Administration.

Ans: The Pallavas inherited the administration of the Satavahanas, the Imperial Audhras, to an
extent. The administration revolved round the king, the source of everything. It was for him to
make a grant of land or a village or other treasures to a person, a deity or an institution waiving
the taxes and entitlements of the treasury.
The levies imposed by the king were many. He could ask the villagers to supply milk,
buttermilk, ghee and other things for the use of civil and military officers. During a military
campaign, the villagers were required to provide bullocks for carrying the king’s men, arms
and equipment.
While the army was on the march, the soldiers were quartered and billeted by the householders.
The king had the monopoly to manufacture salt and sugar and an undisputed right over the
grass, wood, vegetables and flowers that grew in the village. In fact, the king was empowered
to utilize every resource of the village for the purpose of the state.
In spite of such absolute powers, the Pallava kings were not tyrants. Dharma maharaja and
Dharma- maharajadhiraja were the titles they assumed and most of them, if not all, tried to live
up to it.
They were cultured, learned and not only supported Dharma, but tried to surpass it
(Dharmahavijigisah). The king received help from a body of ministers and councilors
(rahasyadikadas) in carrying out the business of the states and the royal secretariat drafted out
his orders.
Thus a Pallava inscription from Nellore states that the nattar along with the urar and others
were the executors of a royal order.
This practice of associating elders and wise men in the affairs of the state (by no means unique
to the Pallavas) was best illustrated in the succession of Nandivarman II to the Pallava throne
when the reigning king died childless. The Kasakudi grant states that the successor was chosen
by his subjects for the high office (vritah prajabih).
A number of provinces (rashtras) ruled by governors (vyaparitas) formed the empire. Each
having its own capital, the rashtras were sub-divided into bhogas or vishayas (districts), which,
in turn, consisted of a number of gramas.
Sabhas looked after various aspects of village life and had committees charged with the
maintenance of gardens, tanks, temples, etc. The Sabhas also had judicial functions and acted
as trustees for public endowments.
The royal officials kept accounts of the rashtras in which the income of the treasury from
various taxes from each bhoga or vishaya was noted.
The villages had well-marked boundaries and full details of arable and fallow lands to be given
in charity and for purposes of taxation.
 2. DISCUSS ABOUT THE CONCEPT OF STATE AND GOVERNMENT IN
ANCIENT INDIA.

Ans: CONCEPT OF STATE AND GOVERNMENT IN ANCIENT INDIA

India is a federal state with a parliamentary form of government. It is governed under the 1949
constitution (effective since Jan., 1950). The president of India, who is head of state, is elected
for a five-year term by the elected members of the federal and state parliaments; there are no
term limits. The kingdom of Magadha, ruled by Bimbisara, is the most powerful state in India.
The Indian epic the Ramayana is composed by the sage Valmiki. The life of Siddhartha
Gautama according to modern scholar consensus. Life of Indian Emperor Chandragupta, first
ruler of the Mauryan Empire.
The three theories of origin of state in ancient India are as follows:
1. Social Contract Theory
2. Divine Origin Theory
3. Organic Theory.

The core issues in the study of political science are the state and the government. The institution
of state is studied in relation to its origin, nature, aims and functions of the state in ancient
India. The dawn of civilization was stated to have marked the beginning of the origin of state.
The state in ancient India was considered necessary, for it ensures peace, order and happiness.
It was a social organization with political power. However, ancient scholars were not
unanimous in their opinion with regard to the origin of the state. According to some, state was
the outcome of a contract mainly political in nature between the rulers and the ruled. They
opine that prior to the origin of state there was something called a golden age, wherein the
people enjoyed a life of peace, order, self-discipline and happiness. Similarly, several theories
like force theory, patriarchal theory, matriarchal theory, divine origin theory and finally the
evolutionary theory advanced the origin of the state.
Social Contract Theory: The social contract theory, one of the common theories of the origin
of state, believes that state is a result of a contract between the king and his subjects or
representatives. The king, thus appointed, was expected to save the state and the subjects from
external aggression and establish order and security within the state. However, the earliest
Vedic works never stated that state was the result of a contract. But, they clarified that king
was elected to wage a successful war against the demons.
Divine Theory: The Divine theory of origin of kingship as well as the state was not widely
acclaimed in the ancient Indian polity. The emperor, according to this theory, was a subordinate
to law, which was made by the community and not him. The society as a whole was given
greater importance than the king. The king was not allowed to act indiscriminately and was
expected to act as a father to his subjects, and treat them with affection and kindness.
The Divine theory holds the vision that state is like an organism and that each department has
a specific function to perform. The theory believes that the healthy functioning of the whole
organism depends upon the healthy conditions of each part of the body or organism and its
efficient performance.
The seven parts of the body, that is, state are the king or the sovereign, the minister, the territory
and population, the fortified city or the capital, the treasury, the army, the friends and the allies.
Among all the seven elements or parts, it is the king who is most important.
It was also stated in Manusamhita that ‘when the world was not without a king and dispersed
in fear in all directions, the lord created a king for the protection of all. And because, he’s
formed of fragments of all those gods, the king surpasses all other beings in splendor’.
Organic Theory: Organic theory deals the view that state is like an organism and that each
department has a definite role to execute. The theory deals that the healthy functioning of the
whole organism depends upon the healthy conditions of each part of the body or organism and
its efficient functioning. The seven parts of the body, likes state are the king or the sovereign,
the minister, the territory and population, the fortified city or the capital, the treasury, the army,
the friends and the allies. Among all the seven elements or parts, it is the king who is most
significant.

3. Write a short note on Drought in Medieval India.

Ans: One of the earliest treatises on drought or famine relief goes back more than 2000 years.
This treatise is commonly attributed to Kautilya, who recommended that a good king should
build new forts and water-works and share his provisions with the people, or entrust the country
to another king. Historically, Indian rulers have employed several methods of famine relief.
Some of these were direct, such as initiating free distribution of food grains and throwing open
grain stores and kitchens to the people. Other measures were monetary policies such as
remission of revenue, remission of taxes, increase of pay to soldiers, and payment of advances.
Yet other measures included construction of public works, canals, and embankments, and
sinking wells. Migration was encouraged. Kautilya advocated raiding the provisions of the rich
in times of famine to "thin them by exacting excess revenue." Information on famines from
ancient India up to colonial times is found in five primary sources:
1. Legendary tales passed down in oral tradition that keep alive the memory of famines
2. Ancient Indian literature such as the Vedas, Jataka stories, and the Arthashastra
3. Stone and metal inscriptions provide information on several famines before the 16th
century
4. Writings of Muslim historians in Mughal India
5. Writings of foreigners temporarily resident in India (e.g. Ibn Battuta, Francis Xavier)
The ancient Ashokan edicts of the Mauryan age around 269 BCE record emperor Asoka's
conquest of Kalinga, roughly the modern state of Odisha. The major rock and pillar edicts
mention the massive human toll of about 100,000 due to the war. The edicts record that an even
larger number later perished, presumably from wounds and famine. From Hindu literature,
there is the 7th century famine due to failure of rains in Thanjavur district mentioned in
the Periya Puranam. According to the Purana, Lord Shiva helped the Tamil saints Sambandar
and Appar to provide relief from the famine. Another famine in the same district is recorded
on an inscription with details such as "times becoming bad", a village being ruined, and
cultivation of food being disrupted in Landing in 1054. Famines preserved only in oral tradition
are the Dvadasavarsha Panjam (Twelve-year Famine) of south India and the Durga Devi
Famine of the Deccan from 1396 to 1407. The primary sources for famines in this period are
incomplete and locationally based
The Tughlaq Dynasty under Muhammad bin Tughluq held power during the famine centered
on Delhi in 1335–42. The sultanate offered no relief to the starving residents of Delhi during
this famine. Pre-colonial famines in the Deccan included the Damajipant famine of 1460 and
the famines starting in 1520 and 1629. The Damajipant famine is said to have caused ruin both
in the northern and southern parts of the Deccan. The 1629-32 famine in the Deccan and
Gujarat, was one of the greatest in India's history. In the first 10 months of 1631 an estimated
3 million perished in Gujarat and one million in the Deccan. Eventually the famine killed not
only the poor but the rich as well. More famines hit the Deccan in 1655, 1682 and 1884.
Another famine in 1702–1704 killed over two million people. The oldest famine
in Deccan with local documentation sufficiently well-preserved for analytical study is the Doji
bara famine of 1791-92. Relief was provided by the ruler, the Peshwa Sawai Madhavrao II, in
the form of imposing restrictions on export of grain and importing rice in large quantities from
Bengal via private trading, however the evidence is often too scanty to judge the 'real efficacy
of relief efforts' in the Mughal period.
According to Mushtaq A. Kaw, measures employed by the Mughal and Afghan rulers to fight
famine in Kashmir were insufficient due to geographic obstacles and corruption in the Mughal
administration. Mughal officials took no long term measures to fight famines in Kashmir, and
the land tax system of Mughal India often contributed to the scale of famines by depriving
Indian peasants of much of their harvest in the good years, denying them the opportunity to
build up stocks.

6. Describe the principles of Land System during Shershah Suri.

Ans: The historical importance of land revenue system of Sher Shah Suri (Sher Khan) lies in
the fact that they formed the starting point of the series of experiments what marked the first
half of Akbar’s reign.
Land Revenue System of Sher Shah:
Before Sher Shah, the land rent was realized from the peasants on the basis of estimated
produce from the land but this system did not seem to be faultless as the produce was not
constantly the same. It increased or decreased year after year. Sher Shah introduced a number
of reforms in the fields of revenue. These are as follows:

1. Sher Shah was the first Muslim ruler who got the whole of the land measured and fixed
the land-tax on it on just and fair principles.
2. The land of each peasant was measured first in “bighas” and then half of it was fixed
as the land tax. According to More land in certain portions of the empire such as Multan
the land tax was however one-fourth of the total produce.
3. The settlement made between the Govt. and the peasant in respect of the land revenue
was always put in black and white. Every peasant was given as written document in
 which the share of the Govt. was clearly mentioned so that no unscrupulous officer
might cheat the innocent peasant. This is known as ‘Patta’.
4. Each and every peasant was given the option to pay the land-tax either in cash of in
kind. The subjects of Sher Shah used to Kabul (Promise) that they should pay taxes in
lieu of Patta.
5. The peasants were required to credit the land-tax direct into the Govt. treasury, to be on
the safe side, so that the collecting officers might not charge them any extra money.
6. Strict orders had been issued to the revenue authorities that leniency might be shown
while fixing the land tax, but strictness in the collection thereof should be the inevitable
rule.
7. But suitable subsidy was granted to the farmers in the time of drought, famine or floods
from the royal treasury.
8. Special orders were issued to soldiers that they should not damage the standing crops
in any way. According to Abbas Khan, the cars of those soldiers, who disregarded these
orders, were cut off. Even when Sher Shah led an expedition to the territory of his
enemy, he was very particular about it that no harm shall come to the farmers in any
way from the excesses of his soldiers.
9. In case of damages compensation was granted to the former by the Govt. This
arrangement of Sher Shah was as reasonable as was adopted not by Akbar only but was
followed by the British Govt. also. The well-known ‘Ryatwari System’ which has been
in vague till now, was not founded by Akbar but by Sher Shah.

Sher Shah saved his country from the ill-effects of the arbitrary land revenue system and he
laid the foundation of the policy of co-operation between the Govt. and the peasants.

However, some historians and scholars point out certain defects in the revenue system of Sher
Shah.

• Firstly, it is pointed out that he could not completely root out the Jagirdari system which
had taken deep roots in the Afghan society.
• Secondly, it is said that as the land revenue was fixed on the average produce of each
bigha of good, average and inferior land, the owner of good land always stood to gain
while owners of inferior land was always the loser.
• Thirdly, it is said that as the convention of land revenue from kind to cash always
depended on the Central Government, it always led to delay in the collection of land
revenue.

But we must not forget that Sher Shah had ruled only for five years. During this short period
he had not as yet tested his reforms when the cruel clutches of death ended his life. If death had
spared him more years, Sher Shah would have certainly won that renown which Akbar got for
his land reforms.
 7. Throw light on the principles of Din-I-Ilahi.

Ans: Principles of Tawahid-i-Ilahi or Din-i-Ilahi

Aimed at achieving a synthesis of all religions, Akbar's Din-i-llahi's major principles include:
(i) God is great (Allah-o-Akbar)
(ii) Initiations would be performed on Sunday.
(iii) The novice would place his head at the emperor's feat. The emperor would raise him up
and give him the formula (Shast).
(iv) The initiates would abstain from meat as far as possible and give a sumptuous feast and
alms on their birthday.
(v) There would be no sacred scriptures, place of worship or rituals (except initiation).
(vi) Every adherent should take oath of doing good to everybody. .
(vii) Followers should show respect to all religions.

Akbar's efforts at social reform are also noteworthy. He raised the age of marriage. He even
tried to make education broad-based and secular.

Jahangir and Shah Jahan pursued the same toleran policy though at times there were
aberrations. Aurangze1 was a staunch Sunni but he was intolerant of other faith! He reversed
the policy of Akbar, and this partly led to the decline of Mughal power after his death.
 8. Describe the causes of downfall of Mughal rule during the period of Aurangzeb.

Ans: Causes of downfall of Mughal rule during the period of Aurangzeb

The death of Aurangzeb in 1707 marked the beginning of the end of the Mughal Empire. Of
course, the Mughal emperors reigned till 1857 but only in name. The successors of Aurangzeb,
called the Later Mughals, lost hold over the Empire and independent kingdoms grew up in
every part of India. Most of the Later Mughal emperors remained puppets in the hands to their
powerful nobles or pensioners of the Marathas and, later on, of the British. The last Mughal
ruler, Bahadur Shaah II, was deposed by the British after the revolt of 1857 and deported to
Rangoon to die their as a prisoner. Various factors contributed to the downfall and extinction
of the Mughal Empire.
The Nature and Policies of Aurangzeb
Aurangzeb was partially responsible for the downfall of the Mughal Empire. The suspicious
nature of Aurangzeb which did not permit either any of his sons or nobles to become capable;
his religious bigotry which lost him the loyalty of the majority of his subjects and resulted in
the revolts of the Jats, the Satnamis and the Sikhs; the Rajput policy which resulted in fighting
against the states of Mewar and Marwar; and, his Deccan policy which resulted in a long-drawn
struggle against the Marathas brought misfortune to the Mughal Empire. His policies sapped
the economic and military resources of the Empire and the entire administration broke down.

Incapability of the Later Mughals

The successors of Aurangzeb proved incapable and degenerate. That sealed the fate of the
Empire. After Aurangzeb, no Mughal emperor rightly deserved to be an emperor. Most of them
were addicted to wine and women. Therefore, all proved worthless rulers. No Empire could
exist under the rule of such rulers. It is rather surprising how the fragment of the Empire
continued till 1857.
Corruption of the Nobility
The Mughal nobility followed in the footsteps of their licentious emperors. There was total
absence of capable nobles during the rule of the Later Mughals. Most of the nobles were
incapable and if anyone of them was capable, he was not loyal to the Empire and carved out
independent kingdom for himself. That led to the break-up and degeneration of the Empire.

Military Weakness
The organisation of the Mughal army along feudal lines, the practice of taking wives,
concubines and slave-girls on the battle –field and the failure of the Emperors to improve
armaments and fighting tactics weakened and demoralized the Mughal army. It no more
remained an effective fighting force. Aurangzeb suffered on these counts when he fought
against the Marathas. During the rule of the later Mughals, the conditions became worst. No
Empire could exist in absence of military strength.
Economic Bankruptcy
The reign of Shah Jahan marked the beginning of the deterioration of the economy of the
Empire. The revolts, the wars in the Deccan and neglect of the administration of the North
during the reign of Aurangzeb, put additional burden on the resources of the Empire. Then
finally, the licentious life of the Later Mughals, breakdown of the administration and the loot
of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali broke the backbone of the economy of the Empire. It
certainly contributed to the downfall of the Empire.
The Wars of Succession
In absence of a fixed rule of succession, the death of every emperor led to a war of succession
among the living sons of the Emperor. It resulted in loss of life and property, destruction of the
administrative fabric of the Empire and loss of prestige of the Empire and the Emperor. It also
encouraged powerful nobles to assert their independence or take undue advantage from
succeeding emperors.
Group Rivalry at the Court
The weakness of the Later Mughals led to treachery, treason and group politics at the Mughal
court. The nobles divided themselves particularly in two rival groups viz. one group consisting
of foreign Muslims and the other that of Indian Muslims. Each of these groups tried to capture
the power of the state for itself and, having failed to settle the affair among themselves, sought
help from other powers. The Indian Muslims took the help of the Marathas while the foreign
Muslims sought the help of Ahmad Shah Abdali, the ruler of Afghanistan. It resulted in
repeated invasions of the Marathas and Ahmad Shah Abdali on Delhi which led to the
destruction of Imperial power and dignity.
The Attacks of the Marathas in the North
Peshwa Baji Rao pursued the policy of conquering territories in the North. Gradually, the
Marathas occupied large territories in the North and became the strongest power in India. But
the Marathas did not replace Mughals and did not assume the responsibility of an Imperial
power. Their activities remained limited either to plundering or increasing their sphere of
influence. That certainly affected adversely the fortunes of the Mughal Empire.
Attacks by Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali
When Mughal Empire had already weakened because of internal decay, it had to face the
attach of Nadir Shah and repeated invasions of Ahmad Shah Abdali. These attacks drained
the Mughal Empire of its wealth and gave a final blow to the military power of the Mughals.
The absence of the spirit of political nationalism among the people
Dr. Bipan Chandra has contended that the absence of political nationalism among the people
was an important socio-political cause of the downfall of the Mughal Empire. The Indians did
not have the ideal of living and dying for the nation. Therefore, no group or class of people in
the country was interested in maintaining the unity of the country and the Empire. Of course,
the spirit of nationalism did not exist in Europe as well at that time but the European states like
France, Spain and England had grown up into strong unified states and their people certainly
linked their aspirations with their country, they were loyal to persons, tribes, castes, regions,
religious sects etc. This fissiparous tendency certainly helped in the disintegration of the
Empire and the success of the English against the Indian rulers. It ultimately sealed the fate of
the Mughal Empire.
Intellectual Bankruptcy
The Mughals did not develop a proper system of education. It started affecting adversely the
then society in every field of life from the beginning of the 18th century. The society failed to
produce good administrators, politicians, thinkers, teachers etc. The Empire, therefore failed to
get services of talented people and that definitely weakened the Empire.
Absence of Navy
The Mughal rulers never attempted to build up a navy to safeguard the sea-cost of their Empire.
Of course, the Mughals had not to fight against the European powers and therefore, absence of
navy was not directly responsible for the downfall of the Mughal Empire. But the neglect of
building a navy by the Mughals or any other Indian ruler proved their weakness when
Europeans became contenders for political power. Therefore the absence of navy indirectly
contributed towards the downfall of the Mughal Empire.
Failure of economic and administrative policies
Dr. Satish Chandra was the first among scholars who pointed out that the
failure of Mansabdari or Jagidari system was primarily responsible for the downfall of the
Empire. He expressed the view that his system burdened the peasants to the extreme, yet failed
to provide the Empire and the required state exceeded its income. It could not continue for
long. The Empire resulted in rivalry between nobles for getting good jagirs which weakened
the Empire administratively and politically. Prof. Irfan Habib also pointed out that primarily
economic crisis was responsible for the downfall of the Mughal Empire.
Conclusion
Thus, various causes led to the disintegration and the final collapse of the Mughal Empire. The
process of disintegration had begun just after the death of Bahadur Shah I, the successor of
Aurangzeb. However, the Empire, in name, lingered on till 1857. After the revolt of 1857, the
British wiped out its name as well and assumed the de jure as well as the de facto sovereignty
of India. Thus, the Mughal Empire passed away like a diseased person who met his doom
gradually, painfully and miserably.

Very Short Answer Type Questions [4 marks each] attempt all 4x1
[Very short answer is required not exceeding 75 words.]

1. Agrarian system in Medieval India

Ans: Agrarian system in Medieval India

Sultanate period:
We have very little information about the economic condition of the people under the Delhi
Sultanate.
The historians of the period were more interested in the events at the court than in the lives of
ordinary people.
However, they do sometimes tell us the price of commodities. Ibn Battutah, a resident of
Tangier in North Africa, visited India in the fourteenth century and lived at the court of
Muhammad Tughlaq for eight years. He travelled widely all over India and has left a very
interesting account of the products of the country, including fruits, flowers, herbs, etc. the
condition of the roads and the life of the people. The food grains and other crops, the fruits and
the flowers mentioned by various travellers are familiar to us.
Ibn Battutah says that the soil was so fertile that it could produce two crops every year, rice
being sown three times a year. Sesame, sugarcane and cotton were also grown. They formed
the basis of many village industries, such as oil pressing, making of jaggery, weaving, etc.
Village Economy and Peasantry:
As before, peasants formed the overwhelming majority of the population. The peasant
continued to work hard and to eke out bare subsistence. There were recurring famines and wars
in different parts of the country and these added to the hardships of the peasant.
All the peasants did not live at the level of subsistence. The village headmen (muqaddams) and
smaller landlord (khuts) enjoyed a higher standard of life. In addition to their own holdings,
they held lands for which they paid revenue at concessional rates. Sometimes, they misused
their offices to force the ordinary peasants to pay their share of the land revenue also.
These people were prosperous enough to ride on costly Arabi and Iraqi horses, wear fine clothes
and behave like members of the upper classes. As we have seen, Alauddin Khilji took stern
action against them and curtailed many of their privileges. Even then they continued to enjoy
a higher standard of life than to ordinary peasants. It seems that after the death of Alauddin,
they were able to resume their old ways.

Mughal Period:
During the 16th and 17th centuries, 85 per cent of India’s population lived in rural areas. The
largest section in the village consisted of peasants or cultivators. There were three main classes
of peasants.
(1) Khud-kasht (riyayati): Those residential peasants living in their own village, owning their
own land and implements, paying the land-revenue at a concessional rate, formed the governing
body of the village community. Also called mirasdars in Maharashtra and gharu-hala in
Rajasthan.
(2) Pahi-kasht: These peasants were basically outsiders but cultivated the rented land in a
village either by staying in the same village (residential pahi-kasht) or by staying in the
neighbouring villages (non-residential pahi-kasht).
(3) Muzarian (raiyatis): Those who belonged to the same village but who did not have either
land or implements and hence were dependent on the Khud-kasht for their supply. They were
divided into two groups; tenants-at-will and those who had hereditary tenant rights, called as
paltis in Rajastan.
The Indian peasantry in the Mughal Empire was highly stratified and there was considerable
difference in the size of holdings, produce and resources of peasants within the same locality.
India had a well diversified economy with the cultivation of a large variety of crops. Cotton,
indigo, chay (red dye), sugarcane, oil seeds paid land revenue at a higher rate and had to be
paid in cash hence, called cash crops or superior crops.
The peasants not only shifted his cultivation from one crop to other but also adopted new crops.
Tobacco and maize were introduced in the 17th century. The adoption of potato and red chillies
followed during the 18th century.
During this period, India also exported food grains, especially rice and sugar. The peasant was
not disposed from his land as long as he paid the land revenue. Although the life of the peasant
was hard, he had enough to eat and meet his simple requirements.
 2. Sati

Ans: Sati or suttee is the ancient Indian and Nepalese practice of burning a widow on her
husband's funeral pyre or burying her alive in his grave. This practice is associated with Hindu
traditions. The name is taken from the goddess Sati, wife of Shiva, who burned herself to
protest her father's ill-treatment of her husband. The term "sati" can also apply to the widow
who commits the act. The word "sati" comes from the feminine present participle of the
Sanskrit word asti, meaning "she is true/pure." While it has been most common
in India and Nepal, examples have occurred in other traditions from as far afield as Russia,
Vietnam, and Fiji.
Seen as a Proper Finale to a Marriage
According to custom, Hindu sati was supposed to be voluntary, and often it was seen as the
proper finale to a marriage. It was considered to be the signature act of a dutiful wife, who
would want to follow her husband into the afterlife. However, many accounts exist of women
who were forced to go through with the rite. They may have been drugged, thrown into the
fire, or tied up before being placed on the pyre or into the grave.
In addition, the strong societal pressure was exerted on women to accept sati, particularly if
they had no surviving children to support them. A widow had no social standing in traditional
society and was considered a drag on resources. It was almost unheard-of for a woman to
remarry after her husband's death, so even very young widows were expected to kill
themselves.
History of Sati
Sati first appears in the historical record during the reign of the Gupta Empire, c. 320 to 550
CE. Thus, it may be a relatively recent innovation in the extremely long history of Hinduism.
During the Gupta period, incidents of sati began to be recorded with inscribed memorial stones,
first in Nepal in 464 CE, and then in Madhya Pradesh from 510 CE. The practice spread to
Rajasthan, where it has happened most frequently over the centuries.
Initially, sati seems to have been limited to royal and noble families from the Kshatriya caste
(warriors and princes). Gradually, however, it percolated down into the lower castes. Some
areas such as Kashmir became particularly known for the prevalence of sati among people of
all classes and stations in life. It seems to have really taken off between the 1200s and 1600s
CE.

As the Indian Ocean trade routes brought Hinduism to Southeast Asia, the practice of sati also
moved into new lands during the 1200s to 1400s. An Italian missionary and traveler recorded
that widows in the Champa kingdom of what is now Vietnam practiced sati in the early 1300s.
Other medieval travelers found the custom in Cambodia, Burma, the Philippines, and parts of
what is now Indonesia, particularly on the islands of Bali, Java, and Sumatra. In Sri Lanka,
interestingly, sati was practiced only by queens; ordinary women were not expected to join
their husbands in death.

The Banning of Sati

Under the rule of the Muslim Mughal emperors, sati was banned more than once. Akbar the
Great first outlawed the practice around the year 1500; Aurangzeb tried to end it again in 1663,
after a trip to Kashmir where he witnessed it.

During the European colonial period, Britain, France, and the Portuguese all tried to stamp out
the practice of sati. Portugal outlawed it in Goa as early as 1515. The British East India
Company imposed a ban on sati in the city of Calcutta only in 1798. To prevent unrest, at that
time the BEIC did not allow Christian missionaries to work within its territories in
India. However, the issue of sati became a rallying point for British Christians, who pushed
legislation through the House of Commons in 1813 to allow missionary work in India
specifically to end practices like sati.

By 1850, British colonial attitudes against sati had hardened. Officials like Sir Charles Napier
threatened to hang for murder any Hindu priest who advocated or presided over a widow-
burning. British officials put intense pressure on the rulers of the princely states to outlaw sati,
as well. In 1861, Queen Victoria issued a proclamation banning sati throughout her domain in
India. Nepal officially banned it in 1920.

Prevention of Sati Act

Today, India's Prevention of Sati Act (1987) makes it illegal to coerce or encourage anyone to
commit sati. Forcing someone to commit sati can be punished by death. Nonetheless, a small
number of widows still choose to join their husbands in death; at least four instances have been
recorded between the year 2000 and 2015.

Examples

"In 1987, a Rajput man was arrested after the sati death of his daughter-in-law, Roop Kunwar,
who was just 18 years old."
 3. Who was HuenTsang?

Ans: Huen Tsang or Xuanzang was a Chinese Buddhist Traveler who belongs to early Tang
period of China. He was born in Henan province. He was basically interested in the improving
the incomplete & misinterpreted information provided by the earlier Chinese monks,
particularly Fa Hien. The title his work is "Journey to the West" (Si-Yu-Ki). Huen Tsang
followed the Central Asian Route and visited from Kashmir in North to Saurastra and Vallabhi
in west, Kamarupa in East and Malakotta in South.
He stayed in various monasteries and came in touch with the scholars of that time. His
association with Harshavardhana and Bhaskarvarmana of Kamarupa adds special value to his
work. His observations are related to not only the life of the Kings and nobles but also the
ordinary people. He writes about the way of life, doing agriculture, food habits, dress senses,
jewellery, and types of taxes. Degraded position of the Chandals, elaborate description of the
Nalanda monastery etc. He was attacked by robbers on the way, something which we don’t
find in the narrations of Fa Hien who travelled in the Gupta Period. It shows that the
administrative machinery deteriorated.

4. Discuss the Gupta dynasty as a Golden Age.

ANS. The term golden age refers to the age of Indian history during which remarkable progress
were witnessed in different spheres of human life like polity, economy, culture, society etc.
Elements of Golden age in Gupta period (320-550 AD)
Polity

o With the decline of Mauryan Empire, the unity and integrity of India shattered. The central
authority disappeared and regional principalities emerged everywhere.
o This trend was reversed by emergence of Gupta rulers in 4th Century AD. They ruled over
extensive empire with their capital at Pataliputra.
o Therefore, the Gupta age witnessed political unification of India after long period of more
than 500 years after the decline of Mauryans.
o A number of strong and efficient rulers came to power during Gupta period. For example,
Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, Chandragupta II and Skandgupta ruled over extensive empires.

Economy

o Gupta age was full of economic prosperity. According to Chinese traveller Fa-hien Magadh,
the power centre of Gupta empire was full of cities and its rich people.
o In ancient India, the Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins which were
called ‘dinaras’ in their inscriptions.

Art and Literature

o Gupta rulers were patrons of art and literature. For example, Samudragupta was represented
on his coins playing the vina and Chandragupta II is credited with maintaining in his
court nine luminaries.
o During the Gupta age beautiful images of Buddha were fashioned at Sarnath and Mathura, but
the finest specimens of Buddhist art in Gupta times are the Ajanta paintings. Although these
paintings covered the period from the first century BC to the seventh century AD, most of them
relate to Gupta times.
o The Gupta age is remarkable for the production of secular literature. For
example Kalidasa belonged to this age. He was the greatest poet of classical Sanskrit literature
and wrote Abhijnanashakuntalam which is very highly regarded in world literature.
o There was also an increase in the production of religious literature. The two great epics
the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were almost completed by the fourth century AD.

Science and Technology

o In mathematics, a work called Aryabhatiya was written by Aryabhata in age. Aryabhatta

displayed an awareness of both the zero system and the decimal system. A Gupta inscription
of 5th century AD from Allahabad suggests that decimal system was known in India.
o The Gupta age craftsmen distinguished themselves by their work in iron and bronze. For
example, iron pillar found at Mehrauli in Delhi manufactured in the 4th century AD has not
gathered any rust over the subsequent fifteen centuries which is a great tribute to the
technological skill of the craftsmen.

However, it should be noted that Gupta age did not witness progress in the social development,
for example the number of chandalas( untouchables) increased and their condition
worsened during the Gupta age, the first example of the sati occurred during the Gupta period
in 510 AD etc. In this way the golden character of Gupta age can be accepted only in degrees
not in absolute terms.

5. Discuss the age of Janpad in Ancient India.

ANS. Age of Janpad in Ancient India

The Janapadas were the major kingdoms of Vedic India. By the 6th century B.C. there were
approximately 22 different Janapadas.

The key points related to the Janapadas and the Mahajanapadas are as following:
1. The Janapadas were the major kingdoms of Vedic India.
2. Aryans were the most influential tribes and were called as ‘janas’. This gave rise to the term
Janapada where Jana means ‘people’ and Pada means ‘foot’.
3. By the 6th century B.C. there were approximately 22 different Janapadas.
4. With the development of iron in parts of UP and Bihar, the Janapadas became more
powerful and turned into Mahajanapads.
5. In the sixth century BCE, there was a rise in the development of the Mahajanapada or great
country. There were sixteen such Mahajanapadas during 600 B.C. to 325 B.C. in Indian Sub-
continent. There were two types of states: Monarchical and Republican.

Malla, Vajji, Kamboja and Kuru were Republican states while Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa, Aanti,
Anga, Kashi, Gandhara, Shursena, Chedi and Matsya were monarchical in nature.

There were 16 Mahajanpadas during 600 B.C. to 325 B.C. which are mentioned in early

There were 16 Mahajanpadas during 600 B.C. to 325 B.C. which are mentioned in early
Buddhist (Anguttara Nikaya, Mahavastu) and Jain literature (Bhagvati Sutta), those were as
follows-

Name of the
Capital Location
Mahajanapada
Included the modern districts of Monghyr
Anga Champa
and Bhagalpur in Bihar.
Earlier Rajgriha, later Covered the modern districts of Patna,
Magadha
Patliputra Gaya, and parts of Shahabad.
Covered the modern districts of Deoria,
Capitals at Kusinara and
Malla Basti, Gorakhpur and Siddarthnagar in
Pawa
eastern UP.
Vajji Vaishali Situated north of the river Ganga in Bihar.
Covered modern day districts of Faizabad,
Kosala Sravasti
Gonda, Bahraich of eastern Uttar Pradesh.
Located in the region around Varanasi
Kashi Varanasi
(modern Banaras).
Chedi Shuktimati Covered present day Bundelkhand region.
Kuru Indraprastha Covered modern Haryana and Delhi.
Covered modern districts Allahabad,
Vatsa Kaushambi
Mirzapur.
Ahichhatra (Uttara Panchala) Covered the area of present western UP up
Panchala and Kampilya( Dakshina to the east of river Yamuna up to Kosala
Panchala) janapada.
Covered the areas of Alwar, Bhartpur and
Matsya Viratanagara
Jaipur in Rajasthan.
Sursena Mathura Covered the area around Mathura.
Covered the western India (modern
Avanti Ujjaini and Mahishmati
Malawa).
Situated in the southern part of the India
Ashmaka Potana
between the rivers Narmada and Godavari.
 Capital at Rajapura in Covered the area of Hindukush (modern
Kamboja
modern-day Kashmir Hazara districts of Pakistan)
Covered the western part of Pakistan and
Gandhara Taxila
eastern Afghanistan.

6. Throw light on Babur Nama.

ANS. BABAUNAMA

Zahir-u-din Muhammad Babur was the first Mughal ruler of India–one of history’s great
empire builders by any standard.

Born in 1483 in the Central Asian kingdom of Ferghana (part of modern Uzbekistan), Babur
was descended from two great conquerors: Genghis Khan and Timur (known in the west as
Tamurlane). After being edged out of his own kingdom, he conquered Samarqand when he was
thirteen, lost it, conquered it again when he was nineteen, and lost it again a year later. He
carved out a new kingdom for himself in the mountains of Afghanistan and then went on to
conquer a large section of northern India.

Much of what we know about him comes from his autobiography, the Baburnama (Book of
Babur). It’s not clear what inspired Babur to write his memoirs. Historical accounts were
popular in the Islamic world of his time, but there was no tradition of royal memoirs. His choice
of language was also unusual. Babur was perfectly at home writing Persian, the literary
language of Central Asia at the time. But he chose to write the Baburnama in Chagaty Turkish,
the language spoken by himself and his people.

The memoir is lively, personal and direct. Babur begins the story when he inherited the throne
at the age of twelve and ends in mid-sentence in September, 1529, a year before his death. He
paints a picture of a warrior who partied as hard as he fought. He loved wine, melons, and
gardens. He hated India, which was, in his opinion, lacking in all three. He was proud of his
ability to write Persian poetry – and pleased to recite it at a party. (Poetry was a courtly skill
and popular party game in the Central Asia kingdoms of the fifteenth and sixteenth century,
just as it was in Elizabethan England and eighteenth century France.) He tells us what he did,
thought and saw – not to mention how much he drank and how sick he was afterwards. He
details who was at each event and why their presence was important. He outlines his military
strategy at important battles. He complains about India, which he described as “a place of little
charm”, but describes its animal and plant life with careful, loving detail.

It is, in short, an intimate self-portrait of a prince, warts, binge drinking, and all. “I have simply
written the truth,” he tells the reader at one point. “I do not intend by what I have written to
compliment myself: I have simply set down exactly what happened…May the reader excuses
me; may the listener not take me to task.” Speaking only for myself, this reader hung on every
word.