VINOY KRISHNA SIR S&TFull

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022
 (V) VINOY KRISHNA SIR S&T  Some oil is put into the satellites for collision
avoidance maneuver
 SCIENCE
 Set of laws or principles explaining various  SOME FACTS ABOUT SPACE
natural phenomenon TECHNOLOGY
 Already exists just to be decoded
 By applying these principles on raw materials
 1935:-
 US military lifted up a hot air balloon
through protocols that process is called
 Vertical profiling of atmosphere :- to layer the
Engineering
atmosphere and to do investigation
 Technology:- product has applicational value for
 Today:- it is done with “Sounding Rockets”
us
 Science engineering technology  1957:-
 WHY SCIENCE  Sputnik :- Russian first artificial satellite (USSR
 As a biological entity , curiosity is one thing to and of world)
know & it is called as Fundamental Science  Laika (Bitch dog) Sent to space
 Needs or to find solutions of problems as corona  1969:-
vaccine production (Science’s role) as applied  Appollo-II :- Neil Armstrong an American man
science/ translational science landed Moon
 Fundamental science will be translational  Space station:-
science in future .So, Both are very important to  Mir/Salyut =USSR
spend Money  Skyals= American
 Any scientific information you generate is used
for entire humanity and so fundamental science  Future space goals (Needed)
is important for humanity  Space tourism
 Space mining (need :- as there is non-uniform
distribution as well as extinction of resources on
 TOPIC SPACE TECHNOLOGY earth)
 Most of the atmosphere contains in 100km of  Space war risk
range from earth’s surface  Outer space colonization
 Why Should Space programs be
Collaborated
 Cost factor
 Best different technologies can be taken at one
place
 Why space technology  Loss of a failed mission can be shared
1. Space exploration  1970s:-
2. Application:- artificial satellite  US=USSR started collaborating talkings
 THE ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES  1975:-

 Apollo :- carrying Americans astronauts
1. COMMUNICATION SATELLITES  Soyuz:- carrying Russians cosmonaut
 Telecommunication  Both joined in space
 TV broadcast  2000 ISS (INTERNATIONAL SPACE
 Tele education
 Tele medicine STATION):-
1. By far largest manmade object In the space
2. REMOTE SENSING SATELLITES 2. Lab in space
 Also called earth observing satellites
3. Research
 Disaster management
a) on human physiology (important as due to
 Natural resourcing management
zero gravity)
 Militarily surveillance
b) mice were carried & research was done on
 Weather forecasting
them
3. NAVIGATION SATELLITES c) Microorganism were brought also (bacteria)
 Traffic management and were subjected to radiation , we are
 Launch vehicles creating many strains of them
 Missile’s navigation
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d) For 3D printing technology (Bio-printing) of  Space junk( Defunctional manmade objects
tissues. Bio-ink:- fluid in which cells are added into space)  Space Garbage  space
present and also it was important for 3D debris
printing of the art etc  Kessler’s Syndrome
 Today 15 countries are contributing the ISS  With increase in space traffic , any one collision
but India is not a part of it. b/w two objects can initiate a chain of
 2024:- prediction that ISS will stop working uncontrollable , unpredictable collisions to
or Russia might not be a part of it happen
 China:- planning Space station of its own named  For space debris Strategies to be
as “TIAN GONG” (Three humans will stay for 6 1. Need for an enforceable law to establish a
months) common but differentiateable responsibility
 INDIA:- Around 2030:- Indian space station , 2. Mitigation strategy and active removal strategy
Success depends upon the “Gaganyaan Mission”
 Active removal strategy is a dedicated mission
 Space is filled with following  cherry-picks the debris to displace to desired
a) Total 5000 functional satellites are there in location
Space
b) Defunctional satellites:- who are not working
but revolving due to movement of Inertia
(kind of Space debris)
c) Parts of launch vehicle
d) Fragments coming out from Defunctional.
e) Satellites or of accidentally added by
Humans into space (by Astronauts during
repairing of ISS they get Slipped form hand)
 NEW SPACE AGENCIES
1. State Agencies
2. Private Agencies:- Space X, Virgin Galactic,
Blue origin
 Indian Private Agencies and their
launch vehicles
1. Skyroot Aerospace
 Formulated Vikram series of LV
2. Agnikul cosmos
 Agnibhan series LV
3. Bellatrix aerospace
 Chetak LV
 Garuda LV
 New space based services

1. Outer space tourism
2. Space warfare
3. Space mining
4. Satellite based internet services (starlink of Elon musk
 Challenges for active removal
providing Global satellite based internet services- a) Cost very high, expensive
30,000-40,000 are planned to put into space) b) Highly sophisticated technology
c) Ensuring safety and security (a law is
 SPACE DEBRIS & OTHER PROBLEMS needed)
 Will be space traffic gets congested d) Political challenge :- who will take
 No enforceable law of regulation & it is going to responsibility and why
be worse situation in future e) As there should be law that who pollutes
 Number of space debris will always contribute to must pay
rise
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 SPACE DEBRIS CURRENT EVENTS  Counter argument:- Space is directly linked to
every sector now it is dual use technology
1. ELSA-d (JAPAN) a) To develop military equipment’s or weapons
 Tested ELSA-d a dedicated mission that would (missiles etc)(launch vehicle +Missile overlap like
pick space debris by/through electromagnetic satellite surveillance + surgical strike and
force and displace it to different location communication satellite)
2. 2018 ESA: EUROPEAN SPACE AGENCY b) To develop socio-economic (commercial satellite
 Tested “remove debris” named spacecraft, this market)
was a satellite that would fire a net to fish for  However, India has daring Scientists:-
space debris to be removed. this was also an
1. HOMIJAHAGIR BHABA-HJ BHABA:-
experimental process
 Father of India’s Nuclear program (relative of
3. 2025:ESA Tata Family)
 wishes to become the first country to launch an  He was able to brought funds for projects
operational space debris removal mission (not
developmental/ experimental) (also it allow 2. DR.VIKRAM SARABHAI (RICH FAMILY)
 PhD in Cambridge
them to ear revenue)
 Started research on Cosmic rays in his own house
 2019  Latter taken up by GOI called “Physical research
a) Russia= 5099 satellites laboratory , Ahmedabad (PRL)
b) USA= 4815 satellites  He convinced Indian scientists to come India so that
c) China= 3720 satellites they can start a space program
d) France = 507 satellites  Vikram sarabhai gave
e) India= 163 only satellites  APJ Kalam to us
f) Japan= 115 only satellites  UCIL:-(founder) uranium council of India Limited
(UCIL- Jodiyoda Jharkhand)
 ASAT:-ANTI SATELLITE TEST  ECIL:- Electronics corporation of India Limited
a) 1957:- ,Hyderabad
 Russians lifted first artificial satellite  IIM Ahmedabad:- had His contribution
 Duty of Scientific temper:- he was also behinds the
 American developed to hit any satellite duty of scientific temper into constitution by
 Soon Russia developed it influencing Nehru
 Space militarization started  In order to have a Sustainable space programme you
need a launching station to launch satellite
b) 2007:- China also conducted an Anti-satellite
 Ariane V:- French Rocket over 3500kg still need this
test satellite launcher
c) 2019: Mission Shakti:- India too conducted first  Ideals conditions for a launch vehicle
anti-satellite test (modified Agni version of the  Rotational time of earth= almost 24hrs
missile we hit down our own microsatellite a
deformed one
d) 2021 November:- Russian again conducted ASAT
 SPACE SITUATIONAL AWARENESS
(SSA)
 It entails a battery of radar Antennal at various places
on ground to keep tracking the position , speed &  Angular velocity of A&B =360o in every 24hrs
direction of space debris movement  Any point on earth surface have same angular
 When any debris threatens to hit your satellite , you
velocity
can ask/command satellite to maneuver
 However
 Data is shared among all/many countries
(collaboration ) at global level  A= faster (travel) because has to cover big circle
 B= travel slow because it has to cover small
 INDIAN SPACE PROGRAMME circle
 Right after independence we started working 1. Most important factor or trait of a launch vehicle
 Critics said it is too costly as we didn’t have is its carrying capacity (CC)
infrastructure, disposable money also they said 2. Launch station should be practically as close as
Socio-economic situation should be addressed possible to equator
first
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 (as +400km/hr extra speed or pull can be  Today:- different launch Vehicles are developed at
generated because of law of inertia is more Vikram sarabhai space research station. Satellite
as it travels faster launch vehicles Like:- ASLV,PSLV,GSLV,SSLV. All
developed here
 SATISH DHAVAN SPACE CENTER
 Sri Harikota Andhra Pradesh
3. Eastward / westward:- launches should be

eastwards direction as in direction of the earth’s
rotation
4. Launch vehicle should preferably be on eastern
coast of land mass (so that minimal causalities or
loss happen)
 It is there a space station:- India (ISRO) planning to have a

new launch station named “Kulasekharapatnam at
tuticorin (Thoothukudi) for PSLV to save fuel & dogleg
maneuver avoidance of Rocket
 INCOS-PAR:-INDIAN NATIONAL
COMMITTEE 1962-63:-
 For space research which overtime evolved into ISRO-
th
15 August 1969
 Headed by :- Dr. Vikram Sarabhai Under Department
of Atomic Energy then came under Department Space
(Policy making Body) under PMO (Prime Minister
Office)
 ISRO ROLES & SUB-CENTERS

 Design , develop & launch vehicles/satellites
 Knowledge consumer that is generated
 Need to be knowledge producer so have to carry out
exploratory missions
 TERLS - THUMBA EQUATORIAL  TODAY ISRO TO BE A SPACE POWER
1. To produce Data-knowledge
ROCKET LAUNCH STATION 2. Carrying Exploratory missions
 Thumba that is located on the magnetic equator- 3. Carry out division of labour into sub-centers
TERLS- Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launch Station:-
India using it for Sounding Rockets Not satellites  SUB-CENTERS OF ISRO
 TERLS:- Today called As Vikram Sarabhai Space
research Station
1. ISAC:ISRO SATELLITE CENTER
 Also called URSC (center) (URRao)
 Apache:- First USA Sound Rocket Launched at  Design and development of satellites
Thumba  Bengaluru
 Rohini:- First Indian Sounding Rocket Launched From
Thumba After USA 2. SAC:SPACE APPLICATION CENTER
 Ahmedabad
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 Also does design & development of satellite  ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
 Any satellite has two major components  Energy wave ∝ frequency of wave
1. Fundamental components  EA < EB (energy of B is higher)
 Solar panel  E∝F∝
 Box like structure = bus module
 E∝ν∝
 Power system
2. Specific payload  SPECTRUM
 Which give functional identity to satellite  The entire range of the waves that are
 Those components like Remote sensing satellite = present
cameras  Increasing order of frequency
 Navigation satellite = Atomic clocks
(↑ν↑E↓ )
 Communication satellites = Transponder
 Transponder:- both receives and transmits the signal
 R-M-I-V-UV-X-γ
back  Radio-Micro-Infrared-Visible-Ultraviolet-
 One communication satellite has transponder is X rays- Gamma Rays
limited by how much payload it can carry  Largest wave length= Radio waves
 Launch vehicle carrying capacity  Maximum frequency & energy = gamma
rays
 Increasing order of frequency in Visible
light (↑ν↑E↓ )
 ROYGBIV:- Red → Orange → yellow →
Green → Black → Indigo →Violet
 WAVES/SIGNALS
 Propagates (as waves travelling we use it as
vehicle to carry our message)
 Signal (any function / informed wave can
perceive called signal)
 Noise:- If we cannot perceive the signal of
informed wave
 ATTENUATION :- loss of energy of waves and
loss of intensity of waves
3. ISTRAC: ISRO’s TELEMETRY TRACKING &

COMMAND NETWORK (TTC)
 Telemetry :- Measurement – knowing launch vehicle
position
 Tracking :- knowing Launch Vehicle Path  O3  absorbs UV  Attenuation happens
 So it controls the trajectory of LV  Specific chemistry absorbs specific frequency
 Frequency absorption of different substances helps to
know different minerals, water status of agricultural
field, fossil fuels
 Attenuation happens during
1. Absorption
2. Scattering
 During Scattering
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 Higher the frequency , more the scattering   One transponder cannot work in all
high intensity radiations loss intensity frequency
 Therefore  India :- GOI has control over these
 Radio + Microwave  ↓↓Energy  ↓↓ transponder frequency
Attenuation  Travel farther (Radiation)  Tradable frequencies in India:- GOI sells to
distance private companies  auctioned  first come
 Examples first serve
 Blacksmith  Rod  Heating  Red  then  Ground Stations Are at Lucknow , Nicobar ,
becomes yellow  then Becomes Blue Colour  Bengaluru , Mauritius , Vietnam, Indonesia :- From
as temperature of body rising frequency also where ISRO’s ISTRAC controls the trajectory of a
rising satellite
 Note:-
a. In space there is no attenuation as there is 4. MCF: MASTER CONTROL FACILITY
no atmosphere therefore the outer space  If communication satellite:- From elliptical orbit,
observatory (OSO) freely receive frequency Satellite Needs to come into to come into circular orbit
in space then it guesses the star’s called Geo-Stationary Orbit
temperature
b. Example:- Hubble OSO replaced by
Jamesweb Telescope , India has ASTRO Sat
c. OSO in space because high intensity waves

cannot come to earth due to atmosphere &  AT APOGEE:- Satellite pushed forward by process
we have to put OSO outside earth because called “Orbit Raising”, From the natural Elliptical
there high frequency radiation can be orbit if it is a communication satellite
measured
 Radio-Micro Waves :- are used for
communication of satellites because there
attenuation is very less
 Radio wave:-
a. minimum frequency is 3000Hz and
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b. Maximum frequency = 300×10 Hz
 Micro waves:-
a. 300 Mega Hz to 300 giga Hz
6 9
b. 300×10 Hz to 300×10 Hz
c. High frequency Radio waves
d. Microwaves are part of Radio waves
 MCF Functions:-
a. Start satellite
 6 9
30 Mega Hz to 30 GHz (30×10 Hz to 30×10 Hz ) → only b. Orbit raising
useful for satellite called usable window of as you go
higher frequency , the attenuation gets higher & to
c. Manage the attitude of satellite throughout the
avoid it we use only this range of frequency life span of satellite
 TRANSPONDER :-  MCF operates from:-
 Does both sending and receiving messages. a. Hasan (Karnataka)
 Restricted by a range of frequency that it can b. Bhopal (MP)
send and receive
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5. NRSC: NATIONAL REMOTE SENSING 8. IN-SPACe: INDIAN NATIONAL SPACE
CENTER PROMOTION AND AUTHORISATION
 Works for remote sensing satellite
CENTER
 Hyderabad :- data acquisition center of Geo
 Written in handouts
Spatial data
 All remote Sensing satellites data is sent to 9. HSFC: HUMAN SPACE FLIGHT CENTER
NRSC which process this Data and  Headquarter:- Bengaluru
distributes it to 5 regional centers  HSFC Functions:-
 These five centers are at a. Developing tools
b. Technology related to human space flight
a. New Delhi
(Mission Gaganyaan / Space station)
b. Jodhpur (RJ)
 To develop ,for Example, Human Grade
c. Nagpur (MH) Launch vehicle
d. Bengaluru  GSLV-MKIII:- launch Vehicle (Space Craft) is a
e. Kolkata Human grade launch vehicle of Gaganyaan
 These centers send data to district Mission
headquarters and it is crucial for disaster  Needs To develop Human life support
management and many other works system
 Gas composition/ pressure partial
6. ANTRIX  Temperature control
 Commercial arm of ISRO  Waste removal
 Antrix Corporation Limited was incorporated as  Medical unit
a private limited company owned by  Space suit for radio waves protection
Government of India in September 1992 as a and body measurements
Marketing arm of ISRO for promotion and
10. DSDO: DEFENSE SPACE RESERCH
commercial exploitation of space products,
technical consultancy services and transfer of ORGANIZATION
technologies developed by ISRO.  Headquarter :- Bengaluru
 Antrix is GOI owned company  DSDO Functions:-
 Bengaluru Headquarter a. To develop tools and technology related to it
 Antrix functions b. Hard Kill:- Research and development in
a. Consultancy services space warfare like ASAT (Mission Shakti)
b. Mission support service like TTC, MCF comes under Hard Kill
c. Transponder lease service c. Soft Kill :- damage only hacking of satellites
d. Launching service not by hitting , like hacking satellite
 Of USA , Canada, Germany, South Korea, d. To develop :- Hack proof satellite technology
Japan etc due to cost factor / communication
 But in limited number as the reason of  FREQUENCIES USED IN THE SATELLITE
less carrying capacity COMMUNICATION
 Antrix got some negative goodwill as due to  Waves
a. 2G Spectrum Corruption case  Any disturbance that propagates forward,
b. Devas Multimedia v/s Antrix Case has predictable periodicity (particular
 Therefore in 2019 a new body NSIL was
pattern keeps repeating at certain time
Constituted period)
7. NSIL:NEW SPACE INDIA LIMITED  = = m or cm
 Constituted in 2019  Wavelength is the distance b/w two
 Now NSIL is called commercial arm of ISRO to
consecutive crests or troughs
build up Fresh Goodwill (at Place of Antrix)  Example :- Airtel bought
 New Mandate under the changing Paradigm
 NSIL have all owning of satellites and providing
space based services on commercial basis
 NSIL Functions under commercial deal:-
a. All order receiving
b. Providing services
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 Bands :- individuals splits b/w a frequency range  It is a measure of how close two or more objects can
(1,2,3 in example) be up till they get distinguished as separate entities
 Frequency Range:- Identifies band from where i.e. closer the object distinguished , higher the
to where resolution
 Band Width:- 3. Consistency signal
 Maximum Band 3= 200-80 = 120Hz  also called satellite availability means simple how
 Minimum Band 1= 40-20= 20 Hz much time satellite stays in space
 Higher the band width:- more the data that
 CIRCULAR MOTION
 Two main forces work here in circular orbit
could be transacted through it
1) Centripetal force:-
 Very high frequency = Loss of signals
 Anybody moving in circle to remain in it pulling
 However, two bands of similar band width may
towards center is done by centripetal force
be qualitatively different , if they are picked from
2) Centrifugal force:-
different regions of the frequency because
higher the frequency leads to high the  Felt by someone inside the object (Pseudo force)
attenuation :- it s felt outward- related to velocity of satellite
 ITU: International telecommunication union or UN
body has provided an official split to the usable
window (30MHz to 30 GHz) as a Global standard to
be followed by the nations for various applications
 Some Bands :-
1. L-Band :- 1 to 2 GHz
2. S-Band :- 2 to 4 GHz
 These L and S bands are used for Deep
space communication + Navigation satellite
 Less frequency = More wavelength = less
attenuation = very strong signals
3. C-band :- 4 to 8 GHz :- for remote sensing
satellite + TV broadcast (earlier)
4. X- Band:- 8 to 12 GHz :- also for remote sensing
satellite+ Military satellites surveillance
5. KU-Band:- 12 to 18 GHz:- mostly used now , TV
broadcast also
 The choices of a band for an application depends
upon  R= center of earth to satellite distance and is important to
know what velocity is to be given to satellite to remain in
a. Volume of data to be transacted
same orbit
b. The tolerance for the signal noise 
2
GMm ÷ r = mV ÷ r
2
 TOPIC:- ORBITS  V= √ This is the needed velocity that a

satellite requires in remaining to same orbit
 Mathematically predictable path followed by the
 V∝ 1/r
satellites / space craft
 What factors govern the orbit choice
 V3 < V2 < V1
 Distance of satellite per revolution covered = 2πr
 OTP= Orbital time period= Distance covered in one
revolution ÷ velocity of satellite
 OTP ∝ 1/ V
 Very important
a. OTP1 < OTP2 < OTP3
b. V3 < V2 < V1
c. r3 < r2 < r1
 Understand Some conditions:-
1) Condition 1
1. Area of coverage required  When UPSC asks a question about satellite from
2. Resolution of the image (Clarity):- surface of earth then always add 6400km
8
hours, 56 minutes, and 4 seconds
(one sidereal day).
 RTP = Exact rotational time period of earth= Sidereal

day = OTP= 23hrs 56min 4seconds
2) Condition 2
 Sir Arthur C Clarke suggested that put a
communication satellite in these geostationary
satellites
 Therefore geostationary orbit is also called
“Clarks Orbit”
 Therefore geostationary orbits are used commonly or

conventionally used for communication satellites
 Note:- the nations falls on equator , they just bend /
set antennas towards the geostationary satellite
 Therefore geosynchronous orbit is a family of

orbits as at multiples angles a satellite can be
placed. it has many orbits possible
 Circular orbit at 35786km from earth’s surface
and at all the possible angles with respect to the
equator together constitute geosynchronous
orbit, they are so named because for an
 A GEOSYNCHRONOUS ORBIT observer of earth- satellite keeps changing its
a. (Sometimes abbreviated GSO) is an Earth- position in sky.
centered orbit with an orbital period that  Although at any fixed time of the day it is
matches Earth's rotation on its axis, 23 invariably found at the same location
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 Geostationary orbit is necessarily GSO although
 MEO: MEDIUM EARTH ORBIT
reverse is not necessarily true.
 Used mainly for navigation satellites
 LEO: LOW EARTH ORBITS:-  In Navigation
 100-1000km a. Have position knowledge (coordinates)

 OTPLEO < < < < OTPGEO b. Means where you are and where you want
 OTPLEO is almost 90minutes average to ne at
 Revolution in 24 hours around earth= 16 c. Sense of direction
approximately revolutions d. Knowledge of Time
 OTPLEO = Primarily for remote sensing satellites  Dimensions in space to perceive
(RSS)or earth observatory satellites a. Length
 Swath Value:- b. Breadth
a. The width of the strip of land scanned by an c. Height
RSS in one swipe over an area d. Time
b. More the swath value = more area coverage  Any point on earth requires four minimum
c. That is the reasons the RSS satellites are not number of satellites to derive its navigation
placed in equatorial plane orbits because it  To ensure the 4 satellites for each point:- Global
only cover then a fixed area minimum satellites required =24 in minimum
 Applications of LEO satellites number as GPS
 Tropical ocean currents
 Global vegetation
 TOPIC:- SOME WORLD’S NAVIGATION
 NISAR:- ISRO + NASA going to launch it SYSTEMS
1) GPS=
a. 20200km satellite height
b. (Global Positioning satellite)
c. Belongs to USA
d. 32 satellites are in total but 31 are
working
2) GNSS
a. Global navigation Satellite system
3) Global Compass/ Glonass
 XO <<<< YO More area coverage at higher angles
a. Russia = 24 satellites
 Polar orbit :- is a LEO with sufficiently high plane
4) Galileo
angle so as to cover from higher latitude to
a. European space agency
higher latitude and from polar region to polar
b. 24 satellites + 12 planning
region
5) BeiDou Navigation Satellite System
 Any satellite in LEO
 China
a. OTP= 90minutes
 35 satellites
b. Covers any particular point only to about
 30 MEO + 5 GEO satellites
10 minutes
 Note:- India is not a part of this list
 Any satellite in MEO
a. It covers a place not consistent but A. RNSS:-
covers longer time period a place than a. Regional Navigation Satellite System
LEO b. Placed at GEO fixed (not at MEO)
b. Navigation satellites are primarily placed
here B. INDIA AND ITS :- IRNSS
 Any satellite in GEO a. Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System
a. It covers a place consistent ,covers b. Total 8 satellites 7= functional + 1 partially
longer time period a place than LEO and functional (IRNSS-1A)
MEO c. NAVIC:- Navigation with Indian Constellations
b. Fixed = observer (Satellite)
n n d. Planted at GEO/GSO
 LEO > MEO
1) IRNSS-1A
 OTPLEO < OTPMEO < OTPGEO
2) IRNSS-2B
3) IRNSS-1C
4) IRNSS-1D
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5) IRNSS-1E
6) IRNSS-1F
7) IRNSS-1G
8) IRNSS-1H (Payload never come outside
of heat shield , thus non-working)
9) IRNSS-1I
e. These are Indian 9 satellites
f. Three = 1C,1F,1G = are at GEO
g. Remaining are at GSO  Fixed Number of vibrations (n/sec) depends
upon
a. Humidity
b. Temperature
 IRNSS & ITS ATOMIC COCKS:-
 India rejected and started using atomic
Clocks which once depend on vibrations of
 REGIONAL COVERAGE OF IRNSS electrons of atoms when excited by the
SATELLITES microwaves of specific frequency
 Covers in west upto Africa port to Myanmar Etc  GPS satellites are based on Atomic clocks
Port In the East working on caesium atoms (1sec= 138million
years)
 1500Km over and above Indian Landmass on
both East-West  IRNSS atomic clocks based on atoms of
radium (not on caesium) bought from Swiss
 Extra coverage :- leverage- soft power
company as used in Galileo also
diplomacy by offering navigation services free to
the neighbors  1 satellite = 3 Atomic clocks
 South Asian Satellite:- India providing free  IRNSS= 7 × 3= 21 Atomic cells
services of satellite to its neighbors (Pakistan  Note:-
rejected to take), as taking consideration into of a. IRNSS-1A= 3 atomic clocks now stopped
Gujral Doctrine working ,therefore, IRNSS-1A is called
Gujral Doctrine is a set of five principles to partial failure
guide the conduct of foreign relations with b. So, IRNSS-1H was planned to replace it
India’s immediate neighbors. With and is entirely assembled by private
neighbors like Bangladesh, Bhutan, companies (First time in India)
Maldives, Nepal and Sri Lanka, India does c. But IRNSS-1H does not open its heat
not ask for reciprocity but gives and shield in space and never came out from
accommodates what it can in good faith payload and now IRNSS-1I is now
and trust. These five principles arise from replacing it
the belief that India’s stature and strength
cannot be isolated from the quality of its
relations with its neighbors
 SPECIFIC PAYLOADS OF IRNSS
1. Navigation Payloads
 2 transponders working in L,S Bands
 However GPS has L & L Bands transponders
 IRNSS is dual frequency Navigation System
2. Ranging Payload
 IRNSS = now 8 satellites
 1 transponder in C-Band
a. 7= functional + 1 partially functional (IRNSS-1A)
 Tells position of satellite
b. IRNSS-1H is not working and got wasted as its
3. Time keeping instrument payload never come outside of heat shield
 Quartz based timekeeping by noticing
vibrations  APPLICATIONS OF NAVIGATION
 Quartz= Sio2 (Silicon dioxide)= Piezo electric  Traffic management:- Road traffic , rail traffic,
material marine and air traffic
11
A. ROAD TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT  India wanted this but denied by USA during
 By civilian population Kargil War
 Example :- google maps (it is both remote  Also used in time keeping applications on Earth
sensing and navigational satellite) (IRNSS)
 2019:- Ministry of Road & Transport made  IRNSS :- used also for messaging services (IRNSS-
mandatory for all commercial vehicles in India to 1A, Example:- Oppo Mobile company makes
have vehicle tracking system based on IRNSS Chips compatible with IRNSS)
 Real time position data to a common server:-
Accessible to GOI authorities
 TOPIC:-LAUNCH VEHICLES (LVs)
 Specific type of Rocket
 Note:- Not for Public’s private Vehicle, only for
commercial vehicles  Principle of conservation of linear momentum :-
principle on which Launch Vehicles work
 Functions:-
a. for safety & security of passengers  MAINLY TWO PARTS
b. for fleet management by Indian military and 1) Structural part
paramilitary vehicles  Design
c. for Govt logistics management (Example:-  Material
essential supply during Covid , oxygen trucks 2) Propellants
were monitored)  Fuel
d. for PDS:- Public distribution system tracking  Propulsion system
e. For trains track monitoring (+200 trains)
B. MARINE TRAFFIC
 Merchant navy for safety and better navigation
 Fishing vessels
 GEMINI App developed with IRNSS giving
Navigation in Open Seas
C. AIR TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
 Ionosphere impacts
 India’s GAGAN:-
a. GPS aided GEO augmented navigation
system
b. Navigation refining system
c. Scientific instrument present on India Geo-
satellites which studies the ionosphere in  Materials used in Launch Vehicles
real time & sends it down to GAGAN centers 1) Should be light
in India 2) Strong alloys
d. Around 15 GAGAN centers (processing 3) Commonly used:- Aluminum , Titanium, Nickel,
Units) Cobalt
e. To report ionosphere characteristics , refines 4) KEVLAR:-
it and sends to AAI (Airport Authority of  Organic polymer
India)  5 times stronger than steel of same weight
 Launch vehicles also use IRNSS (Navigation  Thermally very stable
 Also used in bullet proofing
purposes)
 Used in thermal insolation
 Navigation of missiles also uses IRNSS  Sports goods
 Why India Use GEO/GSO:-  Used for launch vehicles also
 Urgency :- Kargil War 5) Nano Composites
 Navigation satellites are  Carbon based nano-materials
1) Of Lower precision  Graphene :- carbon nano tubes
 Free 6) Propellants
 Civilian  Fuel of launch vehicles
2) Of Higher precision  High calorific value , so needed for a thrust
 Not free forward
 Encrypted  Requires O2 to get burnt
 Sourced from
12
a. Air breathing propulsion system (used also in  Good control over b. Carcinogenic
vehicles and Airplanes) combustion  More polluting
b. Non –Air Breathing propulsion system :-  Used for multi-orbit (generates NOx-
used in launch vehicles injection of satellites Nitrogen oxides)
 Different propellants (fuels )  Highly corrosive
a. Burn and give thrust  May leak also
b. Specific impulse (ISP)= for every unit of thrust  Slosh creates
generated , the rate of fuel consumption turbulence
c. ISP= thrust/rate of level of consumption  VIKAS:- India has VIKAS engine based on Liquid
7) Oxidizer:- propulsion system
 LVs do not get oxygen from air but they carry
 Current Affairs
independent source called Oxidizer, the compound
which gives oxygen to get the fuel burnt  SSLV-D1 Failed August 2022
 Are necessary evils because more than 50% of oxidizer  D refers to developmental flight
is mixed with the fuel and therefore have to  Means this launch vehicle could be checked for
compromise with carrying capacity of fuel in LV many dynamics and parameters
THE PROPULSION SYSTEMS 3. CRYOGENIC FUEL PROPULSION

1. Solid SYSTEM
2. Liquid  Cryo:- used for very low temperature as like we
3. Cryogenic (Liquefied) do cryo of food in refrigerator
4. The air breathing propulsion system
5. The ion propulsion system (electric propulsion system)  H2 needs to be converted into liquid state so
that it can occupy more volume and there are
1. SOLID FUEL PROPULSION SYSTEM two methods
 First stage of any launch vehicles 1. Using high pressure:- very risky
 Solid fuel:- Hydroxyl terminated 2. Using very low temperature:- simple and
polybutadiene (HTPB) is fuel as solid fuel used slow but less risky so used as H2 needs -
 Oxidizer :- ammonium per chlorate 252oC and O2 needs -183oC to be converted
POSITIVES NEGATIVES into liquid form
 ISP less= More thrust  ISP less = no much  VIKAS engine for liquid fuel
 Cost is very low distance can be  India plans for PSLV and GSLV
 Easy to store and covered  PSLV:- not powered by Cryogenic engine
 Poor control over  GSLV:- powered by Cryogenic engine (Note it
transport
 1992:-Russia promised to transfer technology to ISRO {6
 Low center of mass combustion
cryogenic engines}
 Note:- USA says Russia could not do that as India is not
2. LIQUID FUEL PROPULSION SYSTEM member of MTCR(Missile Technology Control Regime),
which USA accused India Could have used for powering its
 Fuel:-UDMH: Unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine nuclear warheads {wrong fact as missiles are not that type
 Oxidizer :- Dinitrogen tetroxide N2O4 whose fuel just filled before launch. So it is not valid
argument of USA}
 1992 Technology transfer were denied to India because of
USA, but Engines India got
 2014:- Indigenously India developed and launched its GSLV
(cryogenic engine= CE)
 India has two cryogenic engines now
1. CE7.5
2. CE20:- more powerful
 Note:- India also working with third and new
version of CE = CE32 (under development)
 CARRYING CAPACITY ISSUE OF INDIA
LAUNCH VEHICLE
 India= GSLV-MKIII= 4000kg= GTO
 Ariane 5 (French)= 10000kg to GTO
 Falcon heavy (Space X)= 30,000kg to GTO, they are
 POSITIVES  NEGATIVES developing big Falcon upto 1 lakh kg to GTO
 ISP more= covers  Hydrazine is toxic  Therefore India needs to increase its
long distance and cause carrying capacity for
a. Cancer
13
1. For Source of revenue:-It will help for  So space agencies working on propellants that
launching our heavier satellites as we take pollute less
service now of Ariane of France (saves money  ISRO been doing R&D on
and make commercial launches like PSLV). It can
1. Han:- Hydroxyl amine Nitrate
become Source of revenue
2. Methane Hydrogen peroxide conjugate=
2. For Human missions:-
H2O2
3. For Scientific missions:- 3. Methanol based propulsion system
 What India has been doing 4. THE AIR BREATHING PROPULSION
1. VIKAS:- more powerful Engine been developed
2. CE32 is under development SYSTEM
3. ISRO developing Semi-cryogenic engine  Oxidizer compromises on the amount of fuel carried ,
 Will have one component under cryo , other any reduction in oxidizer requirement would mean
under normal room temperature increase in the fuel loaded
 Cryo component=? (CA)  Understand first the , Air planes fly very fast
 Normal condition=? {Current Affair) using oxygen in atmosphere for combustion

 Fuel :- refined kerosene (Refined petroleum1 or and have TURBO-JET ENGINES
 Compressor carry out sudden compression of
RP-1)
air so air gets compressed adiabatically
 SCE200 ready to be tested
 As air is bad conductor of heat
 So when the 1000litres of air, goes undergo
compressor and made to 1.5litre volume so
would increase O2 and fuel carrying capacity
can be increased
 GREEN PROPELLANT  Same engine is not applicable for launch

 Entire space exercise across the world is vehicle but the science of this can be used
criticized for having huge Carbon-footprints or for developing the engine of launch vehicle
environmentally unsustainable  Sonic:- moving with speed of Sound
330m/sec generally = 1Mac Number or
14
value  2016: ISRO tested ATV-TD (Advanced technology
 Sub-Sonic= 0.81 to 1 Mac vehicle Technology demonstrator version). ATV-TD is
 Trans-Sonic :- 0.8 to 1.2 Mac a two stage sounding rocked that successfully fired
nd
SCRAMJET for 5 seconds during the 2 stage
 Super-Sonic:- 2 to 5 Mac
 DRDO:- tested HSTDV (Hyper sonic technology
 Hyper Sonic:- 5 to 10 times speed of demonstrator vehicle ) powered by the Scramjet .
sound HSTDV was lifted on Agni missile which provided it
 Ultra Hypersonic or High Hypersonic:- the necessary 1 Mac velocity before the Scramjet
>10Mac started an HSTDV lifted of for an independent 21
seconds flight
 Hence RAMJET/SCRAMJET would also decide the
 Every fuels burns best at optimum temperature
future of India’s Military Aviation and missiles
technology
5. THE ION PROPULSION SYSTEM
(ELECTRIC PROPULSION SYSTEM)
 Very efficient 80-85% efficiency
 ISP:- Maximum, very long fuel sustenance
achieved by
 F=ma
1. Exerting mass of fuel with certain
acceleration = Ma
2. Exerting mass of fuel with certain
acceleration= mA= High ISP
 Note:- Air must enter at speed of 1 Mac to get

efficient combustion (Note it is very important)
 DMRE:- Dual Mode Ramjet Engine
15
 No Green House gas at moon
 GSAT9 :- India used Ion Propulsion system

and gifted to SAARC countries but Pakistan  RTEG works on the principle of converting the
never opted energy released by the radioactive decay of
certain elements like plutonium, strontium etc
 A RADIOISOTOPE THERMOELECTRIC into the electrical form of energy. Additionally,
GENERATOR (RTG/RTEG) the heat released in the process is also used to
 Chandraayaan-2 keep the rovers warm
a) Orbiter + Lander Rover mission  RTEG could also be developed to power the
b) Rover is device capable of walking around launch vehicles including the once used in
the surface doing the chemical study of the human missions (with necessary safeguards)
region  ISRO presently is developing a 100watt RTEG as
 Lander:- Vikram lander a pilot project to be further improved upon.
 Rover:- Pragyaan (14 days only life)
 MOON
 Moon’s OTP (Orbital time period)= 27.32 days earth
days
 Moon revolves and rotates
 RTP (rotational time period of moon) = 27.32 earth
days
 ORBITAL LOCKING OR TIDAL LOCKING:-
 OTPm=RTPm means by the time moon
covers one orbit it also covers one rotation
called as “Orbital locking or tidal locking”
16
INDIA’s LAUNCH VEHICLES  Satellites planted in LEO
 Designed for remote sensing satellites
 Used for GTO  GEO (Communication satellite)
1. SLV:- SATELLITE LAUNCH VEHICLE
 Carrying capacity
 By ISRO
 4 staged rocked , all powered by solid fuel only  PSLV most credible launch vehicle of the world
 Open loop guidance/navigation system as its successful rate of launching is much higher
 Carrying capacity =40kg to LEO  Variants of PSLV and carrying capacity
 Rohini series of satellites launched by using SLV A. PSLV-Std= PSLV standard
 6 strap ons using sold fuel engine
2. ASLV:AUGUMENTEDD SATELLITE  To LEO= 1650kg carrying capacity
LAUNCH VEHICLE  To GTO = 1150 Kg carrying capacity
 By ISRO B. PSLV-CA=
 5 stages rocked , all powered by solid fuel only  PSLC- Core Alone does not have strapons=
 Closed loop guidance/navigation system 1000kg to LEO
 TTC is possible (Telemetry, Tracking and Command)
 SROSS:- Stretched Rohini series of satellites launched
C. PSLV-XL= PSLV Extra Large
by using ASLV  Here strap ons are larger but number is
 Carrying capacity = 150kg to LEO same 6 in number
 To LEO= 1750kg
3. PSLV: POLAR SATELLITE LAUNCH  To GTO= 1300kg
VEHICLE D. PSLV-DL :- PSLV-Dual Strap ons

 To LEO =1250kg
 4 staged launched vehicle (Solid , liquid,, solid, liquid
st th
from 1 to 4 stage) E. PSLV-QL :- PSLV Quarter (4 Strapons)
 To LEO =1550kg
4. GSLV:- GEO SYNCHRONOUS LAUNCH
VEHICLE
 Used to take payload to GTO and then to to GSO
(GEO)
 3 stages (solid-liquid-cryogenic)
 Have 4 strap ons in standard version packed with
liquid fuel
 Note:- Gaganyaan is going to use GSLV
 Versions of GSLV
A. GSLV-MK-I
 3rd stage it was powered by Russian
cryogenic engines
 1500kg to GTO
B. GSLV-MK-II
 Entirely indigenous
 3rd state powered with Indigenous cryogenic
engine CE7.5
 2500kgs to GTO
C. GSLV-MK-III
 Complete overhaul
 All stages are larger (bigger core)
 Only 2 strapons are now (gigantic in size)
 Strap ons are packed with solid fuel
 3rd stage is powered by indigenously CE20
 4000kg to GTO
5. SSLV: SMALL SATELLITE LAUNCH
VEHICLE
 LV customized for small satellites less than
500kg
17
 Huge market potential for launching of small  PRIVATE COMPANIES LAUNCH
satellites
 REASONS VEHICLE’s IN INDIA
a) Tech-miniaturisal :-for remote sensing 4. Skyroot Aerospace
satellites (RSS)  Formulated Vikram series of LV
b) New services:- satellite based internet 5. Agnikul cosmos
services e.g starlink  Agnibhan series LV
c) Possible space war:- pushing nations to split 6. bellatrix aerospace
their space assets into smaller components  Chetak LV
 Benefits:-  Garuda LV
a) Less in carrying capacity ….5th class ended,6th started…..

b) Less in cost  All launch vehicles discussed earlier are
c) Less in time to assemble expendable ones means they are consumed in
process (one time work) , means it makes it costly
 Experimental satellites and more resource intensive , it also generates
 Go up to conduct certain experiments more space debris
 These are small in size and they may be very  Why frequency of launching is more
short lived a) New services = starlink (1000 numbers of
 Developed by space agencies and also by satellites)
students communities of country b) Sustained human presence in space (to and
 Example:- Azadisat SSLV made by students fro)
c) To make these exercises more feasible and to
 Categorized based of mass they have avoid these negatives world needs to be
a) Femto satellite= <100g quickly move to reusable launch vehicles
b) Pico= < 1kg
c) Nano= 1-10kg  RLV:REUSUABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE
d) Micro= < 100kg
e) Mini satellite = < 500 kg
 Cube satellite:- cubical of 10cm dimension
 Can sat:- Satellite packed under can size
 SSLV Design
 Three staged launch vehicle, All solid fuel
 Only to LEO
 4th liquid velocity trimming module
 LEO the circular orbit is easier to be attained
or given by the launch vehicle itself
 SSLV can launch 500kg satellites into LEO upto
300-400km
 500kg will reduce to 300kg if SSPO to LEO upto
600-800km
 NOTE FOR ALL LAUNCH VEHICLES  CHALLENGES

 All launch vehicles that we studied are  REX :- experiment ensuring a controlled re-entry
expendable means consumed in one launch that into atmosphere
is why they are
 Controlled landing or touch down :- any
 Not environment friendly
experiment on control landing is called “LEX” (on
 Costlier
hard surface)
 Unsustainable
 Resource intensive  Approaches at re-entry to make it
 Need:- develop reusable launch vehicle (RLV) control
 To increase presence of human in space a) Rocket firing as it creates counter thrust and
 Activities are increasing so is needed slows down the rocket
b) Inflatable decelerator :- gives high resistance
18
 Landing Carried out into two  Outer space mining
 Outer space warfare
methods
a) Vertical landing  SOME FACTS
a. Absolute vertical on its legs  Orbiter:- Any object or a spacecraft designed to
b. Technologically more sophisticated orbit a celestial body without landing on its
c. Requires less energy and even lesser surface.
structural changes in launch vehicle  As a sequel after orbiter then you conduct
d. Space X:- landing and rover mission as well
 rocket series falcon has its first stage  Means
reusability meaning they are retrieving back 1. 1st = orbiter
first stage of rocket and even this can be 2. 2nd= Landing
used to send humans into space 3. 3rd = Revering
 Why first stage not second stage  Landing must be soft landing as compare to
 Falcon 9 = $60 million and first stage itself crash landing
accounts for over $42 million cost  Rover is a device walks over surface , may be
e. Cost of reused system is just $2ooooo So solar powered or powered by radio thermal
very cheap so first stage is used as power
reusable
 INDIA’S FIRST SCIENTIFIC MISSION
b) Horizontal landing
a. LV Designed like an aircraft “CHANDRAYAAN-1”
b. Technologically Simpler  Moon closest to earth 3.84 lakh km
c. More energy extensive  It is a collaborative mission ISRO + NASA + ESA +
d. More structural modification to rocket are Sweden agency + Bulgaria
required  OBJECTIVE:-
e. 2016 ISRO conducted RLV-TD test , it is a a. Water presence:- Presence quantity and
technology demonstrator (aircraft type ) and distribution of water
successfully conducted the re entry path test  {why search of water :- for the possible
(REX done), however, LEX part splashed out presence of life + potential of establishing
into Bay Of Bengal life means outer-space colonization}
f. Based systems are not very sustainable  H2O :- Space X is developing technology to
g. ISRO planning to have GSLV-First stage use sun light to split water into H and O , can
reusability with vertical landing format be used for Fuel mix
 EXTRATERRESTRIAL MISSIONS b. Mineral composition :- spectrometry based
to study chemistry. So spectrometers are
 Dedicated other than earth like any celestial
carried
body like moon, mars etc
c. Presence of He3:- presence and distribution
 Done for three major focus major is exploratory
of He3. W
missions
 Why He3:- in Sun H is predominant and
1. SCIENTIFIC MISSION:- because He3 is very good raw material to
 Called as exploratory mission conduct nuclear fusion at earth also and can
 to generate information like mineral be a solution to energy crisis
composition, presence of water, organic  In Sun :- core of the sun has got a lot of
material. gravitational pressure to collapse due to its
 Like chandrayaan-1 is scientific mission. huge size and quantity, this pressure to
 In scientific mission Focus is on collapse cause fusion oh H atoms (nuclear
a. Objective fusion) and forms deuterium (highly
b. Mission outcomes or scientific findings exothermic reaction) and further fusion
2. TECHNOLOGICAL MISSON remains and gives rise to (He3 + Energy ).
 To test the technology like landing and rover Through solar winds He3 is also fired by sun
etc and these hits moon surface and He3 atoms
 Mangal yaan and MOM-TD are also not full- gets trapped in the soil.
fledged scientific mission d. Origin of moon:- as no one theory presented
3. APPLIED MISSION is sufficient to explain the genesis of moon.
 Outer space tourism e. 3D images
19
 HOW WE CONDUCTED THIS MISSION a) Despite the technological setback on landing and
 Sling shot strategy roving front, C-2 can be considered as a scientific
 Handouts 108 page success based on the data that it has already
generated
 MISSION OUTCOMES OR SCIENTIFIC b) C-2 orbiter has an extended life span of 7 years
FINDINGS (against the designed one year ) and is expected
a) C-1 generated a conclusive evidence for the to generate much higher volume of data and
presence of water on the moon predominantly hence research publications
in the polar region  C-3 chandaryan three which is a lander rover
b) C-1 generated the signature for the presence of mission would be launched soon (possibility
minerals of sodium (Na), magnesium, calcium, 2023)
aluminum, iron and silicon (used spectrometer)  C-3 might not required an orbiter as C-2 orbiter
c) C-1 generated a high number of images of the is already available as a relay unit
lunar crater
d) C-1 also established that not 100% of the solar
protons are absorbed by the moon surface i.e. 5-  WHAT IS WORLD DOING IN
20% are reflected back MOON EPLORATION:-
 EVALUATION OF C-1  CHINA :-
a) Despite the early demise , C-1 generated  Chang’e series of missions
sufficient data to make this mission a  Chang’e 1,2,3,4,5,_ _ _ _ _6,7,8,
magnificent scientific success  Successful:-
 INDIA’S “CHANDRAYAAN-2” a. OLR= orbiter + Lander + Rover
b. Sample returns mission
 Orbiter + Lander + Rover mission
 Entirely indigenous mission (as in collaborative
c. Far Side of Moon Study
mission , the fight for claims starts, hence ISRO went  Planning to have a permanent:-
on Indigenous)  Launch station (like space station- human
 Entirely scientific and that is why maximum number existence)
of and higher quality of scientific instruments were  Russia is collaborating with China

put on orbiter
South pole of the moon was the destination for this
 USA
mission as this was unexplored or virgin territory  Artemis mission :- man to moon
 Handout  Artemis accord:- group of countries France,
 Vikram the lander also has some tiny scientific Japan, Australia and more :- to develop common
instruments agreeable principle and strategy of moon
 Pragyan the rover exploration
 HOW WE CONDUCTED THIS MISSION  INDIA
 Sling shot strategy  QUAD has a working group on space and they
 Handouts page have moon discussion on the table
 MISSION OUTCOMES OR SCIENTIFIC  Moon can be seen as Most visible entity of
geopolitics
FINDINGS
a) C-2 added more evidences on the presence of
 MARS
water on the moon , it also confirmed that water  Interplanetary mission
is present not only in the polar region but across  Escape velocity from earth is 11.2 km/sec
the latitudes …..6th class ended,7th started…….
b) C-2 generated the signature of the presence of
miner elements like manganese and chromium  INTERPLANETARY MISSION ISRO
 Spacecraft have to move out from the earth’s zone of
in addition to the major ones discovered earlier
gravity
c) C-2 also generated very High resolution images
 Any entity with certain mass exerts pressure, when
of lunar craters including the Sarabhai crater object thrown by escape velocity (based on mass of
present in the North-eastern region of the moon entity is 11.2 km/sec)
d) C-2 discovered the presence of Argon-40 isotope  When we have to study stars like earth like elements
present in lunar ionosphere or any entity which have possibility of life , we look at
 EVALUATION OF C-2 frequency of its emissions to find temperature at
what distance
20
 WHY MARS IS SELECTED FOR SEARCHING  As from sun , solar winds travel to million kilometers
LIFE FORMS? carrying charged , uncharged particles
 Charge particles of solar winds move with very high
 Imagine a star of particular temperature, you will be
able to find out till what distance from that star is the velocity possessing a lot of KE and they are charged
condition too hot for any life to happen. particles they also possess magnetic field , solar wind
 Too hot means the hottest region at upto which life is , so, associated with magnetic wind also
discovered on earth is the boundary and based on 1) These particles hit the neutral gasses present in
same principle beyond a certain region it would be atmosphere of Mars, these neutral gases are
too cold and the region in b/w is the region of ionized
optimum value and if we have any planet in this 2) These ionized gases are pushed away by the
optimum temperature region, and this region is strong magnetic field from the atmosphere and
called Goldilock zone and we have to focus on these mars getting its atmosphere depleted , this
planets only to find life form. process is called “Sputtering”
 That is the reason mars has selected to find life form
as it falls under this region}
 Why not this sputtering happened with Earth and

not impacting earth?
 After big bag , we got the creation of all stars and
objects , like earth and mars (as a balls of fire and
these balls started getting cooled)
 Earth is double in size of mars .so mars has higher
surface area to volume ratio
MARS EARTH  Cooling direction causing surface inwards on earth as
1)
On the basis of Size and 1) On the basis of well mars and other objects
density almost ½ of the Size and  Rate of cooling is dependent on surface area per unit
earth and exert similar ½ of density almost volume
the gravity double of the  Rate of cooling:- } , it means Mars got
2) Less gravity means earth and exert
cooled faster till the core as mars has higher surface
geographical features must similar double
area to volume ratio and it is entirely a solid body
be gigantic and taller of the gravity
now
3) Rotation time or one day 2) More gravity
 However, earth is still molten in its core and has
duration 24 hrs 39mins means
O many elements like Iron and nickel and these are at
4) Axis tilt 25 must cause geographical
very high temperature making them ionized, and
similar Seasons features must
these ionized metal particles inside the core , moving
5) It is believed that Marsian smaller
up transferring heat , and gets cooled and come
surface has the extensive relatively
down. So functioning dynamo is present inside the
presence Fluvial patterns 3) Rotation time
earth. Which means right around the earth we have
(patterns created by or one day
magnetic field created by the moving charged
erosion of something duration 24 hrs
particles at the core of it (geo-magnetism)
flowing like to imagine  Axis tilt 23.5O
 Geo-magnetism is actually electro magnetism and
water presence) causes
resides in our atmosphere
 This leads you to Seasons=
 Therefore when the solar winds come from sun, they
conclusion that mars at seasons give us
get deflected by the magnetic field of earth.
present does not have the Biodiversity
 So earth’s is not facing sputtering effect and it
flowing surface liquid water
atmosphere is safe as compare to mars (as it lost its
{here we are not referring
magnetic field due to faster cooling)
to Ice and sub-surface
Note:- solar winds and magnetic winds don’t pass each
water presence}
other and come into each other’s path and get deflected ,
 For water to be liquid , we required atmospheric
but can run parallel also .
pressure, so if no atmosphere present then all liquid
 However, some solar winds get inside (not deflected)
form of water gets lost
into earth’s atmosphere from the polar region (going
 What happened to the Marsian atmosphere parallel to magnetic field of earth), this solar wind
 Let us assume Mars has atmosphere in the past with ionizes the gases of earth’s atmosphere and this
similar gas composition as of earth
21
ionization of light is causing Auroras (borealis and diffuse color or reflectivity of the surface. This is very
australis) in polar areas similar to a diffuse map but is more the pure color of an
object, while diffuse is both color as well as shaded with
some diffuse lighting.
 How we organised the mission
 Read the 130 at last page Handout
 EVALUATION OF THIS MISSION

a) “Mangalyaan was a marvel in engineering but no
exciting science came from it as the instruments
and the experiments themselves were mediocre.
Small instruments give small science”, said by UR
Rao (Mangalyaan and chandaryan both are brain
child of him)
b) Mangalyaan-2 is in the pipeline and would be
conducted soon (estimated by 2025)
c) Mangalyaan-2 might also be a MOM-2 (only
orbiter mission not lander rover), this time with
much more capable scientific instruments to be
sent in collaboration with France.
 WHERE IS INDIA AT PRESENT WITH
 THE INDIAN:- MANGALYAAN / MARS REFERENCE TO MARS:-
ORBITER MISSION:- a) CH4 in huge quantity has already been
 Mars has other names like Red planet , god of war, discovered (biological/ geological)
god of fire b) ICE has been discovered on surface
 Fe3+ is present in ferric form on mars is the c) Sub-surface liquid water has been
reason of red colour of mars discovered
1) Indian goal is technological in Mars mission d) More complex organic compounds found:-
(to try the technology):- biological origin higher (happens to as old as
a) To achieve the escape velocity (that itself is a 3 billion years old)
big challenge)  List of mars mission of countries read from
b) have to travel a very long distance over 700 handouts
million kilometers)
c) Have a precise entry into the Marsian gravity
VENUS ORBITER MISSION
d) Mangalyaan has to have automated self  Other names “goddess of love”
control and self-correction ability  Shukrayaan or venus orbiter mission(VOM
 On this technological basis it is a great success  WHY VENUS MISSION:-
because Indian became only country to reach a) It is almost of similar size and density as that
mars in first attempt of the earth
2) Indian goal is also “scientific objective” in b) It is in the Goldilock zone
Mars mission:- c) It does have some unique features like its
a) Looking for the organic matter (like CH4) or rotation direction is east to west , unique
organic signature over Mars atmosphere
b) Methane sensor for mars (MSM) was sent  OBJECTIVE VENUS MISSION:-
for detecting CH4, but it was not much a) To study the unique atmosphere of venusian
sensitive. so ISRO said it is used to make atmosphere
“Albedo map” of Mars  CO2 is more than 90% (Green house gas) in
c) MCC (mars colour camera) was sent also for atmosphere of venus means its temperature
taking pictures or images is too hot (490-500OC), so it has not
d) MENCA (Mars Exospheric Neutral Composition sufficient temperature to happen life
Analyser) was sent the study the ionosphere possible
of the Marsian atmosphere (means all got  H2SO4 , is also presented in concentrated
ionized or something left) form in its atmosphere
e) Dust storms data was generated b) To study ionosphere of the venus
 Albedo is the measure of reflectivity c) To study the mineral composition of the
 The Albedo map is the base color input that defines the venus
22
 India+ Russia + France first said to collaborate neighbor. Similar in structure but slightly smaller
but France pulled out of this collaboration. than Earth, it is the second planet from the sun.
(update in newspaper) Earth is the third. Venus is wrapped in a thick,
 1970s-80s:- Venus generated interest toxic atmosphere that traps in heat. Surface
a) US:- sent mariner series of mission temperatures reach a scorching 880 degrees
b) USSR:-vegas/venera series of mission Fahrenheit (471 degrees Celsius), hot enough to
 At present melt lead. “I can only speculate on what life
 “Akatsuki” of Japan , active orbiter revolving might survive on Venus, if indeed it is there. No
around venus only life would be able to survive on the surface of
Venus, because it is completely inhospitable,
 VENUS GOT INTO NEWS IN 2020 even for biochemistries completely different
 Potential sign of alien life detected on from ours,” Sousa-Silva said. “But a long time
inhospitable Venus ago, Venus could have had life on its surface,
 The researchers did not discover actual life before a runaway greenhouse effect left the
forms, but noted that on Earth phosphine is majority of the planet completely
produced by bacteria thriving in oxygen-starved uninhabitable.”
environments
 Scientists said on Monday they have detected in  JUNE 03, 2021
the harshly acidic clouds of Venus a gas called  NASA plans two new missions to venus, its first in
phosphine that indicates microbes may inhabit decades
Earth's inhospitable neighbor, a tantalizing sign  NASA announced plans on Wednesday to launch a
pair of missions to Venus between 2028 and 2030 —
of potential life beyond Earth.
its first in decades — to study the atmosphere and
 he researchers did not discover actual life forms, geologic features of Earth’s so-called sister planet and
but noted that on Earth phosphine is produced better understand why the two emerged so
by bacteria thriving in oxygen-starved differently.
environments. The international scientific team  The U.S. space agency said it was awarding about
first spotted the phosphine using the James $500 million each to develop the two missions,
Clerk Maxwell Telescope in Hawaii and dubbed DAVINCI+ (short for Deep Atmosphere Venus
confirmed it using the Atacama Large Investigation of Noble Gases, Chemistry and Imaging)
Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) radio and VERITAS (an acronym for Venus Emissivity, Radio
telescope in Chile. Science, InSAR, Topography and Spectroscopy).
 “I was very surprised - stunned, in fact,” said  DAVINCI+ will measure the composition of the dense,
hothouse atmosphere of Venus to further understand
astronomer Jane Greaves of Cardiff University in
how it evolved, while VERITAS will map the planet's
Wales, lead author of the research published in surface from orbit to help determine its geologic
the journal Nature Astronomy. The existence of history, NASA said.
extraterrestrial life long has been one of the
paramount questions of science. Scientists have THE SUN (STAR)
used probes and telescopes to seek  One of the smaller stars
“biosignatures” - indirect signs of life - on other  The biggest we know is canis majoris , 2005 times
planets and moons in our solar system and bigger than sun
beyond. “With what we currently know of  Sun as a start is still gas giant of 14 lakh km of
Venus, the most plausible explanation for diameter, almost 3 lakh times the size of earth
phosphine, as fantastical as it might sound, is  The core of sun will have very high gravitation
life,” said Massachusetts Institute of Technology pressure to collapse , causing series of nuclear fusion
, causing generation of a lot of heat so the core
molecular astrophysicist and study co-author O
temperature as high as 15 million C)
Clara Sousa-Silva.  Particles based on density arrange themselves into
 Phosphine was seen at 20 parts-per-billion in the layers
Venusian atmosphere, a trace concentration.
Ms. Greaves said the researchers examined  LAYERS OF SUN:-
potential non-biological sources such as 1) Core :- At center core
volcanism, meteorites, lightning and various 2) Radiatiive zone
types of chemical reactions, but none appeared  Immediate next to core of sun is the layer in which
viable. The research continues to either confirm the transfer of heat happens primarily through
the presence of life or find an alternative radiations, called radiatiive zone or layer
explanation. Venus is Earth's closest planetary 3) Convective layer
23
 Layer next to radioactive layer is the layer where
particles go up cool down , come back, keep taking
the heat underneath up , and keep transferring it
beyond called convection and called convective zone
or convective layer
4) Photosphere
 Next layer to convective layer is the layer which gives
out the maximum intensity of white light (frequency
our eyes are sensitive too) called photosphere
(brightest layer)
5) Chromospheres
 Right after photosphere , the outer redness layer is
called as chromospheres, this where the sharp
distinction of layers gets over but sun not
 Right beyond chromospheres on solar
surface is the presence of magnetic lines in
the form of:-
a) Present in loop form, in which solar particles are
trapped in it and do not get to escape
b) Present in liner form , where solar particles
along magnetic liner lines move (in swirling
motion) aligned to them until a particular
distance , comes a boundary called “Alfven
Critical surface”. This region upto this boundary
is called CORONA of sun{ This point marks the
end of the solar atmosphere and beginning of
the solar wind.}
 When the solar particles able to escape this
Alfven critical surface , escape the sun now with
very high velocity (+1000km/sec) and never
come back
 The region is called as solar wind :- a hot plasma
of solar particles (electrons, protons, He etc)
escaping from the Alfven critical surface at
extremely high velocity (+1000km/sec)  Solar flares and Sun Spots
irreversibly  On random occasions, the solar surface does get
 Corona and solar wind are distinguished by the to have a very violent display of fire (like volcanic
Alfven critical boundary eruption) called as solar flare.( A solar flare is an
 We cannot visualize the corona, only during sun intense localized eruption of electromagnetic
eclipse it can be visualized radiation in the Sun's atmosphere. .) it happens
at random locations . some magnetic variation
occur during this
 There can be many solar flares on sun’s surface
 At the core of the solar flares , it is relatively
cooler emits lower frequency , we call this area
as sun spot or dark spot
 To count solar flare we need to count the sun
spots number
 Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs)
If solar flare gets directed towards earth, it may

have significant impact on earth, which is why its
study is important. As during solar flare
occurrence a lot of material of sun gets thrown
out Coronal mass ejection
 CMEs are large expulsions of plasma and
magnetic field from the Sun's corona. They can
eject billions of tons of coronal material and
carry an embedded magnetic field (frozen in
24
flux) that is stronger than the background solar  However, the solar maximum was not declared
wind interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) to have occurred until 2014, and even then was
strength. ranked among the weakest on record.
 Right in front of solar flare is CMEs , a much  Next one solar maxima could happen in 2025
greater volume of solar particles thrown out in
the corona region
 The Anomalous rise in coronal
 Solar storm temperature:-
 Usually away from core of sun to surface
 Solar storms occur when the Sun emits huge
temperature decreases (upto 6000OC at corona)
bursts of energy in the form of solar flares and
 And after corona is expected to decrease further
coronal mass ejections. These phenomena send
,but surprisingly , it increases as observed
a stream electrical charges and magnetic fields
against expected
toward the earth at a speed of about three
 Look the figure
million miles per hour.
 Right in front of the CMEs , there is solar wind
evolving into solar storm
 Solar storm has:-
a) Have higher density of particles
b) Have more ionizing potential
c) Have stronger magnetic field
d) Have more heat
 These are symbols to observe solar storm
 Solar storm Impacts to earth etc:-
a) Satellites would be damaged because of
heat and charge particles hitting it
b) Ionosphere would be too thick for any
navigation system to work
c) Solar storm’s Stronger magnetic field
distorts earth’s natural magnetic field, can
lead to failure of transmission grid lines
(electricity grids under stronger magnetic
fields will suffer, lead to blackouts)
d) Natural navigation of organism may fail SOLAR OBSERVATORIES:-
 Solar maxima and solar minima:- 1) THE PARKER PROBE (NASA)
 The greatest number of sunspots in any given
 World’s most powerful solar observatory
solar cycle is designated as "solar maximum."
 Name is on American astrophysicist Eugene
The lowest number is "solar minimum."
parker (June 10, 1927 to march 15 2022)
 The average periodic time gap is 11 years after
 He considered as “touched the sun”
which we get to have a solar maxima repetition
 Touching means parker probe is first entity that
called as solar cycle (it is cyclic repeat of solar
has crossed ACS (Alfven critical surface) and
maxima).
entered into corona
 The Parker Solar Probe is a NASA space probe
launched in 2018 with the mission of making
observations of the outer corona of the Sun. It
will approach to within 9.86 solar radii from the
center of the Sun, and by 2025 will travel, at
closest approach, as fast as 690,000 km/h, or
0.064% the speed of light.
 Scientific objective of parker probe
a) To study solar wind and solar storm
 There was a solar maximum in 2000. In 2006,
dynamics
NASA initially expected a solar maximum in 2010
b) To understand the coronal dynamics
or 2011, and thought that it could be the
c) Try to study the magnetic field variations on
strongest since 1958.
the solar surface which possibility cause
solar storm
25
and Chromosphere in near Ultraviolet (200-400
nm) and measure solar irradiance variations -
InterUniversity Centre for Astronomy &
Astrophysics (IUCAA)
3) Aditya Solar wind Particle Experiment (ASPEX) :
To study the variation of solar wind properties as
well as its distribution and spectral
 See the handout characteristics – Physical Research Laboratory
 Venus gravity is used to assist this mission (PRL)
4) Plasma Analyser Package for Aditya (PAPA) : To
2) ADITYA –L1 MISSION (INDIA) understand the composition of solar wind and
 India’s first solar observatory its energy distribution – Space Physics
 Scientific objectives to send it Laboratory (SPL), VSSC
a) To study solar wind dynamics 5) Solar Low Energy X-ray Spectrometer (SoLEXS) :
b) To understand the corona and its To monitor the X-ray flares for studying the
characteristics along with the coronal mass heating mechanism of the solar corona – ISRO
ejection Satellite Centre (ISAC)
c) Try to do the spectrometry & telescopy of 6) High Energy L1 Orbiting X-ray Spectrometer
the sun at different frequencies for example (HEL1OS): To observe the dynamic events in the
at visible, UV regions and also in the X-Rays solar corona and provide an estimate of the
region energy used to accelerate the particles during
d) Will also study the magnetic field variations the eruptive events - ISRO Satellite Centre
around the sun (ISAC)and Udaipur Solar Observatory (USO), PRL
7) Magnetometer: To measure the magnitude and
nature of the Interplanetary Magnetic Field –
Laboratory for Electro-optic Systems (LEOS) and
ISAC.
 With the inclusion of multiple payloads, this
project also provides an opportunity to solar
scientists from multiple institutions within the
country to participate in space based
instrumentation and observations. Thus the
enhanced Aditya-L1 project will enable a
comprehensive understanding of the dynamical
processes of the sun and address some of the
outstanding problems in solar physics.
 India's first solar mission, which was delayed
from early 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic,
is expected to launch in the third quarter of
 The main payload continues to be the 2022, at the same time as the country's second
coronagraph with improved capabilities. The space observatory Xposat, which will aid
main optics for this experiment remains the astronomers in studying cosmic sources such as
same. pulsars and supernovae, according to senior
 The complete list of payloads, their science officials from the Indian Space Research
objective and lead institute for developing the Organisation (ISRO).
payload is provided below:  THE “L” REFERS TO
1) Visible Emission Line Coronagraph (VELC): To  Lagrange’s point or lagrangian point or also called as
study the diagnostic parameters of solar corona Libration point
 It refers to a place between any two large
and dynamics and origin of Coronal Mass
gravitational bodies (here earth and the sun) such
Ejections (3 visible and 1 Infra-Red channels);
that the third entity (Aditiya / James webb telescope)
magnetic field measurement of solar corona placed at the point experiences the net gravitational
down to tens of Gauss – Indian Institute of force (that by the sun -/+ that by the earth is just
Astrophysics (IIA) precise to give the object the same angular
2) Solar Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (SUIT): To velocity/OTP as that of the smaller body (here earth)
image the spatially resolved Solar Photosphere revolving around the larger one (here the sun)
26
 Let there be a object between sun and earth, its 1) Progress towards a sustained and affordable
velocity must be faster as compare to earth’ human and robotic programme to explore the
 Need to have reduced velocity of this object as solar system and beyond.
compare to the velocity normally calculation 2) Advanced technology capability for undertaking
gives , to reduce it the effective gravity towards human space exploration, sample return
the center of sun must be reduced, that is missions and scientific exploration
happening because of earth’s pull towards itself
3) Future capability to actively collaborate in global
the object. Hence the velocity of object is lesser
than what we thought so that it would have
space station development & to carry out
same angular velocity or OTP of the earth scientific experiments of interest to the nation
4) Create a broad frame work for wider Academia
 Aditiya is planted at L1 Industry partnership in taking up development
 James webb is planted at L2 activities for national development
 Both L1 and L2 are average at 15million km from 5) Ample scope for employment generation and
earth human resource development in advanced
science and R&D activities
6) Unique opportunity to inspire and excite Indian
youth and steer many students toward careers
in science and technology towards challenging
jobs that encourage knowledge, innovation and
creativity.
7) The programme will strengthen International
partnerships and global security through the
sharing of challenging and peaceful goals. Having
a vibrant human spaceflight programme can be
leveraged as a potent foreign policy tool.
 What is the purpose of uncrewed missions
before crewed mission?
 The uncrewed missions are for technology
demonstration, safety and reliability verification
and will be heavily instrumented to study the
performance of systems before crewed flight.
 What are the new technologies required for
Gaganyaan programme?
 The major new technologies required for
Gaganyaan programme are as follows:
a) Human rated launch vehicle
b) Crew escape systems
c) Habitable orbital module
d) Life support system
e) Crew selection and training and associated
crew management activities
 Read handout
 NOTE:- VYOMMITRA
a) Vyommitra (half humanoid robot) is
expected to be onboard uncrewed
Gaganyaan missions to perform
microgravity experiments, monitor module
……………7th class ended, 8th started…………… parameters, and support astronauts in
crewed missions by simulating functions
 GAGANYAAN MISSION exact like human.
 India’s first Human space mission b) It is programmed to speak Hindi and English
 Note:- it is completely and purely a technological and perform multiple tasks. It can mimic
mission human activity, recognize other humans,
 Total cost:- Rs.9023crore and respond to their queries.
 About Gaganyaan some points:-
27
c) Technically, it can perform environment e) NISAR could provide a unique opportunity for
control and life support systems functions, the Indian academic sector to enrich their
handle switch panel operations, and give research profile
environmental air pressure change f) The NASA-ISRO SAR (NISAR) Mission
warnings. will measure Earth's changing ecosystems,
 NISAR: NASA-ISRO SYNTHETIC dynamic surfaces, and ice masses providing
information about biomass, natural hazards,
APERTURE RADAR:- sea level rise, and groundwater, and will
 This is going to be a remote sensing or earth support a host of other applications.
observatory satellite. CURRENT AFFAIR
 Note:- it is going to be the world’s largest VIKRAM-S
remote sensing satellite and also $1.5bn cost
(world’s costliest) TOPIC: BIOTECHNOLOGY:-
 Using advanced radar imaging that will provide
 Biotechnology is the Uses of any tool to convert
an unprecedented, detailed view of Earth,
anything biological into a more useful product
the NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar, or
for the mankind
NISAR, satellite is designed to observe and take
 {people which might be a biological organism or
measurements of some of the planet's most
organ , tissue , cell , or DNA anything biological
complex processes
or any biological natural products }
 Synthetic Aperture:- means huge & wide
 An activity as fundamental as agriculture would
aperture , as they are using L-band SAR and S-
now classify under this definition called
band SAR as transponders
biotechnology or something like curd making is
a) L-band
biotechnology or brewing is also an art of
 1.25 GHz 24 cm wavelength polarimetric SAR,
biotechnology
to be produced by NASA.
 Specific or modern biotechnology:- as tools of
 It allows to have very high resolution of images.
b) S-band biotech. Have become very precise and very
 3.20 GHz; 9.3 cm wavelength polarimetric
,microabled to not only operate at the level of
SAR, to be produced by ISRO. organisms but the fact that it allows you to play
 Launch site:- Satish Dhawan Space center (ISRO around with the genetic material also.
 Genetic material:- any substance with the
is making and launching it}
 Rocket:- GSLV Mk.II (4 meter fairing) following traits in it
 launch plan:- January 2024 (planned a) Genetic material must be capable of Storage
 NISAR is going to be a polar satellite so it will of information :- in a simple/easy to decode
have a global coverage language and the language should be
universal language
 APPLICATIONS OF NISAR b) The information stored should be very
a) NISAR will study the global vegetation and stable, means it should not be easily prone
estimate the global biomass to study any to changes
variation in the same under the lens of Climate c) It should be capable of self replication
Change  Nature made DNA the best genetic material
b) NISAR will study the polar ice cap and also and has all these traits
estimate any variations in the glaciers  DNA, OR DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID,
distribution under the lens of Climate Change  is the hereditary material in humans and almost all
c) NISAR will study the small deformations on the other organisms. Nearly every cell in a person's body
earth and predict the bigger mass movements has the same
{landslides, avalanches, volcanic eruptions etc}  DNA molecule is packaged into thread-like structures
that could occur. It will be able to be used as called chromosomes. Each chromosome is made up of DNA
tightly coiled many times around proteins called histones
EWS (early warning system) of particular
that support its structure.
relevance to himalayan ecology study and  DNA is a polymer in chemistry , {polymer is any micro
disaster management substance made by repetitive joining of simpler unit
d) NISAR could be used for the geological one after another and one unit that gets repeated is
explorations including the study of sequestered called monomer which makes polymer}
(hidden) carbon reservoirs  For example :- if polymer is the wall, monomer is the
brick. Similarly if protein is the polymer, amino acid is
28
the monomer which makes a chain and forms
protein.
 NUCLEIC ACID: - because it found under Nucleus of
cell and is mostly acidic in nature.
 DNA or Nucleic acid is also a polymer of Nucleotide
 DNA is nothing but a Polynucleotide
 Note:- every nucleotide is in itself is a tri-molecular
complex.
 So if DNA is a wall , nucleotide is a brick and this
nucleotide in itself is made up of three molecules
which are
a) Sugar molecule:- deoxy ribose
 WHENEVER WE TALK ABOUT DNA WE TALK
b) Phosphate (reason for DNA’s acidic)
c) Nitrogenous base :- it can be any of the following ABOUT TWO THINGS
a. Adenine (A) 1) Length of DNA:-
b. Guanine (G)  which could be mentioned in a way like 4
c. Cytosine (C) nucleotide long as in diagram or 4 bases long (
d. Thymine (T) due to nitrogenous bases) or 4 base pairs long
 Every nucleotide have same deoxy ribose and  it is the volume of information
phosphate , but third part i.e nitrogenous base is 2) Sequence of the DNA
different for every nucleotide which can be  Sequence of the DNA is the sequence of
A,G,C,andT. so only 4 nucleotides can be created nitrogenous bases
 Under normal circumstances, the nitrogen-containing  Sequence of the DNA is the information.
bases adenine (A) and thymine (T) pair together, and  AAGC is the sequence of the DNA of the given
cytosine (C) and guanine (G) pair together. The binding of diagram,
these base pairs forms the structure of DNA  Note:- sequence of the DNA is main because
 Phosphate makes chain of nucleotide
here information lies . so sequence of the DNA
is the information. And length is the volume of
information
 A single gram of DNA can store at least 5.5 petabits
(around 700 terabytes ) of data and in very stable
form.
 DNA could soon become the world’s smallest hard
drive.
 DNA is always present in a double-threaded zip like
manner called double-stranded DNA or double helical
DNA
 DNA can only becomes stable when
a) A bonds with T
b) G bonds with C
 No other combination is allowed
29
 DIPLOID CONDITION
 Every human cell has 23 pairs of chromosomes. It
means we have a double copy of every chromosome,
however every chromosome have a different length
and sequence of DNA. Every chromosome is the
storehouse of different information.
 Why they are double copy:- humans have sexual
mode of reproduction , so every individuals has Bi-
parental inheritance .1 set (1-23) from mother side
nd
and 2 set (1-23) from father side.
 This 23×2 is called Diploid condition.
 Diploid is a term that refers to the presence of two
complete sets of chromosomes in an organism's
cells, with each parent contributing a chromosome
to each pair. Humans are diploid, and most of the
body's cells contain 23 chromosomes pairs
 Note:- Random / spontaneous changes in

nitrogenous bases . so any spontaneous
/random change in sequence that has happened
is called as MUTATION
 Every living cell has inside DNA repair system
and makes it stable. So that is the reason we can
study and get to know about fossils by DNA
 Within any particular living cell, inside the
nucleus there is a lot number of DNA, but we
have studied inside nucleus are chromosomes
 Chromosomes :- is stably packaged form of DNA
 Life starts with the fertilization of ovum (female cell)

by the sperm (male cell)
 It is always the sperm that fertilizes the ovum not the
reverse. Sperms only contributes its chromosomes
(nothing more). So ovum has its own nucleus and
gets fused with male’s and forms zygote (23
chromosomes from father, 23 from mother and
everything else is also from mother except father’s 23
chromosomes)
30
 GAMETE CELLS  The Human Genome Project was an international scientific
 Sperm and ovum are called as Gamete cells (the research project with the goal of determining the base pairs
that make up human DNA, and of identifying, mapping and
male gamete and female gamete respectively) sequencing all of the genes of the human genome from
 A gamete is a reproductive cell of an animal or plant. both a physical and a functional standpoint. It started in
In animals, female gametes are called ova or egg 1990 and was completed in 2003
cells, and male gametes are called sperm. Ova and 
sperm are haploid cells, with each cell carrying only  FINDINGS OF THIS PROJECT
one copy of each chromosome. During fertilization, a
a) Entire human genome has only 19000-20000
sperm and ovum unite to form a new diploid
genes only ,to be precise 19969genes.
organism
 HAPLOID  GENE:-
 Zygote starts dividing one cell into two, than two into
 23 male chromosomes or male gamete = 1 set of
four and so on and this is the way you get trillions of
chromosomes = Haploid
cells and get full fledged human. So when one zygote
 23 male chromosomes or Female gamete = 1 set of
becomes two cells , so both cells have 23×2 each (like
chromosomes = Haploid
a magic). How does that happen , it is only possible
 Haploid refers to the presence of a single set of
because of the capability of genetic material of self
chromosomes in an organism's cells. Sexually
replication.
reproducing organisms are diploid (having two sets of
chromosomes, one from each parent). In humans,
only the egg and sperm cells are haploid.
 GENOME
 Genome is the entire genetic material present in
1-set of chromosomes. which means
a) there are 2 sets of genomes in human cell.
b) There is 1-set of genome in gamete
 Length of 1-human genome:- 3.1billion base pair
 The basic unit of heredity passed from parent to

child. Genes are made up of sequences of DNA and
are arranged, one after another, at specific locations
on chromosomes in the nucleus of cells.
 DNA is responsible for building and maintaining your
human structure. Genes are segments (fragments) of
your DNA, which give you physical characteristics
(Both observable or not visible) that make you
unique. Together, your body has a complete
 The genome is the entire set of DNA instructions instruction manual that tells your cells how to behave
found in a cell. In humans, the genome consists of 23
pairs of chromosomes located in the cell's nucleus, as
well as a small chromosome in the cell's mitochondria.
A genome contains all the information needed for an
individual to develop and function
 A base pair refers to two bases which form a "rung of
the DNA ladder." A DNA nucleotide is made of a
molecule of sugar, a molecule of phosphoric acid, and
a molecule called a base. The bases are the "letters"
that spell out the genetic code
 HUMAN GENOME PROJECT
 It is very hard to read the sequence of 3.1billion  A gene is any fragment of the genome, which in a
base pair, so HUMAN GENOME PROJECT during multiple step process creates the proteins and
1990s was started {1oct1990 to 14 April 2003} through proteins controls the expression of
 Goals of the human genome project include: character/s
a) Sequencing the representative (entire) human  mRNA
genome  Messenger RNA (abbreviated mRNA) is a type of
b) To find-out the total number of genes inside single-stranded RNA involved in protein synthesis.
human genome mRNA is made from a DNA template during the
c) Optimization of the data analysis. process of transcription. The role of mRNA is to carry
d) Identification of the complete human genome protein information from the DNA in a cell’s nucleus
31
to the cell’s cytoplasm (watery interior), where the
protein-making machinery reads the mRNA sequence
and translates each three-base codon into its
corresponding amino acid in a growing protein chain
 .A type of RNA found in cells. mRNA molecules carry

the genetic information needed to make proteins.
They carry the information from the DNA in the  Why Does RNA serve as the primary genetic
nucleus of the cell to the cytoplasm where the material for viruses:-
proteins are made. Also called messenger RN  Because the viruses are the obligatory parasites.
 RNA is also required in the cells for gene expression.
 TRANSCRIPTION THEN TRANSLATION
a) Transcription, as related to genomics, is the
process of making an RNA copy of a gene's DNA
sequence. This copy, called messenger RNA
(mRNA), carries the gene's protein information
encoded in DNA
b) Happens inside the nucleus
 When mRNA comes out of the nucleus and there
are specific particles named as Ribosomes
roaming around in the cytoplasm , therefore
Ribosomes ride over the mRNA and read the
sequence (message present in the gene), and
after reading these ribosomes convert the
sequence into chain of Amino acids , this chain is
known as PROTEINS.
 RNA:-
 As Nature selects DNA to be the best genetic material
for almost all the organism, however, in very selected
few organisms or organisms like entities like some of
the virus don’t have DNA as a genetic material , they
have RNA as a genetic material.
 RNA also serves as the primary genetic material for
viruses
 An RNA molecule has a backbone made of alternating
phosphate groups and the sugar ribose, rather than
the deoxyribose found in DNA
 Ribonucleic acid (abbreviated RNA) is a nucleic acid
present in all living cells that has structural
similarities to DNA. But there are majorly two
differences
a) There is uracil (u) instead of thymine but  TRANSLATION is the process in which ribosomes in
behaves as thymine (chemically same) the cytoplasm or endoplasmic reticulum synthesize
b) Unlike DNA, however, RNA is most often single- proteins after the process of transcription of DNA to
stranded. It makes it very unstable. It makes it
RNA in the cell's nucleus. entire process called GENE
highly vulnerable to mutation
EXPRESSION
32
 THE CENTRAL DOGMA OF LIFE  1.5% of Genome = genes , hence coding for
 The central dogma of molecular biology is a Proteins
theory stating that genetic information flows  98.5% of genome = regarded as Junk DNA
only in one direction, from DNA, to RNA, to c)

protein, or RNA directly to protein.
 RNA carries genetic information that is translated by
ribosomes into various proteins necessary for
cellular processes.
A. THREE MAIN TYPES (MAJOR/COMMON) OF
RNA INVOLVED IN PROTEIN SYNTHESIS.
a) mRNA = largest RNA = messenger RNA= it is the
single stranded photocopy of the gene that
needs to express
b) rRNA =ribosomal RNA= as a part of ribosome it

allows the particle to get anchored on the mRNA
c) tRNA = smallest RNA= transfer RNA= it is this

which actually reads the sequence on mRNA
three bases at a time (called Codon) converting
every codon into an amino acids , and ultimately
leads to polypeptide (protein)
B. MINOR TYPES (MAJOR/COMMON) OF RNA

 ENZYMES INVOLVED IN PROTEIN SYNTHESIS.
 Enzymes = Biocatalysts = are proteins that act as a) snRNA:-
biological catalysts by accelerating chemical  Small nuclear RNA (snRNA) is a class of small
reactions. The molecules upon which enzymes may RNA molecules that are found within the splicing
act are called substrates, and the enzyme converts speckles and Cajal bodies of the cell
the substrates into different molecules known as nucleus in eukaryotic cells. The length of an
products average snRNA is approximately 150
 Example:- lipase , protease, nuclease (cuts DNA,RNA) nucleotides.
Amylase (cuts carbohydrates) all are an enzymes. b) snoRNA:-
 Note:- “ase” ending sound is an enzyme  Small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs) are a class of
 Note:- small RNA molecules that primarily guide
a) in simple words:- anything and everything happening chemical modifications of other RNAs,
inside us is because of proteins. So Actor is the mainly ribosomal RNAs, transfer RNAs and small
protein. Genome is the script, gene is the part of the nuclear RNAs.
script that makes in the final cut and proteins are the c) miRNA
actors who execute the information that nature has  MicroRNA (miRNA) are small, single-
stored inside us , it is the dialogues that make an stranded, non-coding RNA molecules containing
actor. 21 to 23 nucleotides.
b) We discovered near about 20,000 genes and if we  These minor forms are not directly involved in Protein
add length of gene number 1 + gene 2 upto gene synthesis , they instead help regulating the same and
number 19969, it will not account to entire genome. are indispensible to the cells
So when we add length of DNA of all the genes , it will  These minor RNAs are transcribed from the so-called
accounts for only 1.5% of the entire genome. or earlier called JUNK DNA. Hence the better
33
nomenclature for the JUNK DNA is the NON-CODING
DNA REGION (98.5%). {with reference to Protein}
 The non-coding parts of DNA can switch genes
on and off. When genes are switched off, the
process of transcription stops. This means no
mRNA is being made for that gene and therefore
no protein can be made for that gene
 In simple words non-coding DNA helps to
minimize the harmful effects of the mutation at a
very great level
……………8th class ended, 9th started……………


34

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NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

 THE ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES  1975:-

 New space based services

3. Eastward / westward:- launches should be

 It is there a space station:- India (ISRO) planning to have a

 ISRO ROLES & SUB-CENTERS

3. ISTRAC: ISRO’s TELEMETRY TRACKING &

c. OSO in space because high intensity waves

 TOPIC:- ORBITS  V= √ This is the needed velocity that a

 RTP = Exact rotational time period of earth= Sidereal

 Therefore geostationary orbits are used commonly or

 Therefore geosynchronous orbit is a family of

 100-1000km a. Have position knowledge (coordinates)

THE PROPULSION SYSTEMS 3. CRYOGENIC FUEL PROPULSION

 Normal condition=? {Current Affair) using oxygen in atmosphere for combustion

 GREEN PROPELLANT  Same engine is not applicable for launch

 Note:- Air must enter at speed of 1 Mac to get

 No Green House gas at moon

 GSAT9 :- India used Ion Propulsion system

VEHICLE D. PSLV-DL :- PSLV-Dual Strap ons

a) Less in carrying capacity ….5th class ended,6th started…..

 NOTE FOR ALL LAUNCH VEHICLES  CHALLENGES

 Why not this sputtering happened with Earth and

 EVALUATION OF THIS MISSION

 Note:- Random / spontaneous changes in

 Life starts with the fertilization of ovum (female cell)

 The basic unit of heredity passed from parent to

 .A type of RNA found in cells. mRNA molecules carry

b) rRNA =ribosomal RNA= as a part of ribosome it

c) tRNA = smallest RNA= transfer RNA= it is this

B. MINOR TYPES (MAJOR/COMMON) OF RNA

……………8th class ended, 9th started……………

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