CHAPTER 9

ENGINES
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

9.1. INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................................
9.2. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE OR RECIPROCATING...............................................................
9.2.1. Basic Concepts...................................................................................................................
9.2.2. Leading Parameters in Power.............................................................................................
9.2.3. Outside Parameters Influence on Power.............................................................................
9.2.4. Propeller Concepts...........................................................................................................
9.3. TURBOPROP ENGINE................................................................................................................
9.3.1. Basic Concepts..................................................................................................................
9.3.2. Turboprop Engines Types.................................................................................................
9.3.3. Influential Parameters in Power.......................................................................................
9.4. TURBOJET/TURBOFAN ENGINES...............................................................................................
9.4.1. Basic Concepts..................................................................................................................
9.4.2. Engines Comparison.......................................................................................................
9.4.3. Leading Parameters in Thrust...........................................................................................
9.5. ENGINE TESTS AND CERTIFICATION..........................................................................................
9.5.1. Engine Testing..................................................................................................................
9.5.2. Certification Aspects.......................................................................................................
9.6. CONCLUSION...........................................................................................................................
9.7. REFERENCES.............................................................................................................................

APPENDIX 9 - EXERCISES
9.1. INTRODUCTION
Aircraft require thrust to produce enough speed for the wings to provide lift for takeoff
and to remain in level flight. Thrust must be provided that is equal to and in the opposite
direction of the aircraft drag. A suitable type of aircraft heat engine provides this thrust,
or propulsive force. All heat engines have in common the ability to convert heat energy
into mechanical energy by the flow of some fluid mass (generally air) through the
engine. In all cases, the heat energy is released at a point in the cycle where the working
pressure is higher than atmospheric pressure. The energy initially comes from fuel, and
burning it with air some transformations occurs that produces movement and result in
the thrust force to propel the aircraft.
In short, an aircraft propulsion system must achieve two things. First, the thrust from the
propulsion system must balance the drag of the airplane when the airplane is cruising.
Second, the thrust from the propulsion system must exceed the drag of the airplane for
the airplane to accelerate. In fact, the greater the difference between the thrust and the
drag, called the excess thrust, the faster the airplane will accelerate.
There are many types of aircraft engines. The distinction among them is where the
transformations previously discussed occur. Hence, different propulsion systems
generate thrust in slightly different ways. We will discuss four principal propulsion
systems: the internal combustion engine (reciprocating engine) with propeller, the
turboprop engine (turbine + propeller), the turbojet engine and the turbofan engine.
A general derivation of the thrust equation shows that the amount of thrust generated
depends on the mass flow through the engine and the exit velocity of the gas. On
airplanes, thrust is usually generated through some application of Newton's third law
of action and reaction. The engine accelerates a gas, or working fluid, and the reaction
to this acceleration produces a force on the engine. In the case of aircraft with
propellers this device produces the acceleration.
The propellers of aircraft powered by reciprocating or turboprop engines accelerate a
large mass of air at a relatively lower velocity by turning a propeller. The same amount
of thrust can be generated by accelerating a small mass of air to a very high velocity.
Turbojets are examples of engines that accelerate a smaller quantity of air through a
large velocity change. Turbofan jets engines use the two effects to be more efficient in
the process to produce thrust.
 Figure 9.1: Aircraft engines

9.2. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE OR RECIPROCATING

Until the 1930s, aircraft power plants were exclusively internal-combustion piston
engines. During the ‘30s and ‘40s, several countries began to develop gas turbine
engines. Research scientists quickly recognized their potential; gas-turbine engines
offered greater power while being lighter, more efficient and requiring less maintenance
than piston engines. Nevertheless, reciprocating engine, also often known as a piston
engine, remain in use today, since light, fixed-wing general aviation aircraft—and as
many as one-third of civil helicopters—make up the majority of the world’s fleet.
There are many types of internal combustion engines with respect to motor
configuration for use in aircraft design. The reciprocating engines configurations may
be (types – examples):
 IN LINE ENGINE – e.g.: Ranger L-440
 V – TYPE ENGINE – e.g.: Rolls Royce Merlin V-12
 HORIZONTALLY OPPOSED ENGINE – e.g.: UL 260i
 RADIAL ENGINE – e.g.: Pratt & Whitney R2800
 ROTARY ENGINE – e.g.: Le Rhone 9C
Most small aircraft and some trainers today are designed with reciprocating engines.
The name is derived from the back-and-forth, or reciprocating, movement of the pistons
which produces the mechanical energy necessary to accomplish work.
Driven by a revitalization of the general aviation (GA) industry and advances in both
material and engine design, reciprocating engine technology has improved dramatically
over the past two decades. The integration of computerized engine management systems
has improved fuel efficiency, decreased emissions, and reduced pilot workload.Some
engines of this type are equipped with a turbo device to improve the performance in
altitude.

9.2.1. Basic Concepts

Reciprocating engines operate on the basic principle of converting chemical energy
(fuel) into mechanical energy. This conversion occurs within the cylinders of the engine
through the process of combustion. The two primary reciprocating engine designs are
the spark ignition and the compression ignition. The spark ignition reciprocating engine
has served as the power plant of choice for many years. In an effort to reduce operating
costs, simplify design, and improve reliability, several engine manufacturers are turning
to compression ignition as a viable alternative.
The main mechanical components of the spark ignition and the compression ignition
engine are essentially the same. Both use cylindrical combustion chambers and pistons
that travel to convert linear motion into the rotary motion of the crankshaft. The main
difference between spark ignition and compression ignition is the process of igniting the
fuel. Spark ignition engines use a spark plug to ignite a pre-mixed fuel/air mixture.
(Fuel/air mixture is the ratio of the “weight” of fuel to the “weight” of air in the mixture
to be burned.) A compression ignition engine first compresses the air in the cylinder,
raising its temperature to a degree necessary for automatic ignition when fuel is injected
into the cylinder.
Spark ignition four-stroke engines remain the most common design used in general
aviation today. The main parts of a spark ignition reciprocating engine include the
cylinders, crankcase, and accessory housing. The intake/exhaust valves, spark plugs,
and pistons are located in the cylinders. The crankshaft and connecting rods are located
in the crankcase. The magnetos are normally located on the engine accessory housing.
In a four-cylinder engine, each cylinder operates on a different phase. Continuous
rotation of a crankshaft is maintained by the precise timing of the power strokes in each
cylinder. Continuous operation of the engine depends on the simultaneous function of
auxiliary systems, including the induction, ignition, fuel, oil, cooling, and exhaust
systems. Figure 9.2 shows how it works.

Figure 9.2: Four-stroke engine functioning

The figure 9.2 represents a complete cycle of the engine. The four-stroke motor follows
a standard air cycle, called OTTO CYCLE. The hypotheses for this cycle are:
 The air is considered a perfect gas;
 The combustion is accomplished with constant volume;
 No losses are considered in intake or exhaust;
 The compression and power are adiabatic.
Figure 9.3 in the next page is the diagram for the Otto cycle described before.
 PRESSURE

VOLUME

Figure 9.3: Otto cycle

 Q1 = HEAT input by combustion
 Q2 = HEAT loss during exhaust
 0 to 1 = intake
 1 to 2 = compression
 2 to 3 = combustion (heat added)
 3 to 4 = isentropic expansion
 4 to 1 = isochoric heat loss

The real cycle is quite different from the theoretical showed before. The effectiveness of
the cycle is measured by a parameter called thermal efficiency.

To increase an engine’s horsepower, manufacturers have developed forced induction

systems called supercharger. An engine equipped with this type of supercharger is
called an altitude engine. A supercharger is an engine-driven air pump or compressor
that provides compressed air to the engine to provide additional pressure to the
induction air so the engine can produce additional power.
 Figure 9.4: Comparison of normal and supercharged engine

9.2.2. Leading Parameters in Power

The main influential parameters on the power are:
 engine speed
 pressure of admission (input in cylinders)
 fuel/air mixture

At low engine speeds, the power increases rapidly with engine velocity due to decreased
losses of the cylinder walls, which decreases as the duration of the cycle is reduced. At
higher speeds, the power grows less rapidly, passes through a maximum and then
decreases at very high RPM.This occurs due to increased friction and power absorbed
by the engine accessories.

The figure below shows the variation of the power with the engine speed, admitting
pressure of admission and mixture constant.
 Figure 9.5: Power versus RPM

The pressure of admission is the pressure of carburized mixture. The power of the
engine varies almost linearly with the inlet pressure, as shown in figure 9.4.

Figure 9.6: Power versus Padm

The inlet pressure (Padm) too high results the air temperature admitted too high that
causes the detonation in the wrong moment.
The mixture proportion (air/fuel) optimized is a function of engine RPM. For low rpm,
it is necessary to enrich the mixture. For cruise phase of flight it shall be the most
economic possible. For climbing, it has normally used the MCP (maximum continuous
power). For taking-off, the mixture is rich and the power is the maximum.

9.2.3. Outside Parameters Influence on Power

External parameters also have an effect on engine performance. Atmospheric conditions
are the main important items: altitude, temperature and humidity, for example.
The power developed by the motor is proportional to the mass of air admitted at a time
interval. Consequently, the greater the density of the intake air, or the volume per unit
time, the higher the power delivered by the engine. An engine without supercharger has
its performance decreased as the altitude increases. The Figure 9.7 exemplifies this
behavior.
The supercharger actually increases the power with altitude up to a certain level. After
this level, the performance starts to diminish again.

Figure 9.7: Altitude effect on power (normal engine)

The temperature increase, the power decreases. The humidity effect works against the
power; this is the steam replaces the dry air in the combustion, decreasing the power
produced.
9.2.4. Propeller Concepts
The propeller is a rotating airfoil, subject to induced drag, stalls, and other aerodynamic
principles that apply to any airfoil. It provides the necessary thrust to pull, or in some
cases push, the aircraft through the air. The engine power is used to rotate the propeller,
which in turn generates thrust very similar to the manner in which a wing produces lift.
The amount of thrust produced depends on the shape of the airfoil, the angle of attack of
the propeller blade, and the revolutions per minute (rpm) of the engine. The propeller
itself is twisted so the blade angle changes from hub to tip. The greatest angle of
incidence, or the highest pitch, is at the hub while the smallest angle of incidence or
smallest pitch is at the tip.

Figure 9.8: Schematic of a propeller blade

The reason for the twist is to produce uniform lift from the hub to the tip. As the blade
rotates, there is a difference in the actual speed of the various portions of the blade. The
tip of the blade travels faster than the part near the hub, because the tip travels a greater
distance than the hub in the same length of time. Changing the angle of incidence
(pitch) from the hub to the tip to correspond with the speed produces uniform lift
throughout the length of the blade. A propeller blade designed with the same angle of
incidence throughout its entire length would be inefficient because as airspeed increases
in flight, the portion near the hub would have a negative angle of attack while the blade
tip would be stalled.
Small aircraft are equipped with either one of two types of propellers. One is the fixed
pitch, and the other is the adjustable pitch.

9.3. TURBOPROP ENGINE

The turbo-propeller powered airplane flies and handles just like any other airplane of
comparable size and weight. The aerodynamics is the same. The major differences
between flying a turboprop and other non-turbine-powered airplanes are found in the
power plant and systems. The power plant is different and requires operating procedures
that are unique to a gas turbine engines. The turbo-propeller powered airplane also has
the advantage of being equipped with a constant speed, full feathering and reversing
propeller—something normally not found on piston-powered airplanes.
A turbine engine works by compressing air that moves into the engine, enriching the air
with fuel, and igniting the air. This forces the air out of the back of the engine, thru a
turbine that uses this energy in different ways to propel the airplane forward.

9.3.1. Basic Concepts

Both piston (reciprocating) engines and gas turbine engines are internal combustion
engines. They have a similar cycle of operation that consists of induction, compression,
combustion, expansion, and exhaust. In a piston engine, each of these events is a
separate distinct occurrence in each cylinder. Unlike reciprocating engines, in gas
turbine engines these phases of power occur simultaneously and continuously instead of
one cycle at a time. Additionally, ignition occurs during the starting cycle and is
continuous thereafter.
The basic gas turbine engine contains four sections:
 intake,
 compression,
 combustion, and
 exhaust.

Figure 9.9: Basic components of a gas turbine

The air into the engine is compressed, goes through combustion in a chamber and the
resulting high-pressure exhaust gases can be used to provide jet thrust as in a turbojet
engine. Alternatively, the gases can be directed through an additional turbine to drive a
propeller through a reduction gearing, as in a turbo-propeller (turboprop) engine.
The turbo engine excels the reciprocating engine in top speed and altitude performance.
On the other hand, the turbo engine has limited takeoff and initial climb performance, as
compared to that of a reciprocating engine. In the matter of takeoff and initial climb
performance, the reciprocating engine is superior to the turbo engine.
Turbojet engines are most efficient at high speeds and high altitudes, while propellers
are most efficient at slow and medium speeds (less than 350 kt.). Propellers also
improve takeoff and climb performance. The development of the turbo prop engine was
an attempt to combine in one engine the best characteristics of both the turbojet, and
propeller driven reciprocating engine.
The turboprop engine offers several advantages over other types of engines such as:
 Light weight;
 Mechanical reliability due to relatively few moving parts;
 Simplicity of operation;
 Minimum vibration;
 High power per unit of weight; and
 Use of propeller for takeoff and landing.
For gas turbine engines, the thermodynamic cycle to be considered is the BRAYTON
CYCLE. It is an open cycle and operates on steady-flow condition. Besides some
similarities with the OTTO cycle engines, for instance the processes are the same:
compression, combustion, and expansion, but the conditions they occur are quite
different. In the Brayton cycle, the heat addition and rejection processes are of constant
pressure, whereas in Otto cycle they are of constant volume.
The figure 9.10 shows a schematic development of the Brayton Cycle.
Figure 9.10: Brayton cycle
9.3.2. Turboprop Engines Types
One type of turboprop engine is the fixed shaft constant speed type such as the Garrett
TPE331 (Figure 9.11).
In this type of engine, ambient air is directed to the compressor section through the
engine inlet. An acceleration/diffusion process in the two-stage compressor increases air
pressure and directs it rearward to a combustor. The combustor is made up of a
combustion chamber, a transition liner, and a turbine plenum. Atomized fuel is added to
the air in the combustion chamber. Air also surrounds the combustion chamber to
provide for cooling and insulation of the combustor.

Figure 9.11: Fixed shaft turboprop engine

In the fixed shaft constant-speed engine, the engine r.p.m. may be varied within a
narrow range of 96 percent to 100 percent. During ground operation, the r.p.m. may be
reduced to 70 percent. In flight, the engine operates at a constant speed, which is
maintained by the governing section of the propeller. Power changes are made by
increasing fuel flow and propeller blade angle rather than engine speed. An increase in
fuel flow causes an increase in temperature and a corresponding increase in energy
available to the turbine. The turbine absorbs more energy and transmits it to the
propeller in the form of torque. The increased torque forces the propeller blade angle to
be increased to maintain the constant speed. Turbine temperature is a very important
factor to be considered in power production. It is directly related to fuel flow and thus to
the power produced. It must be limited because of strength and durability of the material
in the combustion and turbine section. The control system schedules fuel flow to
produce specific temperatures and to limit those temperatures so that the temperature
tolerances of the combustion and turbine sections are not exceeded. The engine is
designed to operate for its entire life at 100 percent. All of its components, such as
compressors and turbines, are most efficient when operated at or near the r.p.m. design
point.
Powerplant (engine and propeller) control is achieved by means of a power lever and a
condition lever for each engine. There is no mixture control and/or r.p.m. lever as
found on piston engine airplanes.
On the fixed shaft constant-speed turboprop engine, the power lever is advanced or
retarded to increase or decrease forward thrust. The power lever is also used to provide
reverse thrust. The condition lever sets the desired engine r.p.m. within a narrow range
appropriate for ground operations and flight.
Powerplant instrumentation in a fixed shaft turbo-prop engine typically consists of the
following basic indicator.
• Torque or horsepower;
• ITT – inter-turbine temperature;
• Fuel flow; and
• RPM.
In a free power-turbine engine, such as the Pratt &Whitney PT-6 engines, a separate
turbine through reduction gearing drives the propeller. The propeller is not on the same
shaft as the basic engine turbine and compressor, see Figure 9.12 below. Unlike the
fixed shaft engine, in the split shaft engine the propeller can be feathered in flight or on
the ground with the basic engine still running. The free power-turbine design allows the
pilot to select a desired propeller governing r.p.m., regardless of basic engine projected
parameter.
 Figure 9.12: Split shaft / free turbine engine

A typical free power-turbine engine (as showed above) has two independent counter-
rotating turbines. One turbine drives the compressor, while the other drives the propeller
through a reduction gearbox. The compressor in the basic engine consists of three axial
flow compressor stages combined with a single centrifugal compressor stage. The
axial and centrifugal stages are assembled on the same shaft, and operate as a single
unit.
Inlet air enters the engine via a circular plenum near the rear of the engine, and flows
forward through the successive compressor stages. The flow is directed outward by the
centrifugal compressor stage through radial diffusers before entering the combustion
chamber, where the flow direction is actually reversed.
The gases produced by combustion are once again reversed to expand forward through
each turbine stage. After leaving the turbines, the gases are collected in a peripheral
exhaust scroll, and are discharged to the atmosphere through two exhaust ports near the
front of the engine.
A pneumatic fuel control system schedules fuel flow to maintain the power set by the
gas generator power lever. Except in the beta range, propeller speed within the
governing range remains constant at any selected propeller control lever position
through the action of a propeller governor.
The accessory drive at the aft end of the engine provides power to drive fuel pumps,
fuel control, oil pumps, a starter/generator, and a tachometer transmitter. At this point,
the speed of the drive (N1) is the true speed of the compressor side of the engine,
approximately 37.500 r.p.m.
Powerplant (engine and propeller) operation is achieved by three sets of controls for
each engine: the power lever, propeller lever, and condition lever.
The power lever serves to control engine power in the range from idle through takeoff
power. Forward or aft motion of the power lever increases or decreases gas generator
r.p.m. (N1) and in that way increase or decrease engine power. The propeller lever is
operated conventionally and controls the constant-speed propellers through the primary
governor. The propeller range is normally from 1.500 to 1.900 r.p.m. The condition
lever controls the flow of fuel to the engine. Like the mixture lever in a piston-powered
airplane, the condition lever is located at the far right of the power quadrant. However,
the condition lever on a turboprop engine is really just an on/off valve for delivering
fuel. There are HIGH IDLE and LOW IDLE positions for ground operations, but
condition levers have no metering function. Leaning is not required in turbine engines; a
dedicated fuel control unit performs this function automatically.
Some trainers that use this type of engine have a computerized system that controls an
optimized operation and works with only one lever control.
Engine instruments in a split shaft/free turbine engine typically consist of the following
basic indicators.
• ITT (inter-stage turbine temperature) indicator;
• Torque meter;
• Propeller tachometer; and
• N1 (gas generator) tachometer.
• Fuel flow indicator.
• Oil temperature/pressure indicator.

9.3.3. Influential Parameters in Power

Turboprop engines are most efficient at speeds between 200 and 350 knots and altitudes
between18.000 and 30.000 feet. They also perform well at the slow speeds required for
takeoff and landing, and are fuel-efficient. The minimum specific fuel consumption of
the turboprop engine is normally available in the altitude range of 25.000 feet up to the
tropopause.
The power output of a piston engine is measured in horsepower and is determined
primarily by r.p.m. and manifold pressure. The power of a turboprop engine, however,
is measured in shaft horsepower (shp). Shaft horsepower is determined by the r.p.m. and
the torque (twisting moment) applied to the propeller shaft. Since turboprop engines are
gas turbine engines, some jet thrust is produced by exhaust leaving the engine. This
thrust is added to the shaft horsepower to determine the total engine power, or
equivalent shaft horsepower(eshp). Jet thrust usually accounts for less than 10 percent
of the total engine power.
Although the turboprop engine is more complicated and heavier than a turbojet engine
of equivalent size and power, it will deliver more thrust at low subsonic airspeeds.
However, the advantages decrease as flight speed increases. In normal cruising speed
ranges, the propulsive efficiency (output divided by input) of a turboprop decreases as
speed increases.
The propeller of a typical turboprop engine is responsible for roughly 90 percent of the
total thrust under sea level conditions on a standard day. The excellent performance of a
turboprop during takeoff and climb is the result of the ability of the propeller to
accelerate a large mass of air while the airplane is moving at a relatively low ground and
flight speed.
“Turboprop”, however, should not be confused with “turbo supercharged” or similar
terminology. All turbine engines have a similarity to normally aspirated (non-
supercharged) reciprocating engines in that maximum available power decreases almost
as a direct function of increased altitude.
Although power will decrease as the airplane climbs to higher altitudes, engine
efficiency in terms of specific fuel consumption (expressed as pounds of fuel consumed
per horsepower per hour) will be increased. Decreased specific fuel consumption plus
the increased true airspeed at higher altitudes is a definite advantage of a turboprop
engine.
All turbine engines, turboprop or turbojet, are defined by limiting temperatures,
rotational speeds, and (in the case of turboprops) torque. Depending on the installation,
the primary parameter for power setting might be temperature, torque, fuel flow or
r.p.m. (either propeller r.p.m., gas generator (compressor) r.p.m. or both). In cold
weather conditions, torque limits can be exceeded while temperature limits are still
within acceptable range. While in hot weather conditions, temperature limits may be
exceeded without exceeding torque limits. In any weather, the maximum power setting
of a turbine engine is usually obtained with the throttles positioned somewhat aft of the
full forward position. An over-temperature or over-torque condition that lasts for
more than a very few seconds can literally destroy internal engine components.

9.4. TURBOJET/TURBOFAN ENGINES

A jet engine is an engine that accelerates and discharges a fast moving jet of fluid to
generate thrust in accordance with Newton's third law of motion. This broad definition
of jet engines includes turbojets, turbofans, rockets and ramjets and water jets, but in
common usage, the term generally refers to a gas turbine used to produce a jet of high
speed exhaust gases for special propulsive purposes. We are keep this text restricted to
the turbojets and turbofan engines.
9.4.1. Basic Concepts
A jet engine is a gas turbine engine that develops thrust by accelerating a relatively
small mass of air to very high velocity, as opposed to a propeller, which develops thrust
by accelerating a much larger mass of air to a much slower velocity.
As stated before, both piston and gas turbine engines are internal combustion engines
and have a similar basic cycle of operation, that is, induction, compression, combustion,
expansion, and exhaust. Air is taken in and compressed, and fuel is injected and burned.
The hot gases then expand and supply a surplus of power over that required for
compression, and are finally exhausted. In both piston and jet engines, the efficiency of
the cycle is improved by increasing the volume of air taken in and the compression
ratio.
In short, a jet engine is a reaction engine discharging a fast moving jet that generates
thrust by jet propulsion in accordance with Newton's third law of motion.
Part of the expansion of the burned gases takes place in the turbine section of the jet
engine providing the necessary power to drive the compressor, while the remainder of
the expansion takes place in the nozzle of the tail pipe in order to accelerate the gas to a
high velocity jet thereby producing thrust. See Figure 9.13.
 Figure 9.13: Basic turbojet engine
In theory, the jet engine is simpler and more directly converts thermal energy (the
burning and expansion of gases) into mechanical energy (thrust). The piston or
reciprocating engine, with all of its moving parts, must convert the thermal energy into
mechanical energy and then finally into thrust by rotating a propeller.
One of the advantages of the jet engine over the piston engine is the jet engine’s
capability of producing much greater amounts of thrust horsepower at the high altitudes
and high speeds. In fact, turbojet engine efficiency increases with altitude and speed.
Although the propeller driven airplane is not nearly as efficient as the jet, particularly at
the higher altitudes and cruising speeds required in modern aviation, one of the few
advantages the propeller driven airplane has over the jet is that maximum thrust is
available almost at the start of the takeoff roll. Initial thrust output of the jet engine on
takeoff is relatively lower and does not reach peak efficiency until the higher speeds.
The fanjet or turbofan engine was developed to help compensate for this problem and
is, in effect, a compromise between the pure jet engine (turbojet) and the propeller
engine.
Like other gas turbine engines, the heart of the turbofan engine is the gas generator—
the part of the engine that produces the hot, high-velocity gases. Similar to turboprops,
turbofans have a low pressure turbine section that uses most of the energy produced by
the gas generator. The low pressure turbine is mounted on a concentric shaft that passes
through the hollow shaft of the gas generator, connecting it to a ducted fan at the front
of the engine.
 Figure 9.14: Turbofan engine

Air enters the engine, passes through the fan, and splits into two separate paths. Some of
it flows around—bypasses—the engine core, hence its name, bypass air. The air drawn
into the engine for the gas generator is the core airflow. The amount of air that
bypasses the core compared to the amount drawn into the gas generator determines a
turbofan’s bypass ratio.
Turbofans efficiently convert fuel into thrust because they produce low pressure energy
spread over a large fan disk area. While a turbojet engine uses the entire gas generator
output to produce thrust in the form of a high-velocity exhaust gas jet, cool, low-
velocity bypass air produces between 30 percent and 70 percent of the thrust produced
by a turbofan engine. The fan-jet concept increases the total thrust of the jet engine,
particularly at the lower speeds and altitudes.
Although efficiency at the higher altitudes is lost (turbofan engines are subject to a large
lapse in thrust with increasing altitude), the turbofan engine increases acceleration,
decreases the takeoff roll, improves initial climb performance, and often has the effect
of decreasing specific fuel consumption.
The most important operating data to be closed observed are:
 EGT = Exhaust Gas Temperature;
 TIT = Turbine Inlet Temperature;
 ITT = Inter stage Turbine Temperature;
 TOT = Turbine Outlet Temperature;
 EPR = Engine Pressure Ratio;
 N (rpm) = Engine Rotation Speed; and
 Fuel Flow.
Pilot must closely monitor the temperature of turbine gases. As in any gas turbine
engine, exceeding temperature limits, even for a very few seconds, may result in serious
heat damage to turbine blades and other components. Depending on the motor design,
the point chose to take the temperature data can be at different locations within the
engine.
On some jet airplanes, thrust is indicated by an engine pressure ratio (EPR) gauge.
Engine pressure ratio can be thought of as being equivalent to the manifold pressure on
the piston engine. Engine pressure ratio is the difference between turbine discharge
pressure and engine inlet pressure. It is an indication of what the engine has done with
the admitted raw air.
Fan speed (N1) is the primary indication of thrust on most turbofan engines. Fuel flow
provides a secondary thrust indication, and crosschecking for proper fuel flow can help
in spotting a faulty N1 gauge. Turbofans also have a tachometer for the gas generator
turbine (N2). They are used mainly for engine starting and some system functions. In
power setting, usually the primary power reference (EPR or N1) is most critical, and
will be the gauge that will first limit the forward movement of the thrust levers.
However, there are occasions where the limits of either RPM or temperature can be
exceeded. The rule is:
- Movement of the thrust levers must be stopped and power set at whichever the
limits of EPR, RPM, or temperature is reached first.