Power Machines N6

Power Machines N6
Module 1:
1.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 6

1.2 Gases ................................................................................................................................................. 6
1.2.1 Heat capacity ............................................................................................................................. 6
1.2.2 Specific Heat capacity at constant volume ............................................................... 7
1.2.3 Specific Heat capacity at constant pressure .............................................................. 7
1.2.4 For a specific gas ........................................................................................................................ 7
1.2.5 Characteristic gas constant .................................................................................................... 7
1.2.6 Joule‘s law .................................................................................................................................... 7
1.2.7 Charles law ................................................................................................................................... 8
1.2.8 Boyle‘s law .................................................................................................................................... 9
1.2.9 Combined Charles and Boyle‘s law...................................................................................... 9
1.3 Gas laws............................................................................................................................................ 9
1.3.1 Isochoric process ....................................................................................................... 9
1.3.2 Isobaric process ......................................................................................................... 9
1.3.3 Isothermal process ................................................................................................... 10
1.3.4 Polytropic process ................................................................................................. 10
1.3.5 Adiabatic process .................................................................................................. 11
1.4 Energy flow..................................................................................................................................... 12
1.4.1 Energy flow through a closed system ................................................................................. 12
1.4.2 Energy flow through a closed system ................................................................................. 13
1.5 Entropy ............................................................................................................................................ 13
1.5.1 Entropy of evaporation ........................................................................................................... 14
1.5.2 Entropy of superheated vapor ............................................................................................. 15
1.5.3 Reversible and irreversible process ...................................................................................... 15
1.5.4 Throttling ...................................................................................................................................... 16
1.6 The Carnot cycle for a gas........................................................................................................ 16
1.6.1 Reversible isothermal expansion of the gas. ..................................................................... 17
1.6.2 Reversible adiabatic expansion of the gas ...................................................................... 17
1.6.3 Reversible isothermal compression of the gas ................................................................. 18
Gateways to Engineering Studies

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1.6.4 Reversible adiabatic compression of the gas .................................................................. 18

1.6.5 Carnot cycle thermal efficiency .......................................................................................... 19
1.7 The Rankin cycle .......................................................................................................................... 19
1.7.1 The Rankin efficiency ............................................................................................................... 21
Module 2:
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 25

2.1.1 Boiler safety................................................................................................................................. 25
2.2 The boiler ........................................................................................................................................ 25
2.2.1 Equivalent evaporation of a boiler...................................................................................... 26
2.2.2 Boiler fittings ................................................................................................................................ 27
2.2.3 The economizer ......................................................................................................................... 27
2.2.4 Air fuel mixture ........................................................................................................................... 28
2.2.5 Air preheater .............................................................................................................................. 29
2.2.6 Super heater............................................................................................................................... 32
2.3 Ideal steam plant cycles............................................................................................................ 34
2.3.1 The Carnot cycle and the steam plant .............................................................................. 34
2.3.2 The Rankine cycle .................................................................................................................... 35
Module 3:
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 53

3.2 Gas or steam flow through a nozzle ....................................................................................... 53
3.2.1 Convergent nozzles .................................................................................................................. 53
3.2.2 Convergent divergent nozzles .............................................................................................. 54
3.2.3 Critical pressure and temperature....................................................................................... 56
3.2.4 Velocity of sound ...................................................................................................................... 58
3.3 Steam flow through nozzles ....................................................................................................... 59
3.3.1 Supersaturated expansion ..................................................................................................... 59
3.3.2 Equilibrium expansion .............................................................................................................. 60
Module 4:
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 72

4.2 The joule cycle .............................................................................................................................. 74

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4.2.1 Ideal Joule cycle....................................................................................................................... 74

4.2.2 Actual Joule cycle ................................................................................................................... 74
4.2.3 Work done .................................................................................................................................. 75
4.2.4 Compressor adiabatic efficiency ........................................................................................ 76
4.2.5 Turbine adiabatic efficiency ................................................................................................. 77
4.3 Work done on blades ................................................................................................................. 77
4.3.1 Velocities on blade inlet ......................................................................................................... 77
4.3.2 Velocities on blade exit .......................................................................................................... 78
4.3.3 Work done on the blades....................................................................................................... 79
4.3.4 The reaction turbine ................................................................................................................. 82
4.3.5 Two stage velocity compounded impulse turbine ......................................................... 83
4.3.6 Two stage pressure compounded impulse turbine ........................................................ 84
4.3.7 Two stage Reaction ................................................................................................................. 85
4.4 Velocity diagram for a two stage turbine ............................................................................ 86
Module 5:
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 99

5.1.1 Cylinder configuration............................................................................................................. 99
5.1.2 Pistons ......................................................................................................................................... 100
5.1.3 Cylinder head .......................................................................................................................... 101
5.1.4 Crank case ............................................................................................................................... 102
5.1.5 Ignition ....................................................................................................................................... 102
5.1.6 Fuels ............................................................................................................................................ 103
5.2 Petrol engines .............................................................................................................................. 103
5.2.1 Four stroke engine .................................................................................................................. 103
5.2.2 Two stroke engine ................................................................................................................... 105
5.2.3 Otto cycle (constant volume cycle)................................................................................. 107
5.3 Diesel engines ............................................................................................................................. 108
5.3.1 Diesel ignition process ........................................................................................................... 108
5.3.2 Diesel cycle .............................................................................................................................. 109
5.4 Engine trials .................................................................................................................................. 111
5.4.1 Parameters ............................................................................................................................... 111
5.4.2 Power and mechanical efficiency .................................................................................... 111

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5.4.3 Thermal efficiency and heat balance ............................................................................. 112

5.4.4 Brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) ........................................................................... 113
5.4.5 Measurement of brake power ............................................................................................ 113
5.4.6 The rope brake ........................................................................................................................ 114
5.4.7 The Prony brake....................................................................................................................... 115
5.4.8 The hydro dynamometer...................................................................................................... 116
5.4.9 The Morse test .......................................................................................................................... 116
5.4.10 The heat balance ................................................................................................................. 117
Module 6:
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 132

6.2 Single stage compressor .......................................................................................................... 132
6.2.1 Free air delivery ....................................................................................................................... 133
6.2.2 The clearance volume .......................................................................................................... 135
6.3 Two stage compressor .............................................................................................................. 137
6.3.1 Compression under ideal conditions ................................................................................ 138
6.4 Three stage compressor ........................................................................................................... 140
Module 7:
7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 155

7.2 Method of refrigeration ............................................................................................................ 155
7.2.1 Cyclic refrigeration ................................................................................................................. 155
7.2.2 The vapour compression cycle........................................................................................... 156
7.2.3 Refrigerant ................................................................................................................................ 158

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Learning Outcomes
On the completion of this module the student must be able to:
 Describe the different gas laws

 Describe the nature and process of the Carnot cycle
 Describe the nature and process of the Rankin cycle
 Calculate work done, heat transferred and energy of different processes
1.1 Introduction
This module serves as a review and as a possible reference. The

Carnot and Rankine cycles must be carefully studied at this stage in
order to clearly understand internal combustion engines and
turbines.
1.2 Gases
1.2.1 Heat capacity
Heat capacity or thermal capacity is a measurable physical quantity equal to
the ratio of the heat added to (or removed) from a gas to the resulting
temperature change.
Note:
Specific heat is the amount of heat needed to raise the
temperature of a certain mass by 1 degree Celsius.
Heat capacity is an extensive property of matter, meaning it is proportional to

the size of the system.
When expressing the same phenomenon as an intensive property, the heat

capacity is divided by the amount of substance, mass, or volume, so that the
quantity is independent of the size or extent of the sample.
Definition: Molar heat capacity

The heat capacity per unit amount (SI unit: mole) of a pure gas.

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Definition: Specific heat capacity

The heat capacity per unit mass of a material.
1.2.2 Specific Heat capacity at constant volume

The amount of heat added to (or removed) from a gas while the temperature
changes by 1 degree and the volume stays constant.
1.2.3 Specific Heat capacity at constant pressure

The amount of heat added to (or removed) from a gas while the temperature
changes by 1 degree and the pressure stays constant.
1.2.4 For a specific gas

The ratio between these two specific heat capacities is constant for any one
gas. The ratio is .
For air:
1.2.5 Characteristic gas constant

For any fixed mass of gas, changes of state are connected by a constant .
.P = pressure
.V = volume
.T = temperature
.m = mass of gas
R is the characteristic gas constant.

When m kg of gas is considered:
1.2.6 Joule’s law

The first law is often formulated by stating that the change in the internal
energy of a closed system is equal to the amount of heat supplied to the
system, minus the amount of work done by the system on its surroundings.

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And
.
.
.
.
.
1.2.7 Charles law

Charles' law (also known as the law of volumes) is an experimental gas
law which describes how gasses tend to expand when heated. Figure 1.1.
Note:
A modern statement of Charles' law is:
When the pressure on a sample of a dry gas is held constant, the
Kelvin temperature and the volume will be directly related.
This directly proportional relationship can be written as:
Figure 1.1 PV diagram

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1.2.8 Boyle’s law

Boyle's law is an experimental gas law which describes how the pressure of
a gas tends to increase as the volume of a gas decreases. Figure 1.1
Note:
A modern statement of Boyle's law is:
The absolute pressure exerted by a given mass of an ideal gas is
inversely proportional to the volume it occupies if the temperature
and amount of gas remain unchanged within a closed system.
Boyle's law can be stated as:
1.2.9 Combined Charles and Boyle’s law
Equating (1) and (2):
1.3 Gas laws

1.3.1 Isochoric process
The conditions for this law are:
Work done (WD)
Heat gained or lost (Q)
Change in internal energy ( )
1.3.2 Isobaric process

Work done (WD)

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Also:
1.3.3 Isothermal process

Work done (WD)
Also:
1.3.4 Polytropic process

Work done (WD)

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Also:
( )
( )
Figure 1.2 PV diagram of a polytropic process
1.3.5 Adiabatic process

Work done (WD)

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Other:
( )
( )
1.4 Energy flow

1.4.1 Energy flow through a closed system
The working gas does not flow directly through a system but is captured for a
time period and then allowed to continue.
An example is the gas mixture flowing through an engine cylinder.

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1.4.2 Energy flow through a closed system

An even flow takes place from the start of a process to the end. An example
of this is the flow of a gas mixture through a turbine.
1.5 Entropy
A common example of entropy is that of ice melting in water. The resulting
change from formed to free, from ordered to disordered increases the
entropy.
Did you know?

The word entropy means "a turning toward" or "transformation." The
word was used to describe the measurement of disorder by the
German physicist Rudolph Clausius and appeared in English in 1868.
Entropy is very similar to energy. Energy measures the capability of a gas to do

work. Entropy, on the other hand, is a measure of the disorder of the gas.
What disorder refers to is really the number of different microscopic states a

gas can be in, given that the gas has a particular fixed composition… Volume,
energy, pressure and temperature.
Definition: Microscopic states

The exact states of all the molecules making up the gas.
The idea here is that just knowing the composition: Volume, energy, pressure,
and temperature doesn't tell you very much about the exact state of each
molecule making up the gas.
For even a very small amount of gas, there can be trillions of different
microscopic states, all of which correspond to the sample having the same
composition, volume, energy, pressure, and temperature.
Think about it!

Why should it be important, after all, if you know the bulk properties.
Isn't that all one usually needs? It turns out that no, in fact, if you
know the exact energy of a gas, and convert it to useful work, those
details turn out to be crucial.
Entropy is denoted by (S) and the change in entropy can be shown by:

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1.5.1 Entropy of evaporation

Figure 1.3 shows TS diagram for the formation of vapour at constant pressure.
Curve ab represents the introduction of the liquid enthalpy to the water. At b,

the water reaches saturation temperature, Tf.
Line bc represents the introduction of the enthalpy of evaporation at constant

temperature, Tf.
There is all liquid at b and all dry saturated vapour at c. Curve cd represents
the introduction of the superheat.
Figure 1.3 TS diagram for the formation of vapour at constant pressure
From the curve:

( )
= Specific entropy of dry saturated steam
Hence:
Accurate values of and are given in tables.

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For wet vapour, the specific enthalpy of evaporation with a dryness fraction x.
is:
If the specific entropy of wet vapour = S. then:
( )
1.5.2 Entropy of superheated vapor

Let = specific heat capacity of superheated vapor at constant pressure.
The heat received in the superheat region:
Figure 1.4 TS chart
Definition: The enthalpy of evaporation (hfg)

The amount of heat required to change the state of water at its
boiling temperature, into steam. It involves no change in the
temperature of the steam/water mixture, and all the energy is used
to change the state from liquid (water) to vapor (saturated steam).
1.5.3 Reversible and irreversible process

A reversible process - or reversible cycle is cyclic - It is a process whose
direction can be reversed by means of infinitesimal changes in some property
of the gas. A reversible process does not increase entropy (of the system and

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surroundings). During a reversible process, the system is in thermodynamic

equilibrium with its surroundings throughout the entire process.
In an irreversible process, finite changes are made, therefore the system is not
at equilibrium throughout the process. At the same point in an irreversible
cycle, the system will be in the same state, but the surroundings are
permanently changed after each cycle
In an irreversible process, a certain amount of "transformation energy" will be

used as the molecules in the gas do work on each other when they change
from one state to another.
Note:
During this transformation, there will be a certain amount of heat
energy loss or dissipation due to intermolecular friction and
collisions; energy that will not be recoverable if the process is
reversed.
1.5.4 Throttling
The process in which a high pressure fluid is converted to low pressure by using
a throttle valve is Throttling.
In the throttling process, enthalpy remains constant, work done = 0.

 Another name of throttling process is wire drawing because the steam looks
like a wire after certain extent.
 for ideal gas throttling process is isothermal.
 for real gases, throttling may result in the temperature increasing,
decreasing or remaining constant.
 Throttling steam results in a temperature drop.
1.6 The Carnot cycle for a gas

The Carnot cycle provides an upper limit on the efficiency that any classical
thermodynamic engine can achieve during the conversion of thermal energy
into work, or conversely, the efficiency of a refrigeration system in creating a
temperature difference (e.g. refrigeration) by the application of work to the
system. It is not an actual thermodynamic cycle but is a theoretical construct.
Note:
Every single thermodynamic system exists in a particular state. When
a system is taken through a series of different states and finally
returned to its initial state, a thermodynamic cycle is said to have
occurred.
In the process of going through a thermodynamic cycle, the system may

perform work on its surroundings, thereby acting as a heat engine. A system

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undergoing a Carnot cycle is called a Carnot heat engine, although such a

"perfect" engine is only a theoretical construct and cannot be built in practice.
Figure 1.5 PV diagram of the Carnot cycle
The Carnot cycle when acting as a heat engine consists of the following steps:
1.6.1 Reversible isothermal expansion of the gas.

During this step (1 to 2) the gas is allowed to expand and it does work on the
surroundings. The temperature of the gas does not change during the process,
and thus the expansion is isothermal. The gas expansion is propelled by
absorption of heat energy and of entropy from the high
temperature reservoir.
1.6.2 Reversible adiabatic expansion of the gas

For this step (2 to 3) the mechanisms of the engine are assumed to be
thermally insulated, thus they neither gain nor lose heat. The gas continues to
expand, doing work on the surroundings, and losing an equivalent amount of

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internal energy. The gas expansion causes it to cool to the "cold"

temperature, T2. The entropy remains unchanged.
1.6.3 Reversible isothermal compression of the gas

(3 to 4) Now the surroundings do work on the gas, causing an amount of heat
energy Q2 and of entropy to flow out of the gas to the low
temperature reservoir.
Note:
This is the same amount of entropy absorbed in step 1, as can be
seen from the Clausius inequality.
1.6.4 Reversible adiabatic compression of the gas

(4 to 1) Once again the mechanisms of the engine are assumed to be
thermally insulated. During this step, the surroundings do work on the gas,
increasing its internal energy and compressing it, causing the temperature to
rise to T1. The entropy remains unchanged.
Note:
At this point the gas is in the same state as at the start of step 1.

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1.6.5 Carnot cycle thermal efficiency
Worked Example1.1
The overall volume expansion ratio of a Carnot cycle is 15. The temperature
limits of the cycle are 260 degrees and 21 degrees C.
Find the ratios of the isothermal and adiabatic processes and the efficiency
of the cycle.
Solution:
For the adiabatics:
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
Volume ratios of isothermals:
Thermal efficiency:
1.7 The Rankin cycle

The Rankine cycle is a model that is used to predict the performance of steam
turbine systems. The Rankine cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle of
a heat engine that converts heat into mechanical work.
The heat is supplied externally to a closed loop, which usually uses water as
the working fluid.

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The Rankine cycle closely describes the process by which steam-operated

heat engine commonly found in thermal power plants that generate power.
The heat sources used in these power plants are usually fossil fuels such as coal,
natural gas and oil.
Did you know?

The efficiency of the Rankine cycle is limited by the high heat of
vaporization of the working fluid.
Also, unless the pressure and temperature reach super critical levels in the
steam boiler, the temperature range the cycle can operate over is quite small.
Figure 1.6, the TS diagram shows the processes making up this cycle.
Figure 1.6 TS diagram showing a Rankin cycle
Process 1-2:
The working fluid is pumped from low to high pressure. As the fluid is a liquid at
this stage, the pump requires little input energy.
Process 2-3:
The high pressure liquid enters a boiler where it is heated at constant pressure
by an external heat source to become a dry saturated vapour. The input
energy required can be easily calculated graphically, using an enthalpy-
entropy chart or numerically, using steam tables.
Process 3-4:
The dry saturated vapour expands through a turbine, generating power. This
decreases the temperature and pressure of the vapour, and some
condensation may occur.

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Note:
The output in this process can be easily calculated using the chart
or tables noted above.
Process 4-1:
The wet vapour then enters a condenser where it is condensed at a constant
pressure to become a saturated liquid.
1.7.1 The Rankin efficiency
Worked Example 1.2
A steam turbine operating on the Rankin cycle receives steam from the boiler
at 3.5 MPa and 350 degrees c and exhaust to the condenser at 10 KPa. The
condensate is then returned to the boiler by the feed pump.
Calculate with the help of tables:

1. The energy supplied in the boiler (including the superheated) per kg of
steam generated.
2. The dryness fraction of the steam leaving the condenser.
3. The Rankin efficiency.
Solution
1. The energy supplied in the boiler
This is the energy supplied by the boiler.
2. The expansion through the turbine in theoretically isentropic, hence:

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( )
This is the dryness fraction of the steam entering the condenser.
3. The Rankin efficiency
Activity 1.1
Find the specific work done in a Rankin cycle if the steam supplied is at 650
KPa and 0.9 dry and the condenser pressure is 20 KPa. Assume that the
expansion of steam follows the law PV1.135 = C
[0.2628; 5.65; 488]
Activity 1.2
One kilogram of air is at an internal temperature and pressure of 175 degrees

C and 1.73 MPa respectively. It is expanded isothermally to three times its
initial volume and then further expanded adiabatically to six times its initial
volume.
Isothermal compression followed by adiabatic compression return the air to

its original state. Name the cycle and find:

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1. The temperature, pressure and volume at each corner of the cycle.

2. The thermal efficiency of the cycle.
3. The work done per cycle.
Take R= 0.29 kJ/kg.K and = 1.4
[Carnot cycle; 0.075; 0.225; 576.7; 0.45; 219; 67; 0.15; 657; 24.1; 34.4]
Activity 1.3
1. Briefly discuss the term reversibility as applied to a thermodynamic

process.
2. State the Carnot cycle.
3. Explain with the aid of a diagram, the Rankine cycle
Activity 1.4
The density of a certain gas at 0C and 100 kPa is 1,28 kg/m3. 5 kg of this gas
is compressed adiabatically from a temperature of 0C and a pressure of 100
kPa to a pressure of 5 200 kPa. The gas constant Cv is 0,754 kJ/kg.K.
Calculate the following:
1. The gas constant R

2. The adiabatic index of compression, gamma
3. The initial volume at 0C and 100 kPa
4. The final volume at 5 200 kPa
5. The work done during compression
[0.286; 1.38; 3.9; 0.22263; - 2020.2]
Activity 1.5
3,5 kg of air at 410 kPa and 130 C expands politropically to 101,3 kPa and 18
C. The specific heat capacity at constant pressure is 1,005 kJ/kg.K and the
gas constant R is 0,287 kJ/kg.K for air.
1. The original volume

2. The final volume
[0.98735; 2.88558]

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Self-Check
I am able to: Yes No

 Describe the different gas laws
 Describe the nature and process of the Carnot cycle
 Describe the nature and process of the Rankin cycle
 Calculate work done, heat transferred
 and energy of different processes
If you have answered ‗no‘ to any of the outcomes listed above, then speak to
your facilitator for guidance and further development.

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Learning Outcomes
 Describe efficiency and equivalent evaporation

 Describe the economizer, pre heater and super heater
 Calculate the mass of fuel needed to generate different phases of steam
 Calculate useful work done
 Calculate heat transferred
2.1 Introduction
This module discusses efficiency and equivalent evaporation. It also

describes the economizer, pre-heater and super heater. You will
also have to perform calculations which are shown as worked
examples.
Note:
When water is converted to steam it expands in volume over 1,000
times and travels down steam pipes at over 100 km/hr.
2.1.1 Boiler safety

While variations in standards may exist in different countries, stringent legal,
testing, training and certification is applied to try to minimize or prevent boiler
failure.
Common failures occur because of:

 Over-pressurization of the boiler;
 insufficient water in the boiler causing overheating and vessel failure;
 pressure vessel failure of the boiler due to inadequate construction or
maintenance.
2.2 The boiler

A boiler incorporates a firebox or furnace in order to burn the fuel and
generate heat. The generated heat is transferred to water to make steam.
the process of boiling produces saturated steam at a rate which can vary
according to the pressure above the boiling water.

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Think about it!

The higher the furnace temperature, the faster the steam
production.
The saturated steam thus produced can then either be used immediately to
produce power, or else may be further superheated to a higher temperature.
This notably reduces suspended water content making a given volume of

steam produce more work and creates a greater temperature gradient.
Note:
This helps reduce the potential to form condensation.
Any remaining heat in the combustion gasses can then either be evacuated
or made to pass through an economizer, the role of which is to warm the feed
water before it reaches the boiler.
Heat transfer required to form 1 kg steam
Energy received from the fuel
Boiler thermal efficiency:
2.2.1 Equivalent evaporation of a boiler

Boilers operate under many different running conditions so a standard upon
which to compare the different evaporation capacities have been set up.
This standard is called the equivalent evaporation from and at 100 degrees
Celsius.

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Then:
From this, the amount of water at 100 degrees C which could be evaporated
into dry saturated steam at 100 degrees C if supplied with this amount of
energy is then determined.
This is called the equivalent evaporation of the boiler from and at 100 degrees
Celsius.
The specific enthalpy of evaporation at 100 degrees C = 2256.9 kJ per kg.
The equivalent evaporation of a boiler from and at 100 degrees Celsius
2.2.2 Boiler fittings

 Safety valve: used to relieve pressure and prevent possible explosion of a
boiler. They are now, the safe spring loaded valves
 Water column: to show the operator the level of fluid in the boiler, a water
gauge or water column is provided
 Bottom blow down valves
 Surface blow down line
 Feed Pump(s)
 Circulating pump
 Check valve or clack valve: a non-return stop valve by which water enters
the boiler
2.2.3 The economizer

Boiler economizers are heat exchange devices. They are a device fitted to a
boiler which saves energy by using the exhaust gases from the boiler to
preheat the cold feed water.
Economizers are so named because they can make use of the enthalpy of
these waste gasses thereby recovering more useful enthalpy and improving
the boiler's efficiency.
Figure 2.1 shows the basic operation of an economizer.

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Figure 2.1 Operation of an economizer
2.2.4 Air fuel mixture

The stoichiometric combustion, the optimal amount of oxygen and fuel
mixture, to produce the most heat possible while achieving maximum
combustion efficiency.
2.2.4.1 Excess air

In fuel-fired process heating, the largest source of energy loss is through the
exhaust stack, which is why managing air flow is essential to combustion
efficiency.
Note:
When fuel burns in the presence of oxygen it is converted to carbon
dioxide, water and heat.
The amount of air required will vary depending on the type of fuel. Ideally you
would like to add enough oxygen to consume all the fuel so that little or no
combustibles are exhausted while minimizing the excess air to prevent energy
loss out of the stack.
In the combustion zone, it is difficult to measure excess air. In the stack,

however, it can be easily measured using Oxygen analyzers. When operating

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with 5%-20% excess air, it would correspond to a 1% to 3% oxygen

measurement in the stack.
2.2.5 Air preheater

An air preheater (APH) is a general term used to describe any device
designed to heat air before another process (for example, combustion in a
boiler) with the primary objective of increasing the thermal efficiency of the
process.
Note:
The purpose of the air preheater is to recover the heat from the
boiler flu gas which increases the thermal efficiency of the boiler by
reducing the useful heat lost in the flue gas. Figure 2.2.
As a consequence, the flue gases are also conveyed to the flue gas stack at a
lower temperature, allowing simplified design of the conveyance system and
the flue gas stack. It also allows control over the temperature of gases leaving
the stack (to meet emissions regulations, for example).
There are two types of air preheaters:
 tubular type built into the boiler flue gas ducting

 regenerative air preheater

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Figure 2.2 An air preheater
These may be arranged so the gas flows horizontally or vertically across the axis
of rotation.
2.2.5.1 Tubular type

Tubular preheaters consist of straight tube bundles which pass through the
outlet ducting of the boiler and open at each end outside of the ducting.
Inside the ducting, the hot furnace gases pass around the preheater tubes,
transferring heat from the exhaust gas to the air inside the preheater.
Ambient air is forced by a fan through ducting at one end of the preheater
tubes and at other end the heated air from inside of the tubes emerges into
another set of ducting, which carries it to the boiler furnace for combustion.
2.2.5.2 Regenerative air preheater

There are two types of regenerative air preheaters:
 rotating-plate regenerative air preheaters (RAPH)
 stationary-plate regenerative air preheaters
The rotating-plate design (RAPH) Figure 2.3 consists of a central rotating-plate

element installed within a casing that is divided into two (bi-sector type), three

30
Power Machines N6
(tri-sector type) or four (quad-sector type) sectors containing seals around the
element.
Figure 2.3 A rotating-plate air preheater
Note:
The seals allow the element to rotate through all the sectors, but
keep gas leakage between sectors to a minimum while providing
separate gas air and flue gas paths through each sector.
The stationary-plate regenerative air preheaters Figure 2.4 are also installed in
a casing, but the heating plate elements are stationary rather than rotating.
Instead the air ducts in the preheater are rotated so as to alternatively expose
sections of the heating plate elements to the up flowing cool air.

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Power Machines N6
Figure 2.4
2.2.6 Super heater

A super heater is a device used to convert saturated steam or wet steam
into dry steam.
There are three types of super heaters namely:

 radiant
 convection
 separately fired
A super heater can vary in size from a few meters to some hundred meters.
Figure 2.5 shows the basic operation of adding heat to the saturated steam.
In Figure 2.6, C to D indicates the phase where the vapour is no longer in

contact with water and the superheat phase starts. The temperature starts to
raise again.
Enthalpy of superheated steam:
( )
( )

32
Power Machines N6
Figure 2.5 Operation of the super heater
Figure 2.6 Enthalpy temperature diagram

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Power Machines N6
2.3 Ideal steam plant cycles

2.3.1 The Carnot cycle and the steam plant
Figure 2.7 Carnot cycle in a steam plant
To operate the Carnot cycle in a steam plant, the process would be as follows:
Consider the PV diagram first Figure 2.7:
A to F
During this step water at boiler pressure and volume is fed from the feed pump
to the boiler.
F to B
In the boiler, water is converted to steam at pressure PB and the volume of
steam produced is VB. This volume VB is then fed from the boiler to the turbine.
B to C
The steam is expanded frictionless adiabatically in the turbine.
C to E
After expansion, the steam is passed from the turbine to the condenser. In the
condenser the volume is reduced from VC to VD. This takes place at constant
condenser pressure PC.
E to D
The partially condensed steam at pressure PC and volume VD is fed from the
condenser into the feed pump.

34
Power Machines N6
D to A
In the feed pump the steam is compressed frictionless adiabatically to the
boiler pressure PB. The compression converts wet steam at condenser pressure
to water at boiler pressure.
Note:
This PV diagram (Figure 2.7) is actually two diagrams. The turbine
diagram is FBCE whose area will give work output. There is also the
feed pump diagram EDAF whose area is the required work input to
run the feed pump.
The net work output from this plant will be will be the net area of these
diagrams. This is the net area = FBCE – FADE = ABCD
2.3.2 The Rankine cycle

The modification made to the Carnot cycle to produce the Rankine cycle is
that instead of stopping the condensation in the condenser in some
intermediate condition, the condensation is completed. This is shown in the PV
diagram for the Rankine cycle Figure 2.8.
Figure 2.8 Rankine cycle in a steam plant
Condensation is continued till it is complete at D.
Worked Example 2.1
During a test on a coal-fired boiler plant the following observations were

made:
Steam pressure = 3 MPa

Temperature of superheated steam = 400C
Temperature of feed water at economizer inlet = 54C

35
Power Machines N6
Temperature of feed water at evaporator inlet = 130C

Steam generated per kg of coal = 9,5 kg
Pressure of flues at chimney base = 200C
Mass of combustibles in a kg of fuel = 0,98 kg/kg
coal
Boiler room temperature = 25C
Percentage of heat absorbed by plant = 72,125%
Percentage of heat lost through wet flues = 3,642%
Percentage of heat lost through dry flues = 10,78%
Specific heat capacity of flue gases = 1,045 kJ/kg.K
Specific heat capacity of water = 4,2 kJ/kg.K
Calculate the following by using steam tables only:
1. The calorific value of the coal in MJ/kg and the equivalent evaporation
from and at 100C of the boiler
2. The mass of the moisture in kg/kg fuel in the flues
3. The air fuel ratio for the plant
4. The temperature of the flue gases at the inlet to the economiser
Solution:
1. At 3000 kPa & 400C: = 3 231 kJ/kg
At 54C: = 226C
( )
=
( )
CV = =
= 38 000 kJ/kg
( )
EE = =
= 12 ,648
2. At 150 kPa & 200C: = 2 873 kJ/kg
= % moist x CV = 0,03645 x 38 000 = 1383,96 kJ/kg
= [ ]
= =
= 0,5 kg/kg

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Power Machines N6
3. = % dry flue x CV = 0,1078 x 38 000 = 4 096,4 kJ/kg
= 22,4 kg
= 21,92 kg
4. At/By 130C: = 546 kJ/kg
= ( )
( )
= +
= 326,924
Worked Example 2.2
An air pre-heater was fitted to a boiler plant to improve its efficiency.
 During tests on the plant the following information was noted:

 The superheated steam generated, increased from 9 kg/kg to 9,2 kg/kg
of fuel used.
 The temperature at the chimney base decreased from 200 C to 150 C.
 The air supplied per kg of fuel decreased by 0,5 kg.
 The fuel used is 98% combustible.
 The mass of the combustion moisture formed remained unchanged at
0,58 kg/kg of fuel.
 The pressure of the gas at the chimney base remained unchanged at 150
kPa.
 The feed water temperature remained unchanged at 95,2 C.
 The enthalpy of the steam generated increased by 9 kJ/kg due to a slight
increase in temperature.
 The calorific value of the fuel remained unchanged at 30,46 MJ/kg.
 The boiler room temperature remained unchanged at 20 C.
 The heat carried away by the dry flues before the pre-heater was fitted
was 3 762 kJ/kg fuel.
 The efficiency of the plant before fitting the pre-heater was 7,004%.

37
Power Machines N6
 The specific heat capacity of water was 4,2 kJ/kg.K.

 The specific heat capacity of the dry flues was 1,048 kJ/kg.K.

1. The heat lost to the moisture in the flues per kg of fuel before and after
fitting the pre-heater.
2. The mass of air used per kg of fuel before fitting the pre-heater and the
heat carried away by the dry flues after fitting the pre-heater.
3. The specific enthalpy of the superheated steam before fitting the pre-
heater, the efficiency of the plant after fitting the pre-heater and the
percentage improvement.
4. Draw up a heat balance in kJ/kg and as a percentage for the plant
after the pre-heater was fitted, to determine the percentage heat
unaccounted for.
Solution:
1. At P = 150 kPa & t = 200C: At P = 150 kPa & t = 150C:
= =
= [ ] = [ ]
= [ ] = [ ]
= 1 617,62 kJ/kg fuel = 1 559,62 kJ/kg
2. =( ) =( )
= =
= =
= =
= 19,6 kJ/kg fuel

( )
3. At = =
( ) [ ]
= =
[ ]
= =

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Power Machines N6
[ ]
= =
= 2 640 + 399 = 80%
= 3 039 kJ/kg
Improvement = 80 – 78,004 = 1,996%
4.
Qin (kJ/kg) Qout kJ/kg) %
30 460 Plant = 0,8 x 30 460 = 24 868 80
Moisture = 1 559,62 5,12
Dry flues = 2 649,075 8,697
Unacc = 30 460 – 28 576,695 = 1 883,305 6,183
30 460 30 460 100
Table 2.1
Worked Example 2.3
A boiler plant generates 4 000 kg of steam per hour at a pressure of 800 kPa
and a dryness fraction of 0,96.
The feed water temperature is 44,8 C.
Coal with a calorific value of 30,5 MJ/kg is burned at a rate of 485 kg per
hour.
1. Calculate by using steam tables only:
1.1 the thermal efficiency of the plant

1.2 the equivalent evaporation from and at 100 C
2. If the efficiency of the plant is improved by fitting an economizer which

changes the feed water temperature to 130 C, the boiler steam to a
dryness of 0,98, the evaporation rate to 4 200 kg/h and the coal
consumption to 420 kg/h, calculate by using steam tables only:
2.1 The percentage improvement in the efficiency of the evaporator
2.2 The new equivalent evaporation from and at 100 C
3. If the boiler room temperature is 24 C and the temperature at the stack

(chimney) is 234,5 C for the improved plant in 2.
Air is supplied at 15,51 kg/kg coal, draw up a heat balance for the plant
in kJ/kg as well as a percentage to determine the percentage of heat
unaccounted for. Take Cp for the flue gas as 1,045 kJ/kg.K.

39
Power Machines N6
Solution:
1.1 From steam tables at 800 kPa by P = 800 kPa
P = 800 kPa:
From steam tables at
[ ] [ ]
=
= 67,55 %
[ ] [ ]
1.2 =
= 9,13
2.1 From steam tables at
= 130 C
[ ] [ ]
=
= 71,51 %
[ ] [ ]
2.2 =
= 11,25

40
Power Machines N6
3.
Heat in Hea to in kJ/kg) %
(kJ/kg)
30 500 Economiser = = 3 580 11,47
71,51
Evaporator = [ ] = 21 810,6
11,91
Chimney = = 3 631,746 4,84
Unaccounted = 30 500 – 29 = 1 477,654
30 500 30 500 00
Table 2.2
Worked Example 2.4
A boiler plant operating at a pressure of 2,55 MPa produces 8 385 kg of

superheated steam, with a specific enthalpy of 3 010 kJ/kg, per hour from
coal burned at 975 kg/h.
The specific heat capacity of the superheated steam is 2,75 kJ/kg.K.

The economizer consumed 2 476 kJ of heat per kg of coal burned.
The temperature of the feed water in the economizer is increased by 68,6 C
The following is an incomplete heat balance of the plant:

Economiser = 8,256
Evaporator = 65,684
Superheater = 8,62
Moisture = 5,25
Dry flues = 6,35
Unaccounted =
Total
Table 2.3
1. Complete the heat balance above.

2. Calculate the following by using steam tables only:
2.1 The thermal efficiency of the plant, the specific enthalpy of the
feed water entering the economizer and its temperature and the
specific enthalpy of the feed water entering the evaporator.
2.2 The dryness factor of the steam entering the superheater.
2.3 The normal temperature of the steam produced.

41
Power Machines N6
Solution:
1.
CV = Economiser = 2 476,8 8,256
Evaporator = 30 000 x 0,65684 (= 19 705,2) 65,684
= (2476,8‖(―x100)/8,256
Superheater = 30 000 x 0,0862 (= 2 588) 8,62
= 30 000
Moisture = 30 000 x 0,0525 (=1 575) 5,25
Dry flues = 30 000 x 0,0635 (=1 905) 6,35
Unaccounted = 30 000 x 0,0525 (=1 752) 5,84
30 000 = 30 000 100
Table 2.4
2.1 =
( )
=
2.2 At 2 550 kPa: =
= 225C
= [ ]
=( )
= 1 742,3023
= 0,95

42
Power Machines N6
2.3 =
–
=
= 76 + 225
= 301 C
Worked Example 2.5
A boiler plant burns 5 750 kg of coal with a calorific value of 33 MJ/kg per
hour.
It generates superheated steam at a pressure 3 500 kPa and a temperature
of 350C.
At the exit from the boiler the steam is 97% dry with a pressure of 3 500 kPa.
The feed-water temperature is 24,1C and at entry to the boiler the water has
a temperature of 83,7C.
The temperatures at the entrance and the exist of the air preheater are 25C
and 150C respectively.
The thermal efficiency of the plant is 80,12%.
The air fuel ratio is 20 : 1.
The economizer receives 2 200 kJ/kg of heat.
The specific heat capacity of air is 1,005 kJ/kg.K.
1. Calculate by using steam tables only:
1.1 the mass of superheated steam generated in kg/h

1.2 the specific enthalpy of the superheated steam produced at 3 500
kPa in kJ/kg fuel
1.3 the heat absorbed by the air preheater in kJ/kg fuel
1.4 the thermal efficiency of the plant if the super heater becomes
faulty and is disconnected
2. Draw up a table of the heat balance in kJ/kg and a percentage for each
component to determine the percentage unaccounted for.
Solution:
1. At 24,1C: = 101 kJ/kg
At 83,7C: = 351 kJ/kg

43
Power Machines N6
1.1 = ( )
= =
= 50 600 kg/h
( )
1.2 =
= 3 004,5 + 101 + 3 105,5 kJ/kg
1.3 =
= 20 x 1,005(150 - 25) = 20 x 1,005(125)
= 2 512,5 kJ/kg
At 3 500 kPa =
= 1 752 kJ/kg
[ ] [ ]
=
[ ]
=
= 70,625 %
2.
Qin Qout kJ/kg) %
(kJ/kg)
30 500 = 2 200
= [ ] = 21 106,27
= = 3 133,328
= 2 512,5
Unaccounted = 30 500 – 29 = 1 477,654
33 000 = 33 000 100
Table 2.5

44
Power Machines N6
Worked Example 2.6
During a test on a boiler plant, the following information was noted:
The average boiler pressure was 3 MPa. The temperature of the superheated
steam was 250C. The temperature at the chimney base was 200 C and the
pressure was 200 kPa. The heat carried away by the superheated moisture in
the flue gases was 1 235,26 kJ/kg of fuel and its mass was 0,45 kg/kg of fuel.
The heat carried away by the dry flue gases was 3 311,175 kJ/kg of fuel. The
calorific value of the fuel was 28,56 MJ/kg of fuel. The air-fuel ratio was 18:1.
The feed water temperature was 32,9C and its specific heat capacity was
4,2 kJ/kg.K.
The heat absorbed by the economizer was 2 353 kJ/kg of fuel. The
equivalent evaporation from and at 100 C was 10,123.
1. The atmospheric temperature

2. The specific heat capacity of the dry flue gases
3. The mass of steam produced per kg of fuel burnt
4. The thermal efficiency of the plant
5. The enthalpy of the feed water entering the evaporator and then find the
temperature in the steam tables
Solution:
1. At 200 kPa and 200 C: has 2871 kJ/kg
= [ ]
= 30 C
2. =

45
Power Machines N6
= 1,05 kJ/kg.K
3. At P 3000 kPa & 250 C: = 2858 kJ/kg
At 22,9 C: = 158 kJ/kg
( )
=
= 8,4 : 1
( )
4. = or =
= =
= 80% = 80%
5. = ( )
= 418 kJ/kg
At = 418 kJ/kg in tables: = 99,6C
6.

46
Power Machines N6
Qin Qout kJ/kg) %

(kJ/kg)
28 560 Plant = 8,4 (2858-138) = 22 848 80
Moisture = 1 235,25 4,825
Flue gases = 3 311,175 11,594
Unacc = 30 460 – 28 576,695 = 1 165,575 4,081
28 560 28 560 100
Table 2.6
Activity 2.1
The following information was obtained from a test on a steam boiler plant:
The rate of evaporation = 7 350 kg/h

The pressure in the evaporator and superheater = 3 000 kPa
The temperature of the superheated steam = 250C
The temperature of the feed water = 37,7C
The temperature of the water at the economiser exist = 99,6C
The mass of the coal used = 750 kg/h
The temperature of the flue gases at entry to the
economizer = 353,33C
The air supplied per kg fuel burnt = 18 kg
The specific heat capacity of the flue gases = 1,045 kJ/kg.K
The thermal efficiency of the plant = 80%
The dryness factor of the steam at entrance to the
superheater = 0,975
1. Calculate the steam tables only:
1.1 The total heat to the economizer in kJ/kg

1.2 The total heat to the evaporator in kJ/kg
1.3 The total heat to the superheater in kJ/kg
1.4 The calorific value of the coal in kJ/kg
1.5 The equivalent of evaporation from and at 100C
1.6 The temperature of the flue gases at the chimney base in C
2. Draw up a heat balance in kJ/kg and as a percentage for each

component of the plant to determine the heat unaccounted for
[2548; 22923.67; 988.33; 33075; 225]
Activity 2.2

47
Power Machines N6
A coal fired boiler plant consists of an economizer, evaporator and

superheater. The calorific value of the coal is 32,5 MJ/kg. The evaporator
produces steam at 2 500 kPa and there is no pressure drop in the
superheater.
The plant produces 70 200 kg of steam per hour with a temperature of 300
economizer is 2 349 kJ/kg and to the evaporator is 21 2878 kJ/kg of fuel

burned.
The pressure and temperature at the chimney base are 100 kPa and 250 C
respectively. The boiler room temperature is 25C. The fuel contains 4% of
hydrogen by mass. The air-fuel ratio is 18 : 1 and the specific heat capacities
of the water is 4,2 kJ/kg.K and that o f the flue gas is 1,045 kJ/kg.K
1. The specific enthalpy of the superheated steam and the plant efficiency
2. The specific enthalpy of the water entering the evaporator, its
temperature from the tables in C and the dryness factor of the steam
leaving the evaporator
3. The heat lost to the moisture in the flues in kJ/kg of fuel
4. The heat lost to the dry flues in kJ/kg of fuel
5. The percentage unaccounted heat lost by tabulating a heat balance in
kJ/kg
[79.53; 399; 2764; 0.98; 1033.2; 4382.7]
Activity 2.3
A test was performed on a steam plant consisting of an economizer,

evaporator and a superheater and the following information was noted:
Mean boiler pressure = 3 MPa

Dryness factor of steam at superheat inlet = 0,95
Final steam pressure = 300C
Feed water temperature to the economizer = 57,8C
Feed water temperature to the evaporator = 109,3C
Mass of steam generated per hour = 27 720 kg
Fuel consumption per hour = 3 150 kg
Calorific value of fuel = 32 MJ/kg
Moisture formation per kg of fuel = 0,6 kg
Flue gas formation per kg of fuel = 15 kg
Temperature of flue gas at economizer outlet = 150C

48
Power Machines N6
Atmospheric temperature = 25C

Specific heat capacity of dry flue gas = 1,045 kJ/kg.K
Specific heat capacity of water = 4,2 kJ/kg.K
Calculate the following by using Steam Tables only:

1. The heat to the economizer, the evaporator and the superheater in kJ/kg
2. The heat lost in the combustion moisture leaving the plant with the flues
as superheated steam in kJ/min
3. The heat lost in the dry flue gases in kJ/min
4. Draw up a heat balance in kJ/min and as a percentage to determine the
percentage heat lost to radiation. Include each component of the plant,
as well as the wet and dry flue gases. Assume a 4% energy loss due to
ash and unburnt fuel.
[216; 2254.3; 287.7; 84168; 98752.5]
Activity 2.4
The following mean readings were recorded during a test on a steam boiler
plant:
Thermal efficiency of plant = 80%

Superheated steam generated per hour = 12 760 kg
Fuel consumption per hour = 1 450 kg
Pressure of superheated steam generated = 3 MPa
Temperature of superheated steam generated = 250C
Calorific value of fuel = 29,7 MJ/kg
Temperature of feed water entering evaporator = 99,6C
Air-fuel ratio = 19:1
Temperature of flue gases at chimney base = 260C
Percentage of energy absorbed by evaporator = 67,98%
Specific heat capacity of flue gases = 1,1 kJ/kg.K
Calculate by using steam tables only:

1. The specific enthalpy of the feed water at the economizer inlet and find
its temperature from the steam tables
2. The dryness factor of the steam at the superheater inlet
3. The energy absorbed by the economizer in kJ/kg fuel, the temperature of
the flue gases leaving the evaporator and the efficiency of the
superheater
[158; 37.7; 0.95; 2288; 364; 1281.94; 422.27; 4.316]
Activity 2.5

49
Power Machines N6
A stream boiler plant is fired with coal having a calorific value of 32 MJ/kg.
The steam generated leaves the superheater at a pressure of 2 MPa with a
superheat of 87,6C.
Feed water enters the economizer at 34,6C and it enters the evaporator at
107,1C.
The equivalent evaporation from and at 100C is 11,484 3.
The steam is 2% wet at the inlet of the superheater.
The mass of the moisture in the exhaust gases is 0,6 kg/kg fuel and it is
assumed to be dry saturated.
The pressure and temperature of the flues at the chimney base are 100 kPa
The atmospheric temperature is 20C.
The air-fuel ratio is 20:1.
The specific heat capacity for the water is 4,2 kJ/kg.K.
The specific heat capacity for the exhaust gases is 1,045 kJ/kg.K

1. The temperature of the superheated steam at the inlet to the turbine, the
mass of steam generated per kg of coal used and the thermal efficiency
of the plant.
2. The energy absorbed by the economizer, the evaporator and the
supertheater in kJ/kg fuel.
3. The heat carried away by the moisture in the flue gases as well as the dry
flue gases in kJ/kg fuel.
[300; 9; 81; 2736; 20791.98; 2392.02; 1555.2; 1705.44]
Activity 2.6
In order to improve the efficiency of a boiler plant, an air pre-heater was

fitted.
During tests on the plant the following information was noted:

 The temperature at the chimney base reduced from 240C to 150C.
 The specific heat capacity for combustion moisture at 240C is 1,765
kJ/kg.K. The pressure of the gas at the chimney base remained
unchanged at 150 kPa.
 The mass of the combustion moisture formed remained unchanged at 0,5
kg/kg fuel.
 The air supplied per kg of coal reduced from 20 kg to 19,5 kg.
 The feed water temperature remained unchanged at 91,8C.
 The enthalpy of generated steam increased from 2 750 kJ/kg to 2 785
kJ/kg due to a slight increase in temperature.
 The rate of evaporation increased from 37 600 kg/h to 38 000 kg/h.
 The boiler room temperature remained unchanged at 25C.
 The calorific value of the fuel burnt remained at 28,5 MJ/kg.

50
Power Machines N6
 The mass of fuel burnt per hour remained unchanged at 4 000 kg.
 The specific heat capacity of the dry flue remained at 1,05 kJ/kg.K.
 The specific heat capacity of water remained at 4,2 kJ/kg.K.
1. The heat lost due to the moisture in the flues per kg of fuel before and
after fitting the air pre-heater.
2. The heat lost to the dry flues per kg of fuel before and after fitting the air
pre-heater if the fuel is 100% combustible.
3. The thermal efficiency of the plant before and after fitting the air pre-
heater and indicate the improvement.
4. Draw up a heat balance in kJ/kg fuel and as a percentage for the plant
after the pre-heater was fitted, to determine the percentage heat
unaccounted for.
[2919.979; 1334; 1409.49; 20.5; 20; 4627.875; 2625; 78; 80; 2]
Activity 2.7
A boiler generates 5000 kg of steam/h at 1.8 MPa. The steam temperature is

325 degrees C and the feed water temperature is 49.4 degrees C. The
efficiency of the boiler plant is 80 % when using oil of calorific value 45500 kJ
per kg.
The steam generated is supplied to a turbine which develops 500 kW and

exhausts at 0.18 MPa. The dryness fraction of the steam being 0.98.
Estimate the mass of oil used per hour and the fraction of the enthalpy drop
through the turbine which is converted into usefull work.
If the turbine exhaust is used for process heating, find the heat transfer
available per kilogram of exhaust steam above 49.4 degrees C.
[3087.6; 206.9; 2880.7; 395; 2655.7; 431.9; 0.834; 2448.8]
Self-Check

 Describe efficiency and equivalent evaporation

51
Power Machines N6
 Describe the economizer, pre heater and super heater

 Calculate the mass of fuel needed to generate different phases
of steam
 Calculate useful work done
 Calculate heat transferred

52
Power Machines N6
Learning Outcomes
 Describe the theory of gas flow

 Describe the working principle of the convergent divergent nozzle
 Describe the diagram of change of pressure of gas passing through a
nozzle
 Calculate pressures, volumes, mass flow and temperature change.
3.1 Introduction
A nozzle is often a pipe or tube of varying cross sectional area, and

it can be used to direct or modify the flow of a gas or steam.
Nozzles are frequently used to control the rate of flow, speed, direction, mass,
shape, and/or the pressure of the stream that emerges from them. In nozzle
velocity of gas, increases on the expense of its pressure energy.
Definition: Nozzle
A nozzle is a device designed to control the direction or
characteristics of a gas flow (especially to increase velocity) as it
exits (or enters) an enclosed chamber or pipe.
3.2 Gas or steam flow through a nozzle

3.2.1 Convergent nozzles
The pressure drops in a convergent nozzle because of the Bernoulli principle.
Figure 3.1
A convergent nozzle is a nozzle that starts big and gets smaller-a decrease in
cross-sectional area. As a fluid enters the smaller cross-section, it has to speed
up due to the conservation of mass. To maintain a constant amount of fluid
moving through the restricted portion of the nozzle, the fluid must move faster.
The energy to make this fluid speed up has to come from somewhere. Some
energy is in the random motion of molecules, which we observe as pressure.

53
Power Machines N6
The energy in this random motion is converted into faster forward motion,
known as stream flow. This change makes the pressure drop.
Figure 3.1 P against length of a convergent nozzle
3.2.2 Convergent divergent nozzles
Figure 3.2 Convergent divergent nozzle
A de Laval nozzle, Figure 3.2 (or convergent-divergent nozzle) is a tube that is

pinched in the middle, making a carefully balanced, asymmetric shape.
It is used to accelerate a hot, pressurized gas passing through it to a higher

speed in the axial (thrust) direction, by converting the heat energy of the flow
into kinetic energy.

54
Power Machines N6
Did you know?

The nozzle is widely used in some types of steam turbines. It also sees
use in supersonic jet engines.
Its operation relies on the different properties of gases flowing

at subsonic and supersonic speeds. The speed of a subsonic flow of gas will
increase if the pipe carrying it narrows because the mass flow rate is constant.
The gas flow through a de Laval nozzle is isentropic (gas entropy is nearly
constant). In a subsonic flow the gas is compressible, and sound will propagate
through it.
At the "throat", where the cross-sectional area is at its minimum, the gas
velocity locally becomes sonic (Mach number = 1.0), a condition
called chocked flow.
As the nozzle cross-sectional area increases, the gas begins to expand, and
the gas flow increases to supersonic velocities, where a sound wave will not
propagate backwards through the gas as viewed in the frame of reference of
the nozzle (Mach number > 1.0).
Work done in the nozzle:

Neglecting potential energy,
then W = 0
Since no work is done in the nozzle.

The steady flow energy equation becomes:
This is for unit mass flow.
The time taken for a gas to pass through the nozzle is so small so the is no time
for heat exchange between the gas and the surroundings.
Then Q = 0
Therefore the process is adiabatic.

Thus the equation becomes:

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Power Machines N6
If the entry velocity to the nozzle is small compared with the exit velocity. Then
the entry velocity, , can be neglected and so the formula becomes:
Where C2 is the exit velocity of the gas.
Now the equation becomes:
3.2.3 Critical pressure and temperature

m = mass flow in kg/sec
V = specific volume in m3/kg
A = cross-sectional area in m2
C = velocity in m/s
The mass flow/unit area at any section in the nozzle:
Note:
This equation shows that since the mass flow m is constant at all
sections of the nozzle and the velocity C and specific volume V
vary through the nozzle, the cross-sectional area A must also vary.
It also shows that if there is a maximum value of m/A, the mass flow per unit
area, then, since the mass flow is constant for this condition, the cross sectional
area must be a minimum which is at the throat of the nozzle.
Let:
Pc = throat pressure
Vc = throat specific volume
Cc = velocity at the throat

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Power Machines N6
Pc = critical pressure
Tc = critical temperature
( )
( )
( )
( )
The average value of = 1.4 for air
( )
Critical temperature:
( )
( )

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Power Machines N6
3.2.4 Velocity of sound

It was Newton who first stated that the velocity sound in a substance is given
by the expression:
√( )
Sound through a gas is produced by a succession of high and low

compressions. These happen so fast that the process can be considered
adiabatic.
For a gas, if the pressure is P and volume V then the equation for the adiabatic
process will be:
The velocity of sound becomes:
√( )
√ √
Figure 3.3 P against length of a convergent divergent nozzle

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Power Machines N6
Note:
f the sonic velocity is reached in a nozzle then the maximum mass
flow/unit has been reached and therefore the maximum flow rate
has been reached. The nozzle is then said to be choked.
Figure 3.3 shows a plot of pressure against distance through a convergent

divergent nozzle.
Curve ABC
Is obtained when the correct design exit pressure is applied to the nozzle.
At B, which is the throat, the pressure is the critical pressure.
If the pressure is off-design, then exit pressures at E, G and J, which are above
the design exit pressure, produce a condition of over-expansion.
Curve ADE
Is a smooth curve obtained when exit pressure is above critical pressure and is
what would occur in a venture tube.
Curves ABFG and ABHJ

The exit pressure is such that expansion is through the critical pressure, the
velocities become supersonic at F and H then de-accelerate from F to G and
from H to J.
This produces an unstable shock condition as the pressure is diffused. This is in

the divergent section where an acceleration would normally occur.
If an exit pressure is applied to the nozzle which is below design exit pressure, as
at K, then a normal expansion ABC will occur through the nozzle followed by a
shock reduction in pressure CK just outside the nozzle.
3.3 Steam flow through nozzles

The approach to steam flow through nozzles is whether the flow is considered
as being in equilibrium or supersaturated.
3.3.1 Supersaturated expansion

This expansion is theoretically still adiabatic but the index cannot be used
because this is not a gas.
For superheated steam, the average index is n = 1.3

For wet steam, the adiabatic index average is n = 1.135
The equation then becomes:
From:
√
And:

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Power Machines N6
( )
Temperature through the nozzle at supersaturate:
( )
3.3.2 Equilibrium expansion
( )
Definition: Efficiency of expansion

Steam or gas passing through the short convergent portion of the
nozzle is frictionless but because the divergent portion of the nozzle
must be longer, friction is taken into account for that portion.
The effect of friction in this portion, internally reheats the steam so the steam
leaves with a higher specific enthalpy at 2.
If the steam expansion in the divergent portion had been frictionless, it would
leave at 2’.
Enthalpy at the throat:
[ ]

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Power Machines N6
Actual dryness factor:
The isentropic dryness factor as a percentage of the actual dryness factor

is:
Worked Example 3.1
Air flows through the throat of a convergent/divergent nozzle at a pressure of

325 kPa and a temperature of 487C.
The velocity of the inlet is negligible.
There is a temperature drop of 321,6C throughout the nozzle.
Up to the throat the flow is frictionless and the efficiency of the divergent part
is 90,5%.
The area of the nozzle at the exit is 2 613,806 mm 2.
Take R for air as 0,287 kJ/kg.K and Cv as 0,718 kJ/kg.K.

1. The value of gamma, the pressure in kPa and the absolute temperature
at the nozzle inlet
2. The velocity in m/s, the actual absolute temperatures, the adiabatic
absolute temperature, the pressure in kPa, the specific volume at the exit
of the nozzle and the mass flow rate of the air in kg/min
3. The velocity in m/s and the specific volume at the throat of the nozzle
Solution:
1. =
= ( ) ( )
= 615,2 kPa
= ( ) ( )
= 912 K

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Power Machines N6
2. =√ √
= ( ) ( )
3. =√ √
Worked Example 3.2
Steam expands through a convergent-divergent nozzle at a rate of 300

kg/min to the exit where the isentropic dryness factor is 0,94 and the diameter
is 72,2 mm.
The specific volume of dry saturated steam at the exist pressure is 0,668 4
m3/kg. The superheated steam at the inlet has a pressure of 1 500 kPa, a
temperature of 250 C and the velocity is negligible.
At the throat the superheated steam has a pressure of 820 kPa, a velocity of
500 m/s and the specific heat capacity is 2,56 kJ/kg.K with an index (n) of
1,31. The isentropic dryness factor is 98,95% of the actual dryness factor.

1. The specific enthalpy of the superheated steam and the normal
temperature at the throat
2. The specific volume, the area in mm2 and the diameter in mm at the
throat
3. The actual dryness factor, the specific volume, the area in mm 2, the

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Power Machines N6
velocity in m/s and the specific actual enthalpy at the exit
Solution:
1. At 820 kPa : = 2 748 kJ/kg and = 171,4 C
At 1 500 kPa and 250 C : = 2 925 kJ/kg
=√
2. = * + * +
=√ √
3. =
=√
Worked Example 3.3
Superheated stea with a specific heat capacity of 2,6 kJ/kg.K enters

convergent-divergent nozzle at a pressure of 1,8 MPa and a temperature of
275 C.

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Power Machines N6
The mass of the steam passing through the throat at a pressure of 900 kPa
and a temperature of 200 C is 330 kg/min.
The steam leaves the nozzle at a pressure of 300 kPa with an actual dryness
factor of 95%.
is 90%.
The velocity at the inlet is negligible.

Take the index (n) for superheated steam as 1,31.

1. The specific enthalpy of the superheated steam at the inlet, the velocity
in m/s, the specific volume, the area in mm2 and the specific heat
capacity of the superheated steam at the throat of the nozzle.
2. The actual specific enthalpy, the isentropic specific enthalpy, the
isentropic dryness factor and the specific volume of the steam at the exit
of the nozzle.
Solution:
1. At 1 800 kPa : = 2 795 and = 201,1 C
At 900 kPa : = 200 C: = 2 835
=√ √
= * + * +
At 900 kPa : = 2 273 : 175,4 C
2. At 300 kPa : = :

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Power Machines N6
( )
=
Worked Example 3.4
Air enters a convergent-divergent nozzle at a pressure of 2 800 kPa, a

temperature of 450C and a velocity of zero.
The diameter at the throat of the nozzle is 51 mm.
The pressure at the exit is 590,674 kPa.
is 96%.

1. The value of gamma.
2. The pressure in kPa, the absolute temperature, the velocity in m/s, the
specific volume in m3/kg and the area in mm2 at the throat of the nozzle.
3. The mass flow rate of the air in kg/s.
4. The absolute isentropic temperature, the absolute actual temperature,
the velocity in m/s and the specific volume in m 3/kg at the exit of the
nozzle.
Solution:
1.1 =

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Power Machines N6
1.2 =
= 0,5 kg/s
1.3 = OR =
= 39,01 x 0,8
= 31,21 % = 31,21 %
1.4 =
= 202,817 kg/MW.h
1.5 =
= 780 kg/min
1.6
Qin (MJ/min) Qout MJ/min) %

= = 426 31,21
= Exhaust = = 331,695 24,3
Coolant = = 327,6 24
Unaccounted = 1 365 – 1 093,485 = 279,705 20,49
1 365 = 1 365 100
Table 3.1
2. ( ) = ( )
= 1 479,189 kPa
= ( ) ( )
= 602,5 K
=√ √
= 492,143 m/s

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Power Machines N6
3. =
= 8,6 kg/s
4. ( ) = ( )
= 469,06 K
=√ √
= 714,436 m/s
Activity 3.1
Superheated steam enters a convergent-divergent nozzle at a pressure of 3

MPa, with a temperature of 300 C and no velocity and is expanded to a
pressure of 860 kPa with an actual dryness factor of 98%.
At the throat the pressure is 1 ,6 MPa, the specific heat capacity is 2,825
kJ/kg.K and the index for superheated steam is 1,3.
At the exit the isentropic dryness factor is 99,286% of the actual dryness
factor.
The steam flows at a rate of 5,2 kg/s.

The specific enthalpy drop in the convergent part is 135,2 kJ/kg.

1. The velocity of the steam in m/s, the specific enthalpy of the steam, the
temperature of the steam, the specific volume of the steam, the area in
mm2 and the diameter in mm at the throat of the nozzle.

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Power Machines N6
2. The actual specific enthalpy and the isentropic specific at the nozzle exit,
the actual enthalpy drop and the isentropic enthalpy drop through the
nozzle and the nozzle efficiency.
[520; 2995; 2859.8; 201.4; 225.4; 0.1325; 41.047; 2729.28; 2715.028; 265.72;
279.972; 94.909]
Activity 3.2
A gas expands through a convergent-divergent nozzle at a rate of 190,68

kg/min to an actual temperature of 226,2 C. The nozzle has an efficiency of
90%. The isentropic temperature drop through the nozzle is 312 C. The
velocity of the gas at the nozzle inlet is negligible. The pressure at the throat is
1 640,315 kPa. Take gamma for air as 1,4 and R as 0,287 kJ/kg.K.

1. The absolute temperature and the pressure in kPa at the nozzle inlet.
2. The value of Cp, the absolute temperature, the velocity in m/s, the
specific volume, the area in mm2 and the diameter in mm at the throat
of the nozzle.
3. The absolute isentropic temperature, the pressure in kPa and the velocity
in m/s at the nozzle exit.
[780; 3105; 1.005; 650; 511.175; 0.1137; 706.878; 30; 468; 751.271]
Activity 3.3
Air flows through a convergent-divergent nozzle at a rate of 150 kg/min to an

exit pressure of 237,26 kPa.
At the throat the pressure is 475,454 kPa, the area is 1 534,6 mm 2, the actual
temperature is 131,11 C and the velocity of the air is 398,801 m/s.
The overall efficiency of the nozzle is 92%.
Take gamma for air as 1,4 and Cp as 1,008 kJ/kg.K.
Ignore the velocity of the air at the inlet and calculate:

1. The absolute temperature and the pressure in kPa at the inlet.
2. The absolute isentropic temperature, specific volume in m3/kg at the
throat and the percentage heat loss before the throat.
3. The absolute isentropic and actual temperatures, the velocity in m/s and
the area mm2 at the exit. Assume the specific volume to be 0,4154 m 3/kg.

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Power Machines N6
4. The Mach number at the exit.
[483; 900; 402.5; 2; 330; 342.24; 532.703; 1949.492; 1.336]
Activity 3.4
A gas expands in a convergent-divergent nozzle from 500 kPa to 143 kPa.

The initial temperature is 537 C and the adiabatic efficiency of the nozzle is
92%.
Assume that all losses take place after the throat of the nozzle.
Take gamma = 1,4 R = 0,288 kJ/kg.K and Cp = 1,008 kJ/kg.K

1. The pressure and the temperature at the throat of the nozzle.
2. The specific volume in m3 per kg of gas, the velocity in m/s and the area
in mm2 per kg of gas at the throat of the nozzle.
3. The adiabatic and actual temperatures at the exit of the nozzle.
4. The specific volume in m3 per kg of gas, the velocity in m/s and the area
in mm2 per kg of gas at the exist of the nozzle.
[675; 0.7359; 521.69; 1.410; 566.45; 0.92; 585.93; 672.10; 2680]
Activity 3.5
A gas expands in a convergent-divergent nozzle from a pressure of 2 800 kPa

to a pressure of 480 kPa. The temperature at the nozzle entrance is 483C.
The velocity at the throat is 504 m/s and the area is 3 651,8 mm 2.
The temperature drop in the convergent part is 126 C. The Mach number is
1,505. Assume that ALL losses occur after the throat.
Ignore the velocity at the inlet and calculate the following:

1. The absolute temperature at the throat, the value of gamma and the
pressure at the throat in kPa.
2. The values of Cp, Cv and R, the specific volume at the throat and the
mass flow rate of the gas in kg/s.
3. The absolute adiabatic temperature, the velocity in m/s and the absolute
actual temperature at the exist and the efficiency of the divergent part
of the nozzle.
[630; 1.4; 1479.189; 1.008; 0.72; 0.288; 0.1227; 15; 456.76; 758.52; 470.607; 92]

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Power Machines N6
Activity 3.6
Air enters a convergent-divergent nozzle with a pressure of 3 774,5 kPa and a

temperature of 537C at a rate of 8 kg/s.
The temperature drop through the nozzle is 243 C.
The pressure ratio between the exit and the entrance is 0,242:1.
The velocity of the air at the exist is 699,92 m/s.
Expansion follows the law

1. The specific heat capacity of the air, the adiabatic absolute temperature
at the exit of the nozzle and the value of gamma.
2. The absolute temperature of the air, the velocity of the air in m/s, the
pressure in kPa at the throat of the nozzle and the value of the
characteristic gas constant.
3. The specific value, the area in mm2 and the diameter in mm at the throat
of the nozzle.
[1.008; 540; 1.4; 675; 521.69; 1994; 0.288; 0.0975; 1495.141; 43.631]
Activity 3.7
Superheated steam enters a convergent-divergent nozzle and expands to an

exit pressure of 400 kPa with an isentropic dryness factor of 0,931. Up to the
throat the flow is frictionless and adiabatic. The specific enthalpy drop in the
convergent part is 125 kJ/kg.
The efficiency in the divergent part is 85%. The pressure at the throat is 1,2
MPa, the temperature is 192 C and the specific heat capacity is 2,5 kJ/kg.K.
The steam flow at a rate of 451,38 kg/min.
Ignore the velocity of the steam at the inlet. Take the ‗n‘ for superheated
steam as 1,3.

1. The specific enthalpy, the velocity in m/s, the specific volume of the
steam, the area in mm2 and the diameter in mm of the nozzle at the
throat.
2. The specific isentropic enthalpy, the specific actual enthalpy, the actual
dryness factor, the specific volume and the velocity of the steam in m/s at
the exit of the nozzle.
[188; 2792; 500; 0.1637; 2463.03; 56; 2590.823; 2621; 0.945; 0.4368; 769.415]

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Power Machines N6
Self-Check

 Describe the theory of gas flow
 Describe the working principle of the convergent divergent
nozzle
 Describe the diagram of change of pressure of gas passing
through a nozzle
 Calculate pressures, volumes, mass flow and temperature
change.

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Power Machines N6
Learning Outcomes
 Describe the principles of action of impulse and reaction turbines

 Describe the features of construction of turbines
 Describe the two stage turbines
 Calculate the work done by two stage turbines
 Calculate the efficiencies of reaction and impulse turbines
4.1 Introduction
Passage through the combustion chamber, where heat is added

and the specific volume of the gases increases, is accompanied by
a slight loss in pressure.
During expansion amidst the stator and rotor blades of the turbine, irreversible
energy transformation once again occurs. Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1 The gas turbine

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Power Machines N6
Note:
If the device has been designed to power a shaft as with an
industrial generator or a turboprop, the exit pressure will be as close
to the entry pressure as possible. In practice it is necessary that
some pressure remains at the outlet in order to fully expel the
exhaust gases.
As a general rule, the smaller the engine, the higher the rotation rate of the
shaft must be to maintain tip speed. Blade-tip speed determines the maximum
pressure ratios that can be obtained by the turbine and the compressor.
This, in turn, limits the maximum power and efficiency that can be obtained by
the engine.
Think about it!

In the case of a jet engine only enough pressure and energy is
extracted from the flow to drive the compressor and other
components. The remaining high pressure gases are accelerated to
provide a jet that can, for example, be used to propel an aircraft.
In order for tip speed to remain constant, if the diameter of a rotor is reduced
by half, the rotational speed must double. For example, large jet engines
operate around 10,000 rpm, while micro turbines spin as fast as 500,000 rpm.
Mechanically, gas turbines can be considerably less complex than internal

combustion piston engines. Simple turbines might have one moving part: the
shaft/compressor/turbine/alternative-rotor assembly (see image above), not
counting the fuel system.
However, the required precision manufacturing for components and

temperature resistant alloys necessary for high efficiency often make the
construction of a simple turbine more complicated than piston engines.
More sophisticated turbines (such as those found in modern jet engines) may
have multiple shafts (spools), hundreds of turbine blades, movable stator
blades, and a vast system of complex piping, combustors and heat
exchangers.
Thrust bearings and journal bearings are a critical part of design. Traditionally,
they have been hydrodynamic oil bearings, or oil-cooled ball bearings. These
bearings are being surpassed by foil bearings, which have been successfully
used in micro turbines and auxiliary power units.

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Power Machines N6
4.2 The joule cycle

In an ideal gas turbine, gases undergo three thermodynamic processes: an
isentropic compression, isobaric (constant pressure) combustion and an
isentropic expansion. Together, these make up the Joule cycle,
otherwise known as the Brayton cycle.
Note:
In a practical gas turbine, mechanical energy is irreversibly
transformed into heat when gases are compressed (in either a
centrifugal or axial compressor).
4.2.1 Ideal Joule cycle

 Isentropic process – ambient air is drawn into the compressor, where it is
pressurized.
 Isobaric process – the compressed air then runs through a combustion
chamber, where fuel is burned, heating that air—a constant-pressure
process, since the chamber is open to flow in and out.
 Isentropic process – the heated, pressurized air then gives up its energy,
expanding through a turbine (or series of turbines). Some of the work
extracted by the turbine is used to drive the compressor.
 Isobaric process – heat rejection (in the atmosphere).
4.2.2 Actual Joule cycle

 Adiabatic process – compression
 Isobaric process – heat addition
 Adiabatic process – expansion
 Isobaric process – heat rejection
Figure 4.2 PV diagram and TS diagram
Looking at Figure 4.2, the operation of the cycle is as follows:

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Power Machines N6
1 to 2
 Adiabatic air compression
 Pressure increase from P1 to P2
 Temperature increase from T1 to T2
 Volume decrease from V1 to V2
 Entropy remains constant
2 to 3
 Constant pressure heat addition
 Pressure remains constant P2 = P3
 Entropy increase from S2 to S3
3 to 4
 Adiabatic expansion
 Pressure decrease from P3 to P4
 Temperature decrease from T3 to T4
 Volume increase from V3 to V4
 Entropy remains constant S3 = S4
4 to 1
 Constant pressure heat withdrawal
 Entropy decrease from S4 to S1
Since neither the compression nor the expansion can be truly isentropic, losses
through the compressor and the expander represent sources of inescapable
working inefficiencies. In general, increasing the compression ratio is the most
direct way to increase the overall power output of a Joule system.
The efficiency of the ideal Joule cycle is:
( )
4.2.3 Work done

Consider the work done by looking at the areas under the PV diagram show in
Figure 4.3:

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Power Machines N6
Figure 4.3 PV diagram showing the work done in the different processes
( ) [ ]
4.2.4 Compressor adiabatic efficiency

Friction takes place between the gas and the blades during the compression
cycle so mechanical energy is converted to thermal energy.
So heat is gained while being compressed making this a multi-tropical process.
Definitions:
When the index… n is larger than it is called super adiabatic and
when the index … n is smaller than it is called sub-adiabatic.
There are then two cycles in one, namely:

 The ideal cycle – Isentropic process shown as a solid line in Figure 4.4.
 The actual cycle - Adiabatic process shown as a Brocken line in Figure 4.4.
The compressor adiabatic efficiency indicates the ratio between the actual
and adiabatic temperatures during combustion.
( )

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Power Machines N6
Figure 4.4 PV diagram showing the ideal and actual cycles
4.2.5 Turbine adiabatic efficiency

The efficiency, TAE, indicates the ratio between the adiabatic and actual
temperature during expansion in the turbine.
( )
Note:
One cycle represents two components. It can be distinguished as
follows:
 Compressor (I to 2) compression
 Turbine (3 to 4) turbine
4.3 Work done on blades

4.3.1 Velocities on blade inlet
Figure 4.5 shows the how steam changes direction through the blade
imparting a force on the blade that causes it move in the direction indicated.
The steam has a velocity of Cai and an angle and the blade is moving at a
velocity U , then the velocity of the steam relative to the blade, Cri will be
obtained by compounding these two velocities as shown in the inlet velocity
triangle. See the velocity triangle Figure 4.6 (a) and the vector diagram Figure
4.6 (b).
The velocity Cwi is in the direction of the blade movement and is termed the
velocity of whirl at inlet.
Cfi is the velocity of flow and is along the axis of rotation.

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Power Machines N6
Figure 4.5 Steam direction is changed
Figure 4.6 (a) and (b) Inlet condition on blade. (a) Velocity triangle and
(b) Vector diagram
4.3.2 Velocities on blade exit

Figure 4.7 (a) shows the velocity triangle at the blade exit. As the steam passes
over the moving blade it changes direction and leaves the blade with an exit
relative velocity of Cre at an angle To the angle of direction.

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Power Machines N6
The blade will be moving with a velocity U. Therefore the steam at exit has two
component velocities Cre and U. These velocities are compounded to give the
absolute velocity Cae.
Cwe is the velocity in line with the moving blades called the velocity of whirl at
exit and Cfe is termed the velocity of flow at exit and is in the direction of the
axis of rotation.
Figure 4.7 (a) and (b) Outlet condition on blade. (a) Velocity triangle and
(b) Vector diagram
4.3.3 Work done on the blades

The combined vector diagram Figure 4.8 must be accurately drawn out with
the correct angles and to a suitable scale. From this, the relevant velocities are
obtained.

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Power Machines N6
Figure 4.8 Combined vector diagram
Work done on blades:

–
Force to change the velocity of whirl
The negative sign shows the force acts in the direction opposite to the rotation.
The reaction force has the same magnitude so this is the formula that we use.
The work done per second or power
Blade or diagram efficiency
Axial thrust is found by using the change in the velocity of flow:

–

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Power Machines N6
Worked Example 4.1
A single-stage impulse turbine has an average blade speed of 300 m/s. The
gas leaves the turbine at an angle of 50º and the velocity coefficient is 0,75.
The blade inlet angle is 26 º and the gas flows at a rate of 48 kg/s through the
turbine. The relative exit velocity of the gas is 600 m/s.
1. Use a scale of 1 cm = 50 m/s and construct a velocity diagram

(landscape) and enter all the values (m/s) onto the diagram
2. Use the diagram and determine the following:
2.1 the nozzle angle
2.2 the velocity of the gas leaving the nozzles
2.3 the velocity of the gas leaving the turbine
2.4 the blade outlet angle
2.5 the relative inlet velocity of the gas
2.6 the power developed by the turbine in MW
2.7 the axial thrust of the turbine in kN
Solution:
1.
Figure 4.9
2.1 =
2.2 =
2.3 =
2.4 =
2.5 =

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Power Machines N6
2.6 =
2.7 =
4.3.4 The reaction turbine

In the reaction turbine, the rotor blades themselves are arranged to form
convergent nozzles. This type of turbine makes use of the reaction force
produced as the steam accelerates through the nozzles formed by the rotor.
Figure 4.10 shows the moving blades and stationary blades of the reaction
turbine are identical.
Steam is directed onto the rotor by the fixed vanes of the stator. It leaves the
stator as a jet that fills the entire circumference of the rotor. The steam then
changes direction and increases its speed relative to the speed of the blades.
A pressure drop occurs across both the stator and the rotor, with steam
accelerating through the stator and decelerating through the rotor, with no
net change in steam velocity across the stage but with a decrease in both
pressure and temperature, reflecting the work performed in the driving of the
rotor.
Figure 4.10 Turbine nozzles and blades

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Power Machines N6
Note:
Because the moving and stationary blades are identical, the
velocity triangles will be symmetrical with the angles being equal.
Figure 4.11 Velocity triangle of the reaction blades
4.3.5 Two stage velocity compounded impulse turbine

When the pressure drop available is large, it cannot all be used in one turbine
stage. A single stage utilizing a large pressure drop will have an impractically
high peripheral speed of its rotor.
This would lead to either a larger diameter or a very high rotational speed.
Therefore, machines with large pressure drops employ more than one stage.
One of the methods to employ multi-stage expansion in impulse turbines is to

generate high velocity of the fluid by causing it to expand through a large
pressure drop in the nozzle blade row.
This high velocity fluid then transfers its energy in a number of stages by
employing many rotor blade rows separated by rows of fixed guide blades.
A two-stage velocity compounded impulse turbine is shown in Figure 4.12.
The decrease in the absolute velocity of the fluid across the two rotor blade
rows (R1 and R2) is due to the energy transfer. the slight decrease in the fluid
velocity through the fixed guide blades (F) is due to losses.
Note:
Since the turbine is of the impulse type, the pressure of the fluid
remains constant after its expansion in the nozzle blade row. Such
stages are referred to as velocity or Curtis stages.

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Power Machines N6
Figure 4.12 Velocity pressure through velocity compounded impulse turbine
4.3.6 Two stage pressure compounded impulse turbine

There are two major problems in velocity-compounded stages:
 The nozzles have to be of the convergent-divergent type for generating
high (supersonic) steam velocity. This results in a more expensive and
difficult design of the nozzle blade rows.
 High velocity at the nozzle exit leads to higher cascade losses. Shock waves
are generated if the flow is supersonic which further increase the losses.
To avoid these problems, another method of utilizing a high pressure ratio is

employed in which the total pressure drop is divided into a number of impulse
stages. These are known as pressure-compounded or Rateau stages.
On account of the comparatively lower pressure drop, the nozzle blade rows
are subsonic (M < 1). Therefore, such a stage does not suffer from the
disabilities of the velocity stages.
Figure 4.13 shows the variation of pressure and velocity of steam through the
two pressure stages of an impulse turbine. The nozzle blades in each stage
receive flow in the axial direction.
Note:
Some designers employ pressure stages up to the last stage. This
gives a turbine of shorter length as compared to the reaction type,
with a penalty on efficiency.

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Power Machines N6
Figure 4.13 Velocity pressure through pressure compounded impulse turbine
4.3.7 Two stage Reaction

Figure 4.14 shows two reaction stages and the variation of pressure and
velocity of the gas in them. The gas pressure decreases continuously over both
fixed and moving rows of blades.
Since the pressure drop in each stage is smaller as compared to the impulse
stages, the gas velocities are relatively low. Besides this the flow is accelerating
throughout.
Figure 4.14 Pressure compounding through a reaction turbine

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Power Machines N6
These factors make the reaction stages aerodynamically more efficient though
the tip leakage loss is increased on account of the relatively higher pressure
difference across the rotor blades.
Note:
Multi-stage reaction turbines employ a large pressure drop by
dividing it to smaller values in individual stages. Thus the reaction
stages are like the pressure-compounded stages with a new
element of ―reaction‖ introduced in them, i.e. of accelerating the
flow through rotor blade rows also.
4.4 Velocity diagram for a two stage turbine

In Figure 4.15 the solid triangles represent the first stage moving blades and the
Brocken line the second stage. The angles have been omitted for clarity.
Figure 4.15 Velocity triangles for two stages
Figure 4.16 Velocity triangle of the second stage

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Power Machines N6
Worked Example 4.2
The blades of a two-stage, velocity compounded impulse gas turbine has an

average diameter of 976 mm and rotates at 3 131 r/min.
The velocity of flow at the inlet to the first stage is 225 m/s.
The velocity of flow t the inlet to the second stage is 100 m/s.
The outlet angle of the first row of moving blades is 25C.
The outlet angle of the second row or moving blades is 28C.
The gas leaves the turbine at an angle of 80.
There is a 4% loss of velocity across all blades due to friction.
1. Construct velocity diagrams for the turbine by using a scale 1 mm = 5 m/s.

Indicate the lengths of all the lines as well as the magnitude of the angles
on the diagrams.
2. Determine the following from the velocity diagrams:
2.1 The nozzle angle
2.2 The inlet angle to the fixed blades
2.3 The outlet angle from the fixed blades
2.4 The inlet angle to the second row of moving blades
2.5 The inlet angle to the first row of moving blades
2.6 The nozzle velocity in m/s
2.7 The velocity of the gas leaving the first stage in m/s
2.8 The velocity of the gas leaving the fixed blades in m/s
2.9 The velocity of the gas leaving the turbine in m/s
2.10 The relative velocity of the gas at inlet to the first stage in m/s
2.11 The blading efficiency
Solution:
= 160m/s

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Power Machines N6
Figure 4.17
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
= 90,278

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Power Machines N6
Worked Example 4.3
A gas turbine engine working on the constant pressure cycle has a

compression adiabatic efficiency of 85%. The ambient air pressure and
temperature is 103,4 kPa and 288 respectively, the actual air temperature
after compression is 515 K. 643 kJ of heat is added per kilogram of air per
cycle during combustion. Expansion adiabatic efficiency is 82%.
Take gamma as 1,4 and Cp as 1 kJ/kg.K.

1. The actual and adiabatic temperatures.
2. The highest pressure in the cycle.
3. The compression and expansion indexes.
4. The heat lost during constant pressure heat rejection per kilogram of air
per cycle.
Solution:
1. =
0,85 =
= 480,95 kPa
643 =
= 1 158 K
= ( )

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Power Machines N6
Figure 4.18
= ( )
2. = ( )
= ( )
= 693,43 K
0,82 =
= 777,06 K
3. =( )
= ( )
= ( )

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Power Machines N6
=( )
= ( )
= 1,29
4. =
Worked Example 4.4
An open circuit, continuous combustion, constant pressure gas turbine takes

air in at a pressure of 104 kPa and a temperature of 26C.
The air is compressed to a pressure of 520 kPa in a compressor with an
isentropic efficiency of 84%.
The air then passes at constant pressure, through a heat exchanger with an
efficiency of 80%.
From the heat exchanger the air passes at constant pressure through a
combustion chamber, which receives 502,5 kJ of energy per kg of air and in
which the temperature of the air is raised to 877C.
From the combustion chamber the air passes through a turbine, with an
isentropic efficiency of 86%, to a pressure of 104 kPa.
The air then passes at constant pressure through the heat exchanger to the
exhaust. Take gamma for air as 1,4 and Cp as 1,005 kJ/kg.K.
Ignore the mass of the fuel and calculate:

1. The absolute adiabatic temperature and the absolute actual
temperature of the air after compression as well as the work done by the
compressor in kJ/kg of air.
2. The absolute adiabatic temperature and the absolute actual
temperature of the air after expansion as well as the work done on the

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Power Machines N6
turbine in kJ/kg of air.

3. The absolute temperature of the air at the combustion chamber inlet and
the absolute temperature of the air at the exhaust.
4. The thermal efficiency of the plant.
Solution:
Figure 4.19
1. = ( ) ( )
2. = ( ) ( )

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Power Machines N6
3. =
4. =
Activity 4.1
The following readings were taken during a test on an open circuit,

continuous combustion, constant pressure gas turbine plant:
Air temperature at compressor inlet = 16C

Air temperature at compressor outlet = 240C
Air temperature at combustion chamber inlet = 400C
Temperature of combustion products at turbine inlet = 840C
Temperature of combustion products at turbine outlet = 483,25C
The temperature at exit from the plant = 233,25C
The pressure ratio for both compressor and turbine = 6:1
The mass flow rate of the air is = 5 kg/s
The specific heat capacity of air = 1,008 kJ/kg.K
The value of gamma = 1,4
Ignore the mass of the fuel and calculate the following:

1. The power to compress the air and the power developed by the turbine
in kW.
2. The energy received from the combustion chamber in kW.
3. The thermal efficiency of the plant.
4. The efficiency of the heat exchanger.
5. The absolute isentropic temperature and the isentropic efficiency of the
compressor.
6. The absolute isentropic temperature and the isentropic efficiency of the
turbine.
[1128.96; 1798.02; 2217.6; 30.17; 64; 482.2; 86.25; 667.062; 80]

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Power Machines N6
Activity 4.2
Steam discharges axially from a velocity compounded, two-stage, impulse

turbine with a velocity of 80 m/s.
The inlet and exit angle of the first row of moving blades as well as the inlet
angle of the second row of moving blades are equal.
The exit angle of the second row of moving blades is 26.
No axial thrust is developed in the second stage.
The velocity coefficient for all the blades is 0,96.
The steam flow rate is 45 kg/s.
1. Use a scale of 1 mm = 4 m/s and construct velocity diagrams for the

turbine. Indicate the lengths of all the lines as well as the magnitude of
the angles of the diagrams.
2.2 the exist angle of the fixed blades
2.3 the inlet and exit angles of the first row of moving blades as well as
the inlet angle of the second row of moving blades
2.4 the inlet angle of the fixed blades
2.5 the average blade velocity in m/s
2.6 the nozzle velocity in m/s
2.7 the velocity of the steam leaving the first stage in m/s
2.8 the blade efficiency
[19; 13.4; 24.9; 36; 164; 675.2; 360; 91.084; 9.343]
Activity 4.3
The average diameter of the moving blades of a two-stage, velocity-

compounded impulse gas turbine, rotating at 2 107:5 r/min is 1,45 m.
The inlet and outlet angles for the first row of moving blades are 25.
The relative inlet and outlet velocities for the first row of moving blades are
560 m/s and 532 m/s respectively.
The outlet angle for the second row of moving blades is 28.
The velocity of flow at entry to the second stage is 115 m/s.
1. Construct velocity diagrams for the turbine using a scale of 1 mm = 5 m/s.

Indicate all the lengths as well as the magnitude of the angles on the
diagrams.
2.2 the velocity of the gas entering the fixed blades in m/s

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Power Machines N6
2.3 the velocity of the gas leaving the fixed blades in m/s
2.4 the velocity of the gas leaving the turbine in m/s
2.5 the angle at the entrance to the second row of moving blades
2.6 the angle at the entrance to the fixed blades
2.7 the angle at the exit of the fixed blades
2.8 the relative velocity at the entrance of the second row or moving
blades in m/s
[160; 708; 393; 373; 105; 30.6; 35; 18; 226.5; 215; 87.78]
Activity 4.4
The following information refers to a velocity compounded, two-stage

impulse turbine:
 The nozzles supply gas at 720 m/s at an angle of 20 to the rotation of the
blades.
 The average blade velocity is 160 m/s.
 The gas enters the second stage at an angle of 18.
 The inlet and outlet angles for the first row of moving blades are equal.
 The inlet and outlet angles for the second row of moving blades are
equal.
 There is a 5% loss of velocity across all blades, due to friction.
1. Use a scale of 1 mm = 5 m/s and construct velocity diagrams for the

the angles on the diagrams.
2.1 the inlet and exit angles for the first row of moving blades
2.2 the inlet and outlet angles for the second row of moving blades
2.3 the inlet angle of the fixed blades
2.4 the outlet angle of the turbine
2.5 the velocity of the gas leaving the first stage in m/s
2.6 the velocity of the gas entering the second stage in m/s
2.7 the velocity of the gas leaving the turbine in m/s
2.8 the relative velocity of the gas entering the first row of moving
blades in m/s
2.9 the relative velocity of the gas leaving the second row of moving
blades in m/s
2.10 the blading efficiency
[25.5; 30; 35.3; 72.5; 405; 385; 118.5; 572.5; 212.5; 87.006]
Activity 4.5

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Power Machines N6
A two-stage velocity-compounded, impulse steam turbine consists of two

rows of moving blades separated by a row of fixed blades.
The inlet and outlet angles for the first row of moving blades are 25C.
The outlet angle for the fixed blades is 16,5C.
The relative velocity at outlet from the first row of moving blades is 436 m/s.
The outlet angle of the second row of moving blades is 30C.
The steam is discharged axially from the turbine.
There is a 6% loss of velocity across all the blades due to friction.
1. Use the length of 35 mm for the average blade velocity and construct
velocity diagrams for the turbine and calculate the scale. Indicate the
lengths of all the lines as well as the magnitude of the angles on the
diagrams.
2. Determine from the velocity diagrams:
2.1 The average blade velocity in m/s
2.2 The nozzle velocity in m/s
2.3 The velocity of the steam leaving the first stage in m/s
2.4 The velocity of the steam entering the second stage in m/s
2.5 The velocity of the steam leaving the turbine in m/s
2.6 The nozzle angle
2.7 The energy developed by the turbine in kJ/kg steam
2.8 The blading efficiency
[140; 594; 314.8; 296; 70; 19.3; 154; 87.3]
Activity 4.6
A velocity compounded steam turbine has blading designed in such a way

that the discharge steam would flow axially from the last row of moving
blades.
The last stage consisting of two rows of moving blades separated by a fixed
blade row has moving blade tip angles of 30 throughout.
The blade speed, the nozzle angle and the fixed blade angles are designed
for a nozzle discharge velocity of 500 m/s.
The relative velocity of steam to blades is assumed to reduce by 10% over
each row of blading.
1. Use a length of 3 cm for the average blade speed to construct velocity

diagrams for the turbine. Indicate all the lengths as well as the
magnitude of all the angles on the diagrams and calculate the scale
from the velocity diagrams.
2.1 the blade speed in m/s
2.2 the fixed inlet angle of the first stage
2.3 the inlet flow velocity of the second stage
2.4 the exit relative velocity of the second stage

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Power Machines N6
2.5 the power developed per kilogram of steam

2.6 the blading efficiency
[37.3:1; 112; 24; 74.6; 130.6; 101.09; 80.9]
Activity 4.7
A velocity compounded, two-stage impulse turbine discharges 20 kg of

steam per second, at an angle of 75 with the rotation of the blades and a
velocity of 100 m/s.
The inlet and outlet angles for the first row of moving blades are both 25.
The average blade velocity is 180 m/s.
The inlet angle of the second row of moving blades is 30.
There is a 5% loss of velocity across all blades due to friction.
1. Use a scale of 5 m/s = 1 mm and construct velocity diagrams for the

2.2 the inlet angle to the second stage
2.3 the inlet angle to the fixed blades
2.5 the exit velocity from the first stage in m/s
2.6 the inlet velocity to the second stage in m/s
2.7 the axial force developed in the turbine in N
[19.4; 17.2; 35.3; 780; 426.5; 405.5; 720; 5.391]
Activity 4.8
A velocity compounded, two-stage, impulse gas turbine consists of two rows

of moving blades with a row of fixed blades separating them.
The inlet and outlet angles for the first row of moving blades are both 24.
The inlet and outlet angles for the second row of moving blades are both 30.
The exit angle for the fixed blades is 17.
1. use a length of 36 mm for the average for the blade velocity and
construct velocity diagrams for the turbine. Indicate the lengths of all the
lines as well as the magnitude of the angles on the diagrams. Use 575 m/s
for the relative velocity at the outlet from the first stage and calculate the
scale.

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Power Machines N6

2.2 the velocity at exit from the first stage in m/s
2.3 the velocity at exit from the turbine in m/s
2.4 the velocity at entrance to the second stage in m/s
2.5 the relative velocity at inlet to the first stage in m/s
2.6 the relative velocity at entrance to the second stage in m/s
2.7 the relative velocity at exit from the second stage in m/s
2.8 the angle at which the gas leaves the turbine
2.9 the axial thrust developed in the turbine in N/kg
[766.5; 417; 112; 400; 600; 234; 222.5; 83.6; 15.5]
Self-Check

 Describe the principles of action of impulse and reaction
turbines
 Describe the features of construction of turbines
 Describe the two stage turbines
 Calculate the work done by two stage turbines
 Calculate the efficiencies of reaction and impulse turbines

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Power Machines N6
Learning Outcomes
 Describe the four stroke cycle for an IC engine

 Describe the two stroke cycle for an IC engine
 Describe the four stroke cycle for the diesel engine
 Describe the Otto cycle and diesel cycle
 Describe the way to heat balance IC engine
 Describe an engine trial
 Calculate power, heat transfer, work done
5.1 Introduction
An internal combustion engine (ICE) is a heat engine where the

combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a
combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow
circuit.
Note:
In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the high-
temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion
apply direct force to the piston.
5.1.1 Cylinder configuration

The base of a reciprocating internal combustion engine is the engine block,
which is typically made of cast iron or aluminium. The engine block contains
the cylinders.
In engines with more than one cylinder they are usually arranged either in 1
row (straight engine) as in Figure 5.1 or 2 rows (boxer engine or V-engine); 3
rows are occasionally used (W-engine).

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Power Machines N6
Water-cooled engines contain passages in the engine block where cooling

fluid circulates (The water jacket).
5.1.2 Pistons
The top wall of the piston is termed its crown and is typically flat or concave.
Figure 5.1 Moving parts in an – in-line 4-cylinder engine
Note:
Some two-stroke engines use pistons with a deflector head. Pistons
are open at the bottom and hollow except for an integral
reinforcement structure (the piston web).
When an engine is working the gas pressure in the combustion chamber exerts
a force on the piston crown which is transferred through its web to a gudgeon
pin. Figure 5.2.
Each piston has rings fitted around its circumference that mostly prevent the
gases from leaking into the crankcase or the oil into the combustion area of
the cylinder.

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Power Machines N6
Figure 5.2 Pistons with connecting rods and crank shaft
5.1.3 Cylinder head

The cylinder head seals the cylinders on the side opposite to the pistons; it
contains short ducts (the ports) for intake and exhaust and the associated
intake valves that open to let the cylinder be filled with fresh air and exhaust
valves that open to allow the combustion gases to escape.
The cylinder head also holds the spark plug in the case of spark ignition
engines and the injector for engines that use direct injection. A head
gasket prevents the gas from leaking between the cylinder head and the
engine block.
Note:
The opening and closing of the valves is controlled by one or
several camshafts and springs.
The cylinder head has an intake manifold and an exhaust manifold attached
to the corresponding ports. The intake manifold connects to the air
filter directly, or to a carburettor when one is present, which is then connected
to the air filter. It distributes the air incoming from these devices to the
individual cylinders.
Note:
The exhaust manifold is the first component in the exhaust system. It
collects the exhaust gases from the cylinders and drives it to the
following component in the path.

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Power Machines N6
5.1.4 Crank case

The crankcase is sealed at the bottom with a sump that collects the falling oil
during normal operation to be cycled again. The cavity created between the
cylinder block and the sump houses a crankshaft that converts the
reciprocating motion of the pistons to rotational motion.
5.1.5 Ignition
Internal combustion engines require ignition of the mixture, either by spark
ignition or compression ignition.
Gasoline ignition process:

Petrol (gasoline) engine ignition systems generally rely on a combination
of alternator or generator and lead-acid battery for electrical power. The
battery supplies electrical power for cranking, and supplies electrical power
when the engine is off.
Note:
The battery also supplies electrical power during rare run conditions
where the alternator cannot maintain more than 13.8 volts.
Some systems disable alternator field (rotor) power during wide open throttle
conditions. Disabling the field reduces alternator pulley mechanical loading to
nearly zero, maximizing crankshaft power. In this case the battery supplies all
primary electrical power.
Petrol engines take in a mixture of air and petrol (gasoline) and compress it to
not more than 12.8 bar (1.28 MPa). When mixture is compressed, as the piston
approaches the cylinder head and maximum stroke, a spark plug ignites the
mixture.
The necessary high voltage, typically 10,000 volts to over 30,000 volts, is
supplied by an induction coil or transformer. The induction coil is a fly-back
system, using interruption of electrical primary system current through some
type of synchronized interrupter.
The interrupter can be either contact points or a power transistor. Some ignition
systems are capacitive discharge types. CD ignitions use step-up transformers.
The step-up transformer uses energy stored in a capacitance to
generate electric spark.
Note:
With either system, a mechanical or electrical control system
provides a carefully timed high-voltage to the proper cylinder. This
spark, via the spark plug, ignites the air-fuel mixture in the engine's
cylinders.

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Power Machines N6
5.1.6 Fuels
The most common modern fuels are made up of hydrocarbons and are
derived mostly from fossil fuels (petroleum). Fossil fuels include diesel
fuel, Petrol and petroleum gas.
5.2 Petrol engines

The top dead center (TDC) of a piston is the position where it is nearest to the
valves; bottom dead center (BDC) is the opposite position where it is furthest
from them.
Note:
A stroke is the movement of a piston from TDC to BDC or vice versa
together with the associated process. While an engine is in
operation the crankshaft rotates continuously at a nearly
constant speed.
5.2.1 Four stroke engine

In a 4-stroke ICE each piston experiences 2 strokes per crankshaft revolution in
the following order. Starting the description at TDC, these are.
 (a) Intake, induction or suction: The intake valves are open as a result of the
cam lobe pressing down on the valve stem. The piston moves downward
increasing the volume of the combustion chamber and allowing air to enter
in the case of a CI engine or an air fuel mix in the case of SI engines that do
not use direct injection. The air or air-fuel mixture is called the charge in any
case.
 (b) Compression: In this stroke, both valves are closed and the piston moves
upward reducing the combustion chamber volume which reaches its
minimum when the piston is at TDC. The piston performs work on the charge
as it is being compressed; as a result its pressure, temperature and density
increase; an approximation to this behavior is provided by the ideal gas
law.
Just before the piston reaches TDC, ignition begins. In the case of a SI
engine, the spark plug receives a high voltage pulse that generates the
spark which gives it its name and ignites the charge. In the case of a CI
engine the fuel injector quickly injects fuel into the combustion chamber as
a spray; the fuel ignites due to the high temperature.
 (c) Power or working stroke: The pressure of the combustion gases pushes
the piston downward, generating more work than it required to compress
the charge. Complementary to the compression stroke, the combustion
gases expand and as a result their temperature, pressure and density
decreases.

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When the piston is near to BDC the exhaust valve opens. The combustion
gases expand irreversibly due to the leftover pressure - in excess of back
pressure, the gauge pressure on the exhaust port; this is called
the blowdown.
 (d) Exhaust: The exhaust valve remains open while the piston moves
upward expelling the combustion gases. For naturally aspirated engines a
small part of the combustion gases may remain in the cylinder during
normal operation because the piston does not close the combustion
chamber completely; these gases dissolve in the next charge.
At the end of this stroke, the exhaust valve closes, the intake valve opens,
and the sequence repeats in the next cycle. The intake valve may open
before the exhaust valve closes to allow better scavenging.
Figure 5.3 Four-stroke engine cycle

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Figure 5.4 Four-stroke engine PV diagram
5.2.2 Two stroke engine

The defining characteristic of this kind of engine is that each piston completes
a cycle every crankshaft revolution.
The 4 process of intake, compression, power and exhaust take place in only 2
strokes so that it is not possible to dedicate a stroke exclusively for each of
them.
Starting at TDC the cycle consists of:
 Power: While the piston is descending the combustion gases perform work on
it - as in a 4-stroke engine. The same thermodynamically considerations
about the expansion apply.
 Scavenging: Around 75° of crankshaft rotation before BDC the exhaust

valve or port opens, and blowdown occurs. Shortly thereafter the intake
valve or transfer port opens.
The incoming charge displaces the remaining combustion gases to the

exhaust system and a part of the charge may enter the exhaust system as
well.
The piston reaches BDC and reverses direction. After the piston has
travelled a short distance upwards into the cylinder the exhaust valve or
port closes; shortly the intake valve or transfer port closes as well.

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Power Machines N6
 Compression: With both intake and exhaust closed the piston continues
moving upwards compressing the charge and performing a work on it.
As in the case of a 4-stroke engine, ignition starts just before the piston
reaches TDC and the same consideration on the thermodynamics of the
compression on the charge.
While a 4-stroke engine uses the piston as a positive displacement pump to

accomplish scavenging taking 2 of the 4 strokes, a 2-stroke engine uses the last
part of the power stroke and the first part of the compression stroke for
combined intake and exhaust.
Note:
The work required to displace the charge and exhaust gases comes
from either the crankcase or a separate blower. For scavenging,
expulsion of burned gas and entry of fresh mix.
Figure 5.5 Two-stroke engine PV diagram

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Figure 5.6 Two-stroke engine
5.2.3 Otto cycle (constant volume cycle)

Otto cycle is the typical cycle for most of the cars internal combustion engines,
that work using gasoline as a fuel. Otto cycle is exactly the same one that was
described for the four-stroke engine. It consists of the same four major steps:
Intake, compression, ignition and exhaust.
1 to 2
 Adiabatic gas compression
2 to 3
 Constant volume heat addition
 Pressure increases from P2 to P3
 Volume remains constant V2 = V3

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3 to 4
 Adiabatic expansion of the gas
4 to 1
 Constant volume heat rejection
Figure 5.7 PV diagram Otto cycle
5.3 Diesel engines

5.3.1 Diesel ignition process
Diesel engines rely solely on heat and pressure created by the engine in its
compression process for ignition.
Did you know?

The compression level that occurs is usually twice or more than a
gasoline engine.

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Power Machines N6
Diesel engines take in air only, and shortly before peak compression, spray a
small quantity of diesel fuel into the cylinder via a fuel injector that allows the
fuel to instantly ignite.
Did you know?

Diesel engines are more susceptible to cold-starting issues, although
they run just as well in cold weather once started.
Light duty diesel engines with indirect injection in automobiles and light trucks
employ glow plugs that pre-heat the combustion chamber just before starting
to reduce no-start conditions in cold weather.
Most diesels also have a battery and charging system; nevertheless, this system
is secondary and is added by manufacturers as a luxury for the ease of
starting, turning fuel on and off (which can also be done via a switch or
mechanical apparatus), and for running auxiliary electrical components and
accessories.
Note:
Most new engines rely on electrical and electronic engine control
units (ECU) that also adjust the combustion process to increase
efficiency and reduce emissions.
5.3.2 Diesel cycle

Most truck and automotive diesel engines use a cycle reminiscent of a four-
stroke cycle, but with a compression heating ignition system, rather than
needing a separate ignition system.
Figure 5.8 Diesel engine four-stroke system

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Power Machines N6
This variation is called the diesel cycle. In the diesel cycle, diesel fuel is injected
directly into the cylinder so that combustion occurs at constant pressure, as the
piston moves. Figure 5.8.
Did you know?

The diesel engine is a technical refinement of the 1876 Otto Cycle
engine. Where Otto had realized in 1861 that the efficiency of the
engine could be increased by first compressing the fuel mixture
prior to its ignition.
The four-stroke diesel engine has been used in the majority of heavy duty
applications for many decades. It uses a heavy fuel containing more energy
and requiring less refinement to produce.
Figure 5.9 PV diagram Diesel cycle
1 to 2
 Adiabatic gas compression
2 to 3
 Constant pressure heat addition

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Power Machines N6
3 to 4
 Adiabatic expansion of the gas
4 to 1
 Constant volume heat rejection
5.4 Engine trials

While developing an IC engine it is required to take in consideration all the
parameters affecting the engines design and performance. There are
enormous parameters so it becomes difficult to account them while designing
an engine. So it becomes necessary to conduct tests on the engine and
determine the measures to be taken to improve the engines performance.
5.4.1 Parameters
The parameters that affect the efficiency of an engine are enormous.
They include:
 Power and Mechanical Efficiency

 Fuel Air Ratio
 Volumetric Efficiency
 Specific Output
 Specific Fuel Consumption
 Thermal Efficiency and Heat Balance
 Exhaust Smoke and Emissions
 Effective Pressure and Torque
5.4.2 Power and mechanical efficiency

An IC engine is used to produce mechanical power by combustion of fuel.
Power is referred to as the rate at which work is done.
Note:
Power is expressed as the product of force and linear velocity or
product of torque and angular velocity.
In order to measure power one needs to measure torque or force and speed.
The force or torque is measured by Dynamometer and speed by Tachometer.

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Power Machines N6
The power developed by an engine and measured at the output shaft is

called the brake power (bp) and is given by,
where:
is the torque, in Newton meter (N.m),

is the rotational speed, in minutes,
is the brake power, in Watts.
However, while calculating the Mechanical efficiency another factor called

Indicated Power ( ) is considered.
Definition: Indicated Power

It is defined as the power developed by combustion of fuel in the
cylinder of engine and is called ( ). It is always more than brake
power.
is given by,
where:
is the mean pressure

is the area of the piston
is the number of cylinders
Therefore, the difference between ip and bp indicates the power loss in the
mechanical components of engine (due to friction). So the mechanical
efficiency is defined as ratio of brake power to the indicated power.
Friction power is the difference between indicated power and brake power.
5.4.3 Thermal efficiency and heat balance

It is the ratio of output to that of energy input in the form of fuel. It gives the
efficiency with which the chemical energy of fuel is converted into
mechanical work. It shows that all chemical energy of fuel is not converted
into heat energy.

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Power Machines N6
5.4.3.1 Thermal efficiency and total energy input

The methodology for calculating thermal efficiency of a unit is described in this
section to help to determine whether the unit qualifies to exemption or not. It
also includes total energy input which also helps in determining thermal
efficiency.
where:
m is the mass of fuel/sec
CV is the calorific value of the fuel
( )
( )
5.4.4 Brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC)

It is a measure of the fuel efficiency of any prime mover that burns fuel and
produces rotational, or shaft, power. It is typically used for comparing the
efficiency of internal combustion engines with a shaft output.
It is the rate of fuel consumption divided by the power produced. It may also
be thought of as power-specific fuel consumption, for this reason. BSFC allows
the fuel efficiency of different engines to be directly compared.
To calculate BSFC, use the formula
where:
r is the fuel consumption rate in grams per second (g/s)
P is the power produced in watts where
is the engine speed in (rad/s)
is the engine torque in (Nm)
5.4.5 Measurement of brake power

The torque and the angular speed measurement of engine are involved in
measurement of brake power. A dynamometer is used for torque

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Power Machines N6
measurement. The rotor of the engine which is under state is connected to

stator. Rotor moves through distance 2πr against force F. Hence work done.
5.4.5.1 Absorption dynamometer

It absorbs and measures output power of engine. This power is dissipated in the
form of heat. e.g., prony brake, hydraulic dynamometer, rope dynamometer,
Figure 5.10.
Absorption dynamometers are ideally suited for testing petrol engines. The
work done is converted into heat by friction while being measured. They can
be used for measurement of moderate powers only.
Note:
Their main advantage lies in the fact that they are self-air-cooled
and hence water cooling or additional air cooling is not required.
5.4.5.2 Transmission dynamometer

In this the power is transmitted to load connected to engine. Torque meter is
alternative name of this dynamometer. It is usually consists of strain gauge
which measures the torque by angular deformation of shaft.
Note:
These dynamometers are accurate and widely used in automatic
units.
5.4.6 The rope brake
Figure 5.10 Principle of a rope brake dynamometer

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Power Machines N6
S = spring balance reading

m = mass of dead weight
D = diameter of flywheel
d = diameter of rope
5.4.7 The Prony brake

Essentially the measurement is made by wrapping a cord or belt around the
output shaft of the engine and measuring the force transferred to the belt
through friction.
The friction is increased by tightening the belt until the frequency of rotation of
the shaft is reduced.
In practice more engine power can then be applied until the limit of the
engine is reached. Figure 5.11.
In its simplest form an engine is connected to a rotating drum by means of an

output shaft. A friction band is wrapped around half the drum's circumference
and each end attached to a separate spring balance.
A substantial pre-load is then applied to the ends of the band, so that each
spring balance has an initial and identical reading.
When the engine is running, the frictional force between the drum and the
band will increase the force reading on one balance and decrease it on the
other.
The difference between the two readings multiplied by the radius of the driven
drum is equal to the torque.
Note:
If the engine speed is measured with a tachometer, the brake
horsepower is easily calculated.
An alternate mechanism is to clamp a lever to the shaft and measure using a

single balance. The torque is then related to the lever length, shaft diameter
and measured force.
The device is generally used over a range of engine speeds to obtain power
and torque curves for the engine, since there is a non-linear relationship
between torque and engine speed for most engine types.

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Power Machines N6
Figure 5.11 The prony brake dynamometer
5.4.8 The hydro dynamometer

The engine drives a wheel with scoops in an enclosed casing. The scoops are
restricted from spinning by the water contained in the enclosed casing. A
dead weight keeps the dynamometer in position. Figure 5.12.
Figure 5.12 The hydro dynamometer
5.4.9 The Morse test

The Morse test is a test conducted to determine the power developed in each
cylinder in a multi-cylinder IC engine. First the power developed by all the
cylinders together is determined experimentally.

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Power Machines N6
Then the power of the individual cylinders are determined by cutting off the
power supply to the spark plug of the cylinder under test.
The power developed by the engine with the remaining cylinders is

determined experimentally and this value is subtracted from the first value, and
this gives you the power developed in the cylinder, whose spark plug was cut
off.
Similarly this test is carried out on all the cylinders of the engine individually.
Figure 5.13 shows a Morse test arrangement.
Figure 5.13 A Morse test arrangement
5.4.10 The heat balance

Figure 5.14 shows what is known as the Sankey diagram in which the
percentage heat loss is indicated by the thicknesses of the flow tubes.
Figure 5.14 Piston type IC engine heat loss diagram

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Power Machines N6
Table 5.1 below will summarize the performance of the engine:
Q-in (kJ/kg) Q-out (kJ/kg) Percentage

Heat in Bp
Heat loss in cooling water
Heat loss to exhaust
Heat loss - unaccounted
Total heat in Total heat losses 100%
Table 5.1
5.4.10.1 Mass of fuel used

mf is the mass of fuel used/sec
BSFC is the rate of fuel consumption divided by the power produced
r is the fuel used/sec
5.4.10.2 Heat available in the fuel

CV is the calorific value of the fuel
5.4.10.3 Heat loss in cooling water

mw is the mass of cooling water/sec
t1 is the inlet temperature of the cooling water
t2 is the outlet temperature of the cooling water
SHC is the specific heat capacity of the water
5.4.10.4 Heat loss to exhaust gasses

mg is the mass of exhaust gas/sec
Cp is the specific heat capacity of the gas
te – t3 is the temperature rise in the exhaust gas

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Power Machines N6
5.4.10.5 Heat flow through cylinder wall

n is the expansion and compression index
5.4.10.6 Air standard efficiency (ASE):
Worked Example 5.1
During a trial on a four-cylinder petrol engine a Morse test was carried out.
When running at lull load, all cylinders operating, the brake power was 25 kW.
The measured brake power when each cylinder was cut out and the load
reduced to bring the engine back to its original speed, were as in Table 5.2:
Cylinder number 1 2 3 4
Brake power (kW) 16,3 16,7 17 16,6
Table 5.2
The following information was also noted:
Calorific value of fuel = 45 MJ.kg

Fuel used per brake kilowatt hour = 0,3 kg
Air fuel ratio = 20:1
Temperature rise of exhaust gases = 560C
Mass of cooling water = 9 kg/mm
Temperature rise of cooling water = 40
Specific heat capacity of exhaust gases = 1,05 kJ/kg.K
Specific heat capacity of cooling water = 4,2 kJ/kg.K

1. The indicated power in kW and the mechanical efficiency
2. The mass of fuel used in kg/mln
3. The heat available in the fuel in kJ/min
4. The heat lost to the exhaust gases in kJ/min
5. The heat lost to the cooling water in kJ/min
6.

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Power Machines N6
6.1 The brake thermal efficiency

6.2 The Indicated thermal efficiency
7. Draw up a heat balance in kJ/min and as percentage to determine the
percentage heat lost to radiation. Assume that the heat lost to friction is
absorbed by the cooling water.
Solution:
1. =
2. =
3. =
4. =
5. =
6.1 =
6.2 =

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Power Machines N6
OR
=
7.
Qin (kJ/min) Qout kJ/min) %
= = 1 500 26,67
Exhaust gases = 1 543,5 27,44
Cooling water = 327,6 26,88
radiation = 5 625 – 4 555,5 = 1 069,5 19,01
5 625 = 5 625 100
Table 5.3
Worked Example 5.2
A single cylinder engine operating on the diesel cycle principle has a piston
with a diameter of 172,31 mm and the stroke length is 1,12 times the diameter
of the piston.
The volumetric compression ratio is 16:1.

The initial pressure is 110 kPa.
The compression and expansion index (n) is 1,32.
The volume after combustion is 14% of the cylinder volume.
The change in temperature during compression is 521,4C.
The change in temperature during combustion is 1 150C.
The change in temperature during exhaust is 730C.

1. The swept volume, clearance volume, cylinder volume and the volume
after combustion in m3.
2. The missing pressures at the principal points in kPa.
3. The heat received and the heat rejected in kJ/kg gas and the air
standard efficiency.
4. The heat flow through the cylinder wall during compression in kJ/kg gas.
Solution:
1. =

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Power Machines N6
Figure 5.15
2. = ( )
. = ( ) ( )
3. =
ASE =
= * +
= 54,694%

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Power Machines N6
4. =
= -94,895 kJ/kg
Worked Example 5.3
A single cylinder, four-stroke petrol engine working on the Otto cycle

principle has a volume compression rate of 8,5:1.
The polytropic index for compression and expansion is 1,31.
The brake power of the engine at 2 000 r/min is 11,9 kW.
The mechanical efficiency is 85%.
The length of the stroke is 1,25 times the diameter of the piston.
The indicated mean effective pressure is 1 000 kPa.
The initial pressure of the cycle is 100 kPa.
The temperature after expansion is 2,8 times the initial temperature.
Take gamma as 1,4.

1. The indicated power in kW.
2. The indicated work done in J/cycle.
3. The swept volume in m2, the diameter of the piston in mm and the length
of the stroke in mm.
4. The volumes in cm2 at the principle points.
5. The missing pressures at the principle points in kPa.
6. The air standard efficiency.
Solution:
1. =
2. = [ ]
3. =

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Power Machines N6
Figure 5.16
= ( ( ))
= ( )
=√ [ ] √ [ ]
= 94,935 mm
4. =
= OR
5. = ( )
= 1 650,208 kPa
= 280 kPa
= ( )
= 4 620,584 kPa

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Power Machines N6
=[ ] * ( ) +
= 57,51596
Worked Example 5.4
A double-acting, two-stroke eight cylinder diesel engine was tested on a

dynamometer at 240 r/min and the following information was obtained:
The brake power = 7,1 MW

The calorific value of the fuel = 45,5 MJ/kg
The air-fuel ratio = 25 : 1
The indicated thermal efficiency = 39,01%
The mechanical efficiency = 80%
The flow rate of the cooling water = 1 200 kg/min
The temperature rise of the cooling water = 65C
The temperature of the exhaust gases = 423C
The ambient temperature of the air = 18C
The specific heat capacity of the exhaust gases = 1,05 kJ/kg.K
The specific heat capacity of the cooling water = 4,2 kJ/kg.K
1. The brake torque in kN.m and the indicated power in MW.

2. The mass of fuel used in kg/s.
3. The brake thermal efficiency.
4. The indicated specific fuel consumption in kg/MW.h.
5. The mass of the exhaust gases in kg/min
6. Draw up a table of the heat balance in MJ/min and percentage to
determine the percentage heat loss. Assume that the heat to friction is
included in the heat consumed by the cooling water.
Solution:
1. =
2. =

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Power Machines N6
= 0,5 kg/s
3. = OR =
= =
4. SFC =
5. =
= 780 kg/min
6.
Qin (kJ/min) Qout kJ/min) %
= = 426 31,21
Exhaust gases = 331,695 24,3
= 1 365 Cooling water = 327,6 24
radiation = 5 625 – 4 555,5 = 279,705 20,49
1 365 = 1 365 100
Table 5.4
Activity 5.1
A single-cylinder, four-stroke engine operating on the diesel cycle principle

develops a brake power of 12,6 kW at 1 500 r/min.
The brake mean effective pressure is 672 kPa.
The volumetric compression ratio is 16:1.
The stroke length is 1,5 times the piston diameter.
Fuel cut off occurs at 10% of the stroke volume after TDC.
The compression index is 1,392.
The expansion index is 1,3.

1. The swept volume in m3 and the diameter of the piston in mm 2.
2. The volumes at all the principal points in cm2.

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Power Machines N6
3. The indicated power in kW, the indicated mean effective pressure in

kPa and the indicated work done in kJ/cycle if the mechanical
efficiency is 84%.
4. The absolute temperatures at all the principal points if the highest
temperature in the cycle is 2 222C.
[108.385; 250; 1.2; 998; 336.601; 1429.607]
Activity 5.2
The engine working on the dual cycle principle has as cylinder volume of 19
200 cm3. The stroke length is 1 304 times the diameter of the piston. The heat
added during constant volume combustion is equal to the heat added
during constant pressure combustion.
The clearance volume is 6,25% of the cylinder volume. The temperature at

the beginning of the compression stroke is 32 C. The pressure after constant
pressure combustion is 1,2 times the pressure after compression. The
temperature after compression is 2,64 ties the initial temperature. Take
gamma as 1,4.

1. the clearance volume and the swept volume of m 3, the diameter of the
piston and the stroke length in m.
2. the index for compression and expansion.
3. The missing absolute temperatures and the missing volumes in m 3.
4. The air standard efficiency.
[0.0012; 0.018; 0.26; 0.339; 1.35; 965.88; 1080.866; 0.00134; 425.699; 62.511]
Activity 5.3
A four-cylinder, four-stroke petrol engine with a piston diameter of 85,15 mm

and a stroke length of 90,18 mm was tested while running at 4 800 r/min.
The brake mean effective pressure was 1 250 kPa.

The brake specific fuel consumption was 0,288 kg/kW.h.
The mechanical efficiency was 80%.
The calorific value of the fuel was 39 062,5 kJ/kg.
The clearance volume was 5% of the swept volume.
The value of gamma was 1,41.

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Power Machines N6
Calculate:
1. The swept volume of each cylinder in m 3, the brake power in kW and the
indicate mean effective pressure in kPa.
2. The brake torque in Nm.
3. The mass of the fuel used in kg/s, the brake thermal efficiency and the
indicated thermal efficiency.
4. The volumetric compression ratio, the air standard efficiency and the
indicated efficiency ratio.
[0.0004; 80; 1562.5; 159.155; 0.0064; 32; 40; 21; 56.1]
Activity 5.4
A 4 cylinder, 4 stroke petrol engine was tested on a Prony brake. The brake
arm was 1067 mm long and a mass of 15 kg balanced the brake at 2 000
r/min.
The mechanical efficiency at this speed was 80% and the brake thermal
efficiency was 25%.
The air-fuel ratio, was 19 to 1.
The calorific value of the fuel was 44 200 kJ/kg.
The specific capacity of the exhaust gas was 1,05 kJ/kg.K with an exhaust
gas temperature rise of 520C.
The heat to the cooling system was the same as the heat to the exhaust gas
per minute. Assume g=10 m/s2.

1. The brake and the indicated power in kW.
2. The mass of fuel used per minute
3. The mass of exhaust gases in kg/min as well as the heat to exhaust gases
in kJ/min.
4. The heat supplied by the fuel per minute and express this as a
percentage by tabulating a complete heat balance.
[33.52;41.9; 0.00303; 0.182; 3.64; 1987.44; 8044.4; 2011.2; 502.8; 1987.44;

1555.52]
Activity 5.5
A four-cylinder engine operating on the four-stroke diesel cycle principle, has

an indicated power of 60 kW at 1 500 r/min.
The indicated mean effective pressure is 720 kPa.
The temperature after compression is 700C.
The volumetric compression ratio is 14 : 1.
The fuel is cut off at 10% of the stroke length after TDC.

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Power Machines N6
The heat lost through the cylinder walls during the expansion stroke is 176,824
kJ/kg of gas.
The temperature loss during the expansion stroke is 982,354 C.
The stroke length is 1,228 times the diameter of the piston.
The compression index is 1,4. Take Cp for the gas as 1,008 kJ/kg.K and Cv as
0,72 kJ/kg.K.
1. The piston diameter in mm.

2. The volumes of all the principal points of the cycle in cm 3.
3. The missing absolute temperatures at all the principal points of the cycle.
4. The expansion index.
5. The heat rejected in kJ/kg and the heat received in kJ/kg of gas.
[120; 128.2; 1794.8; 294.86; 338.58; 1255.546; 1.32; 660.216; 1275.019]
Activity 5.6
The swept volume of a single cylinder engine operating on the dual cycle
principle is fifteen times its clearance volume.
The initial conditions of the engine are a pressure of 72 kPa and a
temperature of 37C.
The heat supplied during constant volume combustion is 473,184 kJ/kg gas.
The compression index equals the expansion index equals 1,32.
The volumetric expansion ratio is 7,5:1.
1. All the missing absolute temperatures and pressures at the principal

points.
2. The heat added at constant pressure combustion and the heat rejected
during the exhaust stroke in kJ/kg gas.
3. The work done by the engine in kJ/kg gas.
[2797.505; 752.8; 1410; 5239.748; 366.631; 1578.55; 3008; 1610.784; -913.356;

1348.209]
Activity 5.7
A single cylinder engine operating on the diesel cycle principle has a

volumetric compression ratio of 15:1.
The index for compression and expansion is 1,32.

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Power Machines N6
The highest pressure in the cycle is 3 782,2 kPa.

The pressure after expansion is 330 kPa.
Heat of 1 045,2 kJ/kg of fuel is added at constant pressure.
The temperature before constant pressure heat addition is 761,2 K.
Take Cp for air as 1,005 kJ/kg.K and R as 0,287 kJ/kg.K.
1. All the missing absolute temperatures and pressures at the principal

points.
2. The work done by the engine in kJ/kg gas.
3. The heat flowing through the cylinder wall during compression in kJ/kg
gas.
4. The heat flowing through the cylinder wall during expansion in kJ/kg gas.
5. The heat lost through the exhaust in kJ/kg gas.
[320; 1801.2; 106; 996.226; 624.74; 0.718; -78.919; 143.99; -485.53]
Activity 5.8
In a trial on a four-cylinder petrol engine, a Morse test was carried out. When
running at full load, with all cylinders working, the brake torque was 163,71
Nm. The measured brake torque when each cylinder was cut out in turn and
the load reduced to bring the engine back to its original speed of 3 500
r/min, was as in Table 5.5:
Cylinder number 1 2 3 4
Brake torque in Nm 109 116 113,68 111,5
Table 5.5
The following readings were also recorded:

Brake thermal efficiency = 25%
Specific gravity of the fuel = 0,8
Air-fuel ratio by mass = 21:1
Calorific value of the fuel = 40 MJ/kg
Mass flow rate of cooling water = 35 m3/min
Specific heat capacity of cooling water = 4,18 kJ/kg.K
Specific heat capacity of the exhaust gases = 1,04 kJ/kg.K
Change in the temperature of cooling water = 36C
Change in temperature of exhaust gas = 395C
1. The brake power in kW, the indicated power in kW and the mechanical
efficiency.
2. The mass of fuel used in kg/s, the indicated specific fuel consumption in

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Power Machines N6
kg/kW.h and the indicated fuel consumption in UkW.h.

3. Draw up a heat balance in kJ/kg fuel and as a percentage to determine
the percentage heat lost unaccounted for. Assume that the heat lost
due to friction is absorbed by the cooling water.
[20.049; 17.484; 18.334; 19.133; 75; 80; 0.006; 0.288; 0.36; 40000; 25; 36.575;
22.594; 15.831]
Self-Check

 Describe the four stoke cycle for an IC engine
 Describe the two stoke cycle for an IC engine
 Describe the four stoke cycle for the diesel engine
 Describe the Otto cycle and diesel cycle
 Describe the way to heat balance IC engine
 Describe an engine trial
 Calculate power, heat transfer, work done

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Power Machines N6
Learning Outcomes
 Describe the operation of a two stage air compressor

 Describe the operation of a three stage air compressor
 Describe the function and advantage of using an intercooler
 Calculate the work done to compress air
 Calculate the physical parameters of an air compressor
6.1 Introduction
This module describes the operation of air compressors and the

functions and advantages of intercoolers. There are also worked
examples of calculations.
6.2 Single stage compressor

The PV diagram of a single acting, single stage reciprocating compressor
without clearance volume is shown in Figure 6.1.
In this diagram, the path 1-2 represents the polytropic compression.
Figure 6.1 A theoretical PV diagram neglecting clearance

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Power Machines N6
Work done:
( )
6.2.1 Free air delivery

When the air from the compressor is discharged into atmosphere it is termed
free air delivery.
The volumetric efficiency is calculated at atmospheric conditions.
The isothermal efficiency is calculated as a ratio of the work done according

to the law PV = C and the work done according to the law PVn = C.
Worked Example 6.1
A single stage, double-acting air compressor takes in air at 15,965 m 3/min.

The air intake conditions are 101 kPa and 19C. The delivery pressure is 750
kPa and the speed of the compressor is 325 r/min. R for air is 0,287 kJ/kg.K, the
mechanical efficiency of the compressor is 85% and the index n=1,33.
The stroke length of the piston rod is 1,25 times the diameter of the cylinder
and there is no clearance volume.

1. The effective stroke volume.
2. The diameter of the piston in mm.
3. The stroke length of the piston rod in mm.

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Power Machines N6
4. The delivery temperature in Kelvin.

5. The power required to drive the compressor.
Solution:
1. =
= 0,02456 m3 / stroke
2. =
=√
= 0,29247 M
= 292,5 mm
3. =
= 365,625 mm
4. =( )
= ( )
= ( )
= 480,21 K
5. = ( ) [( ) ]
= ( ) [( ) ]

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Power Machines N6
= 82,07 kW
6.2.2 The clearance volume

The PV diagram of a single acting, single stage reciprocating compressor with
clearance volume is shown in Figure 6.2.
Figure 6.2 A theoretical PV diagram with clearance
The volumetric efficiency, which acts at atmospheric conditions, lets V4

become:
As the piston starts its intake stroke, the residual compressed air expands
according to the law PVn = C and it is not until the pressure is reduced to intake
pressure at 4 that the inlet valve will begin to open. This fresh charge of air (V1 –
V4) is called the effective swept volume.

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Power Machines N6
Worked Example 6.2
The clearance volume of a single-stage, single acting, reciprocating

compressor, is 6,5% of the stroke volume.
The compressor takes in air 33C and 96 kPa and delivers it to a receiver at
650 kPa.
The polytropic index of compression is 1,35. ‗R‘ for air is 0,287 kJ/kg.K and the
free air delivery conditions are 101,3 kPa and 18C.

1. The volumetric efficiency at intake conditions.
2. The volumetric efficiency referred to free air delivery conditions.
3. The effective volume per kilogram of air.
4. The work done per kilogram of air.
Solution:
1. = ( )
= ( )
2. =
= 71,824%
3. =
= 0,91481 m3/kg
4. = ( ) [( ) ]

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Power Machines N6
= ( ) [( ) ]
= 217,44424 kJ/kg
6.3 Two stage compressor

Figure 6.3 shows that the area under the isothermal curve PV = C is less than
the area under the polytropic curve.
To accomplish this, it would mean that T1 = T2is. This is impossible for a polytropic
action. However, to get the polytropic curve close to the isothermal curve, an
intercooler is employed.
Figure 6.3 A theoretical PV diagram with clearance
Figure 6.4 shows a diagram without clearance volume. The power saved by
the second stage compression is shown hatched on the diagram.
Figure 6.6 shows a diagram with clearance volume. Note that the percentage
clearance is the same for each stage.

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Power Machines N6
Figure 6.4 A two stage compression without clearance
6.3.1 Compression under ideal conditions

From Figure 6.4 we find the work done on the first stage as:
( )
[( ) ]
( ) [( ) ]
The work done on the second stage as:
( ) [( ) ]
( ) [( ) ] ( ) [( ) ]

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Power Machines N6
( ) [( ) ( ) ]
( ) [( ) ]
( ) [ ]
For maximum efficiency, the least amount of work done is dependent on:
 Work done per stage is equal
 Complete intercooling takes place
 Pressure ratios of the first stage equals that of the second stage
Figure 6.5 A two stage compression with an intercooler

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Power Machines N6
Figure 6.6 A two stage compression with clearance volume
6.4 Three stage compressor

The advantage with a three stage compressor is that the volumetric efficiency
is increased more than that of the two stage and the delivery pressure is
increased with relatively low work done.
Stage pressure ratio:

k is the stage pressure ratio
x is the number of stages
( )
Inter pressures:
√( )
Work done:
( ) [( ) ( ) ( ) ]

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Power Machines N6
Figure 6.7
Worked Example 6.3
The intake conditions for the low pressure cylinder of a three-stage, double-
acting, reciprocating air compressor running at 340 r/min are 103 kPa and
29°C.
The pressure in the second Intercooler is 1 632 kPa.
The clearance volume is 4% of the cylinder volume.
The swept volume for the low pressure cylinder is 0,0084 m 3.
Intercooling is complete and the stage pressures are in geometric
progression.
Calculate:
1. The stage pressure ratio, the pressure in the first Intercooler and the
delivery pressure in kPa.
2. The cylinder volume, the clearance volume and the effective swept
volume for the low pressure cylinder in m3.
3. The power required to drive the compressor in kW.
4. The temperature after compression for each stage.
5. The heat extracted per intercooler In kJ/s if the compressor delivers 336 kg
of air per hour and Cp for air is 1,005 kJ/kg.K.
6. The heat transfer to the water jackets per stage in kJ/s.
7. The volumetric efficiency of the low pressure cylinder
Solution:

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Power Machines N6
1. =√ √
Figure 6.8
2. =
= ( ) ( )
3. = [ ]
= [( ) ]
= 44,586 W

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Power Machines N6
= 11,267 kJ/s
4. =
5. =
Worked Example 6.4
The pressure in the intercooler of a two-stage, double-acting, reciprocating

air compressor is 380 kPa.
The clearance volume of the low-pressure cylinder is 5% of its stroke volume.
The stroke length of the low-pressure cylinder is equal to the piston diameter
which is 450,9 mm.
The index for compression and expansion for both stages is 1,307.
Intercooling is complete for maximum efficiency.
The pressure ratio is 3,8:1.

1. The inlet pressure and the delivery pressure of the compressor in kPa.
2. The swept volume, the clearance volume, the cylinder volume and the
effective volume for the low pressure cylinder in m3/stroke.
3. The volumetric efficiency of the low pressure cylinder.
4. The work done on the compressor in kJ/cycle.
5. The isothermal efficiency of the compressor.
Solution:
1. =
=
2. =

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Power Machines N6
Figure 6.9
=
=
= ( )
=
3. =
4. = [( ) ]
= [ ]
=
5. =
=
=
Worked Example 6.5
A two-stage, single-acting reciprocating compressor delivers 12 kg of air per

minute at 220 r/min.
The initial pressure and temperature for the low-pressure cylinder are 96 kPa

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Power Machines N6
The temperature of the air after compression in the low pressure cylinder is
142,633C.
The temperature of the air leaving the intercooler is 62C.
The pressure ratio for the low pressure cylinder is 4:1 and for the high pressure
cylinder it is 3,5:1.
The diameter of the low pressure cylinder is 390 mm and the stroke length is
452 mm. Take R for air as 0,288 kJ/kg.K.

1. The index (n) for the compression.
3. The effective swept volume in m3/stroke, the swept volume in m3/stroke
and the volumetric efficiency of the low pressure cylinder.
4. The effective swept volume and the swept volume of the high pressure
cylinder in m3/stroke if it has the same volumetric efficiency as the low
pressure cylinder.
Solution:
1. ( ) =

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Power Machines N6
Figure 6.10
2. = [( ) ] [( ) ]
= [ ] [ ]
3. =
4. =

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Power Machines N6
Worked Example 6.6
A single-acting, 3-stage, reciprocating compressor delivers 12 kg of air per

minute at 330 r/min.
The diameter of the piston of the low pressure cylinder is 317,7 mm and the
stroke length is 428,95 mm.
The pressure at the beginning of compression for the low pressure cylinder is
103 kPa and the temperature is 29C.
The index for compression and expansion for all stages is 1,35.
Intercooling is perfect and the stage pressures forms a geometric progression.
The stage pressure ratio is 4:1.
Take R for air as 0,287 kJ/kg.K.

1. The effective swept volume in m3/cycle, the swept volume in m3/cycle
and the volumetric efficiency for the low pressure cylinder.
2. The effect swept volume in m3/cycle, the volumetric efficiency, the swept
volume and the cylinder volume in m3/cycle for the intermediate cylinder
if its swept volume is 25 times the clearance volume.
3. The absolute delivery temperature and the volume of air delivered to the
after-cooler in m3/cycle.
Solution:
1. =

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Figure 6.11
2. =
OR =
= [( ) ] [ ]
OR

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Power Machines N6
3. = ( )
( )
=
( )
=
OR
( )
=
Activity 6.1
A single-acting, three-stage, reciprocating compressor sucks air in at 100 kPa

and delivers it at a rate of 900 kg/h at a temperature of 105,002 C.
The low pressure cylinder has a diameter of 345 mm and its stroke length is
1,24 times the diameter of the piston.
The power required to drive the compressor is 87,05 kW.
The ratio of pressure for all cylinders is 3,4:1.
The compression and expansion index is 1,3.
The rotational frequency of the compressor is 324 r/min.
Take Cp for air as 1,008 kJ/kg/K.

1. The effective swept volume of the low pressure cylinder in .
2. The swept volume in and the volumetric efficiency of the low pressure
cylinder.
3. The absolute temperature at the compressor inlet and the value of the
characteristic gas constant.
4. The clearance volume nd the cylinder volue for the low-pressure cylinder
in .
5. The heat extracted by the intercoolers in kW.
[0.038; 95; 288; 0.04128; 46.873]

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Activity 6.2
A two-stage single-acting, reciprocating air compressor delivers air to a

receiver at a pressure of 1 200,5 kPa.
The low pressure cylinder has a piston with a diameter of 245 mm and a
stroke length of 350 mm.
The volumetric efficiency of the low-pressure cylinder is 90%.
The temperature at the beginning of the compression stroke for the low-
pressure cylinder is 30 C.
The pressure in the intercooler is 343 kPa.
The compressor rotates at 355 r/min and the mechanical efficiency is 85%.
The index for compression and expansion for both stages is 1,3.
Intercooling is complete for maximum efficiency.
Take R for air as 0,287 kJ/kg.K and Cp as 1,005 kJ/kg/K.
Calculate:
1. The swept volume and the effective swept volume for the low-pressure
cylinder in cubic metres.
2. The pressure before compression in the low-pressure cylinder in kPa.
3. The work done in kW for the compressor and the power required to drive
the compressor in kW.
4. The mass of air delivered by the compressor in kg/s.
5. The absolute temperature of the air after compression.
6. The heat transfer to the intercooler in kJ/s.
7. The heat transfer to the water jackets in kJ/s.
8. The effective swept volume of the high-pressure cylinder in cubic metres
per cycle.
[0.01485; 25.016; 29.431; 0.099; 404.573; 10.106; 4.804; 5.664]
Activity 6.3
A three-stage, single-acting, reciprocating compressor delivers 17,21 kg of air

per minute to an after-cooler whilst rotating at 260 r/min. The index for
expansion and compression for all stages is 1,3. Inter-cooling is complete for
maximum efficiency.
The initial conditions are a pressure of 100 kPa and a temperature of 26C.
The diameter for the intermediate cylinder is 256 mm and its stroke length is
310,85 mm. The stage pressure ratio is 3,8. Take R for air as 0,288 kJ/kg.K.

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Power Machines N6
1. The volume of air sucked into the low-pressure cylinder in m3/stroke.

2. The volume of air sucked into the intermediate cylinder in m 3/stroke, its
swept volume in m3/stroke and its volumetric efficiency.
3. The clearance volume and the cylinder volume of the intermediate
cylinder in m3/stroke.
4. The effective swept volume and the swept volume of the high-pressure
cylinder in m3/stroke if its volumetric efficiency is 93,75%.
[0.057; 0.015; 0.016; 93.75; 0.000558; 0.016558; 0.00421; 115.854]
Activity 6.4
A three-stage, single acting, reciprocating air compressor has a low pressure

cylinder of 450 mm bore and 300 mm stroke. The clearance volume of the
low-pressure cylinder is 5% of the swept volume. Intake conditions are 100
kPa and 18 C.
The final delivery pressure is 1 500 kPa. Intermediate pressures are ideal and
intercooling is perfect. The compression and expansion index can be taken
as 1,3 throughout. Take R=0,29 kJ/kg.K.
Determine the following:

1. The intermediate pressures.
2. The effective swept volume of the low pressure cylinder.
3. The temperature and volume of air delivered per stroke at 1 500 kPa.
4. The work done per kg of air.
[608.12; 0.00479; 0.04531; 358.39; 0.06929; 254.08]
Activity 6.5
The stroke length of the low-pressure cylinder of a two-stage, single-acting,

reciprocating air compressor is 1,13 times its cylinder diameter.
The compressor delivers air at a pressure of 2 106 kPa and a temperature of
164,752 C to an aftercooler.
Intercooling is complete and the stage pressures are in geometric progression
for maximum efficiency.
The atmospheric temperature is 31 C.

The heat loss during compression in the low-pressure cylinder is 0,957 kJ.
The pressure in the intercooler is 468 kPa.
The volumetric efficiency, based on in let conditions, for the low-pressure
cylinder is 93%.

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Power Machines N6

The clearance volume for the first stage is 4% of its cylinder volume.

1. The stage pressure ratio and the initial pressure of the compressor is kPa.
2. The index (n) for compression and expansion.
3. The mass of air delivered in kg/min.
4. The effective swept volume, the swept volume, the clearance volume
and the cylinder volume for the low-pressure cylinder in m3/stroke.
5. The diameter of the low-pressure cylinder in mm.
[104; 1.32; 2.4; 0.00839; 0.00902; 0.00038; 0.0094; 216.61]
Activity 6.6
A three stage reciprocating compressor compresses 0,3 m 3 of air per second

from the initial conditions to a pressure of 2 430 kPa.
At the inlet to the second stage the air has a pressure of 270 kPa and a
Intercooling is complete and the stage pressures are in geometric progression
for maximum efficiency.
The compression index, n = 1,3.
Take R for air as 0,288 kJ/kg.K.

1. The stage pressure ratio, the missing pressures in kPa and the mass of air
delivered to the aftercooler in kg per second.
2. The effective swept volumes for the second and the third stage in m3 per
minute.
3. The absolute temperature after a compression stroke and the volume of
air delivered to the aftercooler in m3 per minute.
4. The swept volume, clearance volume and cylinder volume in m 3 per
minute for the third stage, if its volumetric efficiency is 93,03% and its
swept volume is 25 times its clearance volume.
[3; 90; 810; 0.32; 6; 2; 377.548; 0.859; 2.236]
Activity 6.7
A single acting, reciprocating compressor with two stages takes air in at a

pressure of 105 kPa and a temperature of 15C.
The air enters the second stage at a temperature of 27C.
The low pressure cylinder has a diameter of 360 mm and a stroke length of

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Power Machines N6
332,6 mm.
The index of compression for both cylinders is 1,3.
The volumetric efficiency for the low-pressure cylinder is 92,38% and for the
high pressure cylinder it is 93,285%.
The clearance volumes for both cylinders are 4% of their swept volumes.
The swept volume for the high pressure cylinder is 8 295 cm3.

1. The pressure ratio for the low-preessure cylinder, the pressure ratio for the
high-pressure cylinder and the missing pressures in kPa.
2. The swept and the effective volumes for the low-pressure cylinder as well
as the effective swept volume for the high-pressure cylinder in m3 per
stroke.
3. The power required to drive the compressor in kW if its rotational
frequency is 420 r/min.
4. The absolute temperature after compression in both cylinders and the
temperature loss in the intercooler.
[4; 3.6; 420; 1512; 0.032; 0.02956; 0.007738; 69.406; 96.579]
Activity 6.8
A two-stage reciprocating air compressor is single-acting and has complete

intercooling for maximum efficiency.
The compressor delivers 15 kg of air per minute, at 1 444 kPa.
Assume that the intake free air conditions are 100 kPa and 17C and that the
compression and expansion processes are reversible and polytropic with
index n= 1,32.
Take R for air as 0,287 kJ/kg.K and Cp as 1,005 kJ/kg.K.

1. the power required to drive the compressor in kW.
2. The isothermal efficiency of the compressor.
3. The volume of free air delivered in m3/minute.
4. The heat transfer to the intercooler and the heat transfer to the water
jackets of each cylinder in kJ/s.
5. The cylinder volume, swept volume and the clearance volume for the
low-pressure cylinder in m3/cycle. If the compressor rotates at 425 r/min
and the clearance volume for the low-pressure cylinder is 4% of the
cylinder volume.
[65.6; 84.689; 12.485; 4.956; 0.11; 0.033; 0.03168]

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Self-Check

 Describe the operation of a two stage air compressor
 Describe the operation of a three stage air compressor
 Describe the function and advantage of using an intercooler
 Calculate the work done to compress air
 Calculate the physical parameters of an air compressor

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Power Machines N6
Learning Outcomes
 Describe the refrigeration cycle with the function of the components

 Describe the temperature entropy diagram and the application thereof
 Describe the types and function of different refrigerants
 Calculate the coefficient of performance for a refrigerant
 Calculate the mass flow
7.1 Introduction
Refrigeration is a process of moving heat from one location to

another in controlled conditions. The work of heat transport is
traditionally driven by mechanical work.
7.2 Method of refrigeration

7.2.1 Cyclic refrigeration
This consists of a refrigeration cycle, where heat is removed from a low-
temperature space or source and rejected to a high-temperature sink with the
help of external work.
Note:
Its inverse is the thermodynamic power cycle.
In the power cycle, heat is supplied from a high-temperature source to the

engine, part of the heat being used to produce work and the rest being
rejected to a low-temperature sink. This satisfies the second law of
thermodynamics.
A refrigeration cycle describes the changes that take place in the refrigerant
as it alternately absorbs and rejects heat as it circulates through a refrigerator.
Heat naturally flows from hot to cold. Work is applied to cool a living space or
storage volume by pumping heat from a lower temperature heat source into a
higher temperature heat sink.

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Power Machines N6
Insulation is used to reduce the work and energy needed to achieve and
maintain a lower temperature in the cooled space.
Note:
The most common types of refrigeration systems use the reverse-
Rankine vapour -compression refrigeration cycle.
The vapour-compression cycle is used in most household refrigerators as well as

in many large commercial and industrial refrigeration systems. Figure 7.1
provides a schematic diagram of the components of a typical vapor-
compression refrigeration system.
7.2.2 The vapour compression cycle

The thermodynamics of the cycle can be analysed on a diagram as shown in
Figure 7.2 the temperature–Entropy diagram.
In this cycle, a circulating refrigerant such as Freon enters the compressor as a

vapour.
1 to 2
the vapour is compressed at constant entropy and exits the compressor as a
vapour at a higher temperature, but still below the vapour pressure at that
temperature.
2 to 3 and on to 4
the vapour travels through the condenser which cools the vapour until it starts
condensing, and then condenses the vapour into a liquid by removing
additional heat at constant pressure and temperature.
4 to 5
the liquid refrigerant goes through the expansion valve (also called a throttle
valve) where its pressure abruptly decreases, causing flash evaporation and
auto-refrigeration of, typically, less than half of the liquid.
5 to 1
Liquid and vapour converted to all vapour in the evaporator.
That results in a mixture of liquid and vapor at a lower temperature and

pressure as shown at point 5. The cold liquid-vapor mixture then travels through
the evaporator coil or tubes and is completely vaporized by cooling the warm
air (from the space being refrigerated) being blown by a fan across the
evaporator coil or tubes.
The resulting refrigerant vapor returns to the compressor inlet at point 1 to

complete the thermodynamic cycle.

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Power Machines N6
Note:
The above discussion is based on the ideal vapour-compression
refrigeration cycle, and does not take into account real-world
effects like frictional pressure drop in the system,
slight thermodynamic irreversibility during the compression of the
refrigerant vapour.
Figure 7.1 The vapour compression cycle
Figure 7.2 The temperature–Entropy diagram.

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7.2.3 Refrigerant
Freon 12 is said to be the most widely used of all the refrigerants being used for
different applications. The chemical name of refrigerant R12 is
dichlorodifluoromethane and its chemical formula is CCl 2F2. The molecular
weight of R12 is 120.9 and its boiling point is -21.6 degree F. Since R12 has the
molecules of chlorine and fluorine, it is called chlorofluorocarbon (CFC).
R-12 is a highly versatile refrigerant that is used for wide range of refrigeration
and air conditioning applications though in many air conditioning applications
it is now replaced by R22 refrigerant.
Did you know?

Refrigerant R12 is used in domestic refrigerators and freezers, liquid
chillers, dehumidifiers, ice makers, water coolers, water fountains
and transport refrigeration. The wide range of applications of the
refrigerant are due to its safe properties.
Here are some of the important properties of the refrigerant R12:
 Safe properties: Refrigerant R12 is nontoxic, non-flammable, and non-

explosive. This makes it highly popular for the domestic as well as the
commercial applications.
 Stability: R12 is highly stable chlorofluorocarbon and it does not disintegrate

even under the extreme operating conditions. However, if it is brought in
contact with the flame of fire or the electrical heating element, it
disintegrates into the toxic products. Thus whenever there is leakage of R12
refrigerant it is advised to put all the flames off and keep the doors open so
that it can escape to the open atmosphere.
 Suitable for wide range of operating conditions: R12 has the boiling point of
-21.6 degree F (-29.8 degree C) due to which it condenses at the moderate
pressures at the atmospheric temperature. This means the discharge
pressure of the compressor should be only moderate so as to produce the
condensation of the refrigerant in the condenser at the atmospheric
temperature.
This helps in using the compressor of low compression ratio that has higher
efficiency. Due to this property of refrigerant R12, it is used in wide range of
applications like high-temperature, medium temperature and low-
temperature applications. It can be used will all types of compressors like
reciprocating, centrifugal and rotary.
 Miscibility with oil: Refrigerant R12 is miscible with the compressor oil under
all the operating conditions. There are two advantages of this property of
R12. Firstly, there is no problem of the oil return back to compressor. Some
particles of the oil from compressor tend to get carried away with the

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Power Machines N6
discharged refrigerant, because of the property of miscibility of R12, these

particles return back to the compressor easily.
The second advantage of miscibility is that the refrigerant flowing through

the condenser and the evaporator is free of the oil particles. The oil particles
within the refrigerant reduce the heat transfer from it, but such problem
does not occur with R12 refrigerant.
Note:
Due to this the heat transfer capacity of the condenser and
evaporator is increased, which ultimately helps increase the
efficiency of the refrigeration plant.
Disadvantages of Refrigerant R12

 Low refrigerating effect per pound: The refrigerating effect of R12 per pound
of its weight is low compared to the other refrigerants. However, this is not
the major disadvantage as it can be used constructively in some cases. In
the smaller systems, the greater weight of the R12 helps controlling the
refrigeration system in a better way.
In the larger systems this disadvantage is offset by the higher vapour density
of the refrigerant thus the compressor displacement required per ton of
refrigeration with the R12 refrigerant is not much higher than compared with
the other refrigerants. The high heat transfer rates in the condenser and the
evaporator due to absence of the oil also helps reduce the effects of this
disadvantage.
 R12 is CFC: R12 is the most widely used refrigerant, unfortunately it is the
CFC and it has unusually high potential to cause the depletion of the ozone
layer. R12 is being replaced by other refrigerants and some of the
suggested replacements for R12 are: R-134a, R-401a, R-401b.
Figure 7.3 The PV diagram

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Power Machines N6
Worked Example 7.1
A vapour-compression refrigeration plant using ammonia as a refrigerant

operates between pressure limits of 236 kPa and 915 kPa.
The refrigerant enters the compressor as a wet vapour with a dryness factor
of 0,98 and it enters the condenser at a temperature of 58 C.
The refrigerant is condensed to a saturated liquid but not undercooled.
The specific heat capacity of the superheated ammonia is 4,134 kJ/kg.K.
The motor driving the compressor has a rating of 18 kW and the mechanical
efficiency is 88,79%.
The plant must produce ice at 0 C from water at a temperature of 18 C.
Take the specific heat capacity of water as 4,2 kJ/kg.K and the latent heat of
ice as 336 kJ/kg.
The following are extracts from ammonia tables:
Pressure Saturation Specific enthalpy Specific entropy

(kPa) temperature
Liquid Vapour Liquid Vapour
(C)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
915 22 284,7 1 464 ----------- -----------
236 -15 112,3 1 426 0,457 5,549
Table 7.1

1. The specific enthalpy of the refrigerant at the compressor Inlet, the
specific enthalpy at the condenser outlet, the work done by the
compressor in kJ/kg, the refrigeration effect in kJ/kg and the actual
coefficient of performance.
2. The dryness factor and the specific entropy of the refrigerant after
throttling.
3. The mass flow rate of the refrigerant in kg/min.
4. The mass of Ice produced by the plant in kg/h.
Solution:
1. =

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Power Machines N6
Figure 7.4
2. =
3. =
4. = [ ]
= 731,431 kg/h
Worked Example 7.2
A carbon dioxide refrigeration plant operates between temperature limits of -

4 C and 28 C.
The refrigerant enters the compressor as a wet vapour and after compression
it has a temperature of 54,9 C.
The condenser undercools the refrigerant to a saturated liquid with a

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Power Machines N6
The specific heat capacity of the superheated refrigerant Is 2,5 kJ/kg.K and
that of the saturated liquid refrigerant is 5,42 kJ/kg.K.
The following are extracts from carbon dioxide tables.
Saturation Specific enthalpy (kJ/kg) Specific entropy (kJ/kg.K)

temperature
Liquid Vapour Liquid Vapour
(C)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
-4 74,3 320 0,286 1,2
28 178,4 263,8 0,638 0,922
Table 7.2

1. The specific entropy after compression and the dryness factor of the
refrigerant after the evaporator.
2. The specific enthalpy of the refrigerant at inlet to the compressor and the
specific enthalpy after compression.
3. The specific enthalpy of the refrigerant before throttling, the refrigerating
effect in kJ/kg, the work done In kJ/kg and the actual coefficient of
performance
4. The power required to drive the compressor in kW if the mechanical
efficiency is 82% and the refrigerant flows at a rate of 18 kg/min
HINT: Entropy after compression = Entropy of dry saturated vapour at 28 C +

Cp. In (T after compression + T in condenser)
Solution:
1. =
2. =

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Power Machines N6
Figure 7.5
3. =
4. =
Worked Example 7.3
A vapour compression refrigeration plant, using methyl chloride as a

refrigerant operates between temperature limits of -8 C and 30 C.
At entry to the compressor the refrigerant Is a dry saturated vapour and at
entry to the condenser, it has a temperature of 60 C.
The refrigerant Is under-cooled to a saturated liquid with a temperature of 25
C and a specific enthalpy of 100,5 kJ/kg.
The mass flow rate or the refrigerant is 90 kg/h.
The specific heat capacity of the superheated refrigerant Is 1,62 kJ/kg.K.
The compressor rotates at 250 r/min and Its swept volume Is 1 500 cm 3.
At -8 C:
The saturated liquid enthalpy of the refrigerant = 48,5 kJ/kg
The saturated vapour enthalpy of the refrigerant = 461,7 kJ/kg
The saturated liquid entropy of the refrigerant = 0,195 kJ/kg.K
The saturated vapour entropy of the refrigerant = 1,754 kJ/kg.K
The specific volume of the saturated vapour = 0,218 m3/kg

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Power Machines N6
At 30 C:
The saturated vapour enthalpy of the refrigerant = 478,7 kJ/kg

1. Tile specific enthalpy or tile refrigerant after compression.
2. The dryness fraction and the specific entropy of the refrigerant at the
evaporator inlet.
3. The effective swept volume in m3/h and the volumetric efficiency of the
compressor.
4. The power required to drive the compressor in kW, the refrigeration effect
in kJ/s and the actual coefficient of performance.
Solution:
1. =
2. =
Figure 7.6

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Power Machines N6
3. =
4. =
Worked Example 7.4
A vapour compression refrigeration plant uses carbon dioxide as a refrigerant

and operates between temperature limits of -8 C and 34 C.
The compressor has a piston with a diameter of 120 mm, a stroke of 141,5 mm
and it rotates at 360 r/min.
The volumetric efficiency of the compressor is 90%.
The refrigerant enters the compressor as a dry saturated vapour and it enters
the condenser at a temperature of 64 °C.
The refrigerant leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid with no
undercooling.
At: -8 C
The specific volume of the dry saturated vapour = 0,072
The specific enthalpy of the dry saturated vapour = 184,1 kJ/kg

The specific entropy of the dry saturated vapour = 0,7008 kJ/kg.K
At: 34 C
The specific enthalpy of the saturated liquid = 68,5 kJ/kg

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Power Machines N6

1. The specific heat capacity of the superheated vapour and the specific
enthalpy of the superheated vapour at the compressor outlet.
2. The swept volume of the compressor in , the volume flow of the
refrigerant in and the mass flow rate of the refrigerant in kg/s.
3. The power required to drive the compressor in kW, the power required to
produce ice in kW and the actual coefficient of performance.
4. The energy required to condense the refrigerant in kJ/min.
HINT: [ ]
Figure 7.7
Solution:
1. =
= ( (- ) ( ))
( )
2. =

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Power Machines N6
3. =
OR
Activity 7.1
A methyl chloride refrigerating plant operating between pressure limits of 215

kPa and 672 kPa is tested and the following information was obtained:
Temperature of the refrigerant in the condenser = 31C

Temperature of the refrigerant in the evaporator = 6 C
Specific enthalpy of dry saturated vapour at condenser
pressure = 479 kJ/kg
Specific enthalpy of dry saturated vapour at evaporator
pressure = 462,8 kJ/kg
Specific enthalpy of saturated liquid at condenser pressure = 110,2 kJ/kg
Specific enthalpy of saturated liquid at evaporator pressure = 51,6 kJ/kg
Specific volume of dry saturated vapour at evaporator
Pressure = 0,168 m3/kg
The methyl chloride enters the compressor as as wet vapour. It enters the
condenser as a dry saturated vapour and it leaves the condenser as a
saturated liquid with no undercooling.
The actual coefficient of performance is 90,23% of the ideal coefficient of
performance.
The compressor has a piston with a diameter of 128,5 mm, a stroke length of
1,2 times the diameter of the piston, a volumetric efficiency of 90% and it
rotates at 420 r/min.
Calculate:
1. The ideal coefficient of performance and the actual coefficient of
performance.
2. The specific enthalpy of the refrigerant at the entrance to the compressor
in kJ/kg and the dryness factor.
3. The swept volume of the compressor in m3 per stroke, the swept volume
and the effective swept volume in m3/s.

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Power Machines N6
4. The specific volume of the refrigerant at the entrance to the compressor

in m3/kg and the mass flow rate in kg per minute.
5. The compressor power in kJ/s and the power required to drive the
compressor in kW if the mechanical efficiency is 80%.
[7.216; 6.511; 0.92; 0.014; 4; 5]
Activity 7.2
A single-cylinder, single acting compressor of a vapour compression

refrigeration plant, operating between temperature limits of -5C and 25C,
has a swept volume of 1 500 cm3.
The power required to drive the compressor is 9,25 kW and its mechanical
efficiency is 80%.
At the inlet to the compressor the carbon dioxide is 90% dry and at the outlet
it is superheated.
The specific heat capacity for superheated carbon dioxide is 1 814 kJ/kg.K.
The following are extracts from carbon dioxide tables:
Saturation Specific volume (m3/kg) Specific enthalpy (kJ/kg)

temperature Liquid Vapour Liquid Vapour
(C) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
-5 0,001 05 0,012 2 72 320,5
25 0,001 40 0,004 13 159,7 279,9
Table 7.3

1. The effective swept volume of the compressor is m3 and the mass flow
rate of the refrigerant in kg/min.
2. The work done by the compressor in kJ/kg.
3. The specific enthalpies at the inlet and outlet of the compressor and the
temperature of the refrigerant after compression.
4. The refrigerant effect in kJ/min, the heat extracted from the condenser in
kJ/min and the actual coefficient of performance.
[0.00135; 15; 29.6; 295.65; 325.25; 323; 4.593]

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Activity 7.3
A carbon dioxide refrigeration plant operates between limits of -4C and

28C.
The refrigerant enters the compressor as a wet vapour and after compression
the refrigerant has a temperature of 52,8C.
In the condenser the refrigerant is undercooled to saturated liquid with a
The refrigerant flows at a rate of 18 kg/min.
The specific heat capacity of the superheated refrigerant is 2,5261 kJ/kg.K
and that of the saturated liquid refrigerant is 5,42 kJ/kg.K.
The following are extracts from carbon dioxide tables:

(C) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
-4 81,4 318,6 0,312 1,183
28 178,6 263,8 0,638 0,922
Table 7.4
Calculate:
1. the specific entropy in kJ/kg.K after compression and the dryness factor
of the refrigerant entering the compressor.
2. The specific enthalphy of the refrigerant at the inlet to the compressor
and the specific enthalpy after compressing in kJ/kg.
3. The specific enthalpy of the refrigerant before throttling in kJ/kg, the
refrigerating effect in kJ/kg, the work done in kJ/kg, and the actual
4. The power required to drive the compressor in kW if the mechanical
efficiency is 83%.
HINT:
at
[1.122; 0.93; 326.447; 151.5; 24.447; 6.156; 8.836]
Activity 7.4
A vapour compression refrigerator uses ammonia as a cooling agent and

operate between temperatures of -12C and 30C.

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The ammonia is dry saturated at the end of isentropic compression and

saturated liquid at the outlet from the condenser (No undercooling).
The following data is supplied:

Heat after compression = 1 468,9 kJ/kg
Heat after condensation = 323,1 kJ/kg
Liquid heat at evaporator pressure = 126,2 kJ/kg
Latent heat at evaporator pressure = 1 304,3 kJ/kg
Entropy of dry vapour at condenser pressure = 4,984 kJ/kg.K
Entropy of liquid at evaporator pressure = 0,57 kJ/kg.K
Entropy of dry vapour at evaporator pressure = 5,504 kJ/kg.K
1. Sketch the P-H and T-S diagrams clearly indicating the given values.
2. Calculate the actual coefficient of performance.
3. Calculate the power required to produce 1 000 kg of ice at 0C in 24
hours from water at 25C. Take the specific heat capacity of water as
4,187 kJ/kg.K and the latent heat of fusion as 327 kJ/kg.
[261; 303; 0.895; 5.533; 431.68; 4.996; 0.903]
Activity 7.5
The methyl chloride in a vapour compression refrigerator leaves the

compressor as a dry saturated vapour with a specific enthalpy of 482,1 kJ/kg.
It enters the throttling valve as a saturated liquid with no undercooling.
The pressure in the evaporator is 177 kPa and at this pressure the latent heat
of the refrigerant is 415,3 kJ/kg.
The flow rate of the refrigerant is 0,125 kg/s.
The refrigerant at the evaporator entrance is 19,119% dry and at the exit, it is
96% dry.
The specific volume of the refrigerant at the compressor inlet is 0,233 m 3/kg.
The condenser extracts 2 679,75 kJ of heat energy per minute.
The single-cylinder, single-acting compressor rotating at 120 r/min, has a
volumetric efficiency of 94,93% and its stroke length is 1,2 times the diameter
of the piston.
The cooling water flows at a rate of 32 kg/min and its specific heat capacity
is 4,187 kJ/kg.K.
1. The specific enthalpy of the refrigerant at exit from the condenser, of the
saturated liquid refrigerant at 177 kPa, of the saturated vapour at 177 kPa
and the wet vapour at the compressor inlet.
2. The work done and the refrigerant effect in kJ/min.
3. The volume of the vapour entering the compressor in m 3 per minute, the

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diameter of the piston and the length of the stroke in mm.

4. The change in the temperature of the cooling water.
[444.088; 2394.66; 300; 20]
Activity 7.6
During a test on an ammonia refrigerating plant the following information

were noted:
Temperature of ammonia at condenser inlet = 45C

Temperature of ammonia at condenser outlet = 18,5C
Temperature rise of cooling water = 8,75C
Mass flow rate of cooling water per minute = 10,91 kg
Ice produced per hour from water at 15C to -4C = 49 kg
Latent heat of melting ice = 335,31 kJ/kg
Specific heat capacity for ice = 1,95 kJ/kg.K
Specific heat capacity for water = 4,2 kJ/kg.K
Specific heat capacity for liquid ammonia = 4,6 kJ/kg.K
Specific heat capacity for superheated ammonia = 2,8 kJ/kg.K
Rotational frequency of compressor = 250 r/min
Swept volume of compressor = 990 cm3
Indicated mean effective pressure for compressor = 280 kPa
The following are extracts from ammonia tables:
Saturation temperature Specific enthalpy (kJ/kg)

(C)
Liquid ( ) Vapour ( )
-10 135,4 1 433
25 298, 1 466
Table 7.5

1. the refrigerant effect in kJ/min, the work done in kJ/min and the actual
2. The specific enthalpy after compression and the specific enthalpy after
condensing.
3. The mass flow rate of the refrigerant in kg/min and the specific enthalpy
at the compressor inlet.
[331.657; 4.786; 1522; 269; 0.32; 1305.438]

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Activity 7.7
A vapour compression refrigerating plant uses methyl chloride as a refrigerant

and operates between temperature limits of -20C and 25C.
At the beginning of compression the refrigerant has a dryness fraction of 0,96

and after isentropic compression it has a temperature of 55C.
The refrigerant is condensed in the condenser but not undercooled.
The mass flow rate of the refrigerant is 1,8 kg/min.
The latent heat of melting of ice is 336 kJ/kg.
The specific heat capacity of water is 4,187 kJ/kg.K.
The specific heat capacity of superheated vapour is 1,08 kJ/kg.K.
The applicable properties of methyl chloride are as follows:

(C) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
-20 30,1 455,2 0,124 1,803
25 100,5 476,8 0,379 1,642
Table 7.6

1. The specific enthalpy at the compressor inlet, the specific enthalpy at the
compressor outlet and the actual coefficient of performance.
2. The temperature rise of the cooling water in the condenser if the flow rate
of the water is 948 kg/h.
3. The specific entropy of the refrigerant at the compressor outlet and after
throttling.
4. The refrigerant effect in kJ/min and the mass of ice produced in kg/h at
0C from water at 15C.
HINT:
[438.196; 509.2; 4.756; 11.12; 0.401; 91.451]

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Self-Check

 Describe the refrigeration cycle with the function of the
components
 Describe the temperature entropy diagram and the application
thereof
 Describe the types and function of different refrigerants
 Calculate the coefficient of performance for a refrigerant
 Calculate the mass flow

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Table of C
Past Examination Papers
NOVEMBER 2014
NATIONAL CERTIFICATE
POWER MACHINES N6
(8190046)
18 November 2014 (Y-Paper)

13:00 – 16:00
This question paper consists of 6 pages and 5 formula sheets.

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DEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND TRAINING

REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA
POWER MACHINES N6
TIME: 3 HOURS
MARKS: 100
__________________________________________________________________
INSTRUCTIONS AND INFORMATION
1. Answer ANY FIVE questions.
2. Read ALL the questions carefully
3. Number the answers according to the numbering system used in this question
paper.
4. Write neatly and legibly.

___________________________________________________________________

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QUESTION 1:
A gas turbine engine working on the constant pressure cycle has a

compression adiabatic efficiency of 85%.The ambient air pressure and
temperature is 103,4 kPa and 288 K respectively, the actual air
temperature after compression is 515 K. 643 kJ of heat is added per
kilogram of air per cycle during combustion. Expansion adiabatic
efficiency is 82%.
Take gamma as 1 ,4 and Cp as 1 kJ/kg.K.
1.1 The actual and adiabatic temperatures. (9)
1.2 The highest pressure in the cycle (3)
1.3 The compression and expansion (6)
1.4 The heat lost during constant pressure heat rejection per kilogram of air (2)
per cycle.
[20]
QUESTION 2:
A 4 cylinder, 4 stroke petrol engine was tested on a Prony brake. The

brake arm was 1067 mm long and a mass of 15 kg balanced the brake at
2 000 r/min. The mechanical efficiency at this speed was 80% and the
brake thermal efficiency was 25%. The air-fuel ratio was 19 to 1. The
calorific value of the fuel was 44 200 kJ/kg.
The specific heat capacity of the exhaust gas was 1, 05 kJ/kg.K with an
exhaust gas temperature rise of 520ºC. The heat to the cooling system
was the same as the heat to the exhaust gas per minute. Assume g = 10
m/s2.
2.1 The brake and the indicated power in kW (6)
2.2 The mass of fuel used per minute (4)
2.3 The mass of exhaust gases in kg/min as well as the heat to exhaust (4)
gases in kJ/min
2.4 The heat supplied by the fuel per minute and express this as a (6)
percentage by tabulating a complete heat balance
[20]
QUESTION 3:
A velocity compounded steam turbine has blading designed in such a way

that the discharge steam would flow axially from the last row of moving
blades.

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The last stage consisting of two rows of moving blades separated by a

fixed blade row has moving blade tip angles of 30° throughout.
The blade speed, the nozzle angle and the fixed blade angles are
designed for a nozzle discharge velocity of 500 m/s.
The relative velocity of steam to blades is assumed to reduce by 10%
over each-row of blading.
3.1 Use a length of 3 cm for the average blade speed to construct velocity (10)
diagrams for the turbine. Indicate all the lengths as well as the magnitude
of all the angles on the diagrams and calculate the scale from the velocity
diagrams.
3.2 Determine from the velocity diagrams:
3.2.1 The blade speed in m/s (1)
3.2.2 The fixed inlet angle of the first stage (1)
3.2.3 The inlet flow velocity of the second stage (1)
3.2.4 The exit relative velocity of the second stage (1)
3.2.5 The power developed per kilogram of steam (3)
2.3.6 The blading efficiency (3)

[20]
QUESTION 4:
A three-stage, single acting, reciprocating air compressor has a low

pressure cylinder of 450 mm bore and 300 mm stroke. The clearance
volume of the low-pressure cylinder is 5% of the swept volume. In take
conditions are 100 kPa and 18ºC. The final delivery pressure is 1 500 kPa.
Intermediate pressures are ideal and intercooling is perfect. The
compression and expansion index can be taken as 1,3 throughout. Take
R=0,29 kJ/kg.K.
Determine the following:
4.1 The intermediate pressures (5)
4.2 The effective swept volume of the low pressure cylinder (5)
4.3 The temperature and volume of air delivered per stroke at 1 500 kPa (5)
4.4 The work done per kg of air (5)

[20]

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QUESTION 5:
A gas expands in a convergent-divergent nozzle from 500 kPa to 143

kPa.
The initial temperature is 537 ºC and the adiabatic efficiency of the nozzle
is 92%.
Assume that all losses take place after the throat of the nozzle.
Take gamma = 1,4 R = 0,288 kJ/kg.K and Cp = 1,008 kJ/kg.K
5.1 The pressure and the temperature at the throat of the nozzle (4)
5.2 The specific volume in m3 per kg of gas, the velocity in m/s and the area (6)
in mm2 per kg of gas at the throat of the nozzle
5.3 The adiabatic and actual temperatures at the exit of the nozzle (4)
5.4 The specific volume in m3 per kg of gas, the velocity in m/s and the area (6)
in mm2 per kg of gas at the exit of the nozzle
[20]
QUESTION 6:
A coal fired boiler plant consists of an economiser, evaporator and

superheater. The calorific value of the coal is 32,5 MJ/kg. The evaporator
produces steam at 2 500 kPa and there is no pressure drop in the
superheater. The plant produces 70 200 kg of steam per hour with a
temperature of 300 ºC and a specific heat of 2,75 kJ/kg.K. The plant uses
7 800 kg of coal per hour. The feedwater has a temperature of 32,9 ºC.
The total heat to the economiser is 2 349 kJ/kg and to the evaporator is
21 287 kJ/kg of fuel burned. The pressure and temperature at the
chimney base are 100 kPa and 250 ºC.
The fuel contains 4% of hydrogen by mass. The air-fuel ratio is 18:1 and
the specific heat capacities of the water is 4,2 kJ.kg.K and that of the flue
gas is 1,045 kJ/kg.K.
6.1 The specific enthalpy of the superheated steam and the plant efficiency (5)
6.2 The specific enthalpy of the water entering the evaporator, its temperature (4)
from the tables in ºC and the dryness factor of the steam leaving the
evaporator
6.3 The heat lost to the moisture in the flues in kJ/kg of fuel (3)
6.4 The heat lost to the dry flues in kJ/kg of fuel (3)
6.5 The percentage unaccounted heat lost by tabulating a heat balance in (5)
kJ/kg
[20]

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QUESTION 7:
A vapour compression refrigerator uses ammonia as a cooling agent and

operate between temperatures of -12 ºC and 30 ºC. The ammonia is dry
saturated at the end of isentropic compression and saturated liquid at the
outlet from the condenser (No undercooling).The following data is
supplied:
Heat after compression = 1 468, 9 kJ/kg

Heat after condensation = 323,1 kJ/kg
Liquid heat at evaporator pressure = 126,2 kJ/kg
Latent heat at evaporator pressure = 1 304,3 kJ/kg
Entropy of dry vapour at condenser pressure = 4,984 kJ/kg.K
Entropy of liquid at evaporator pressure = 0,57 kJ/kg.K
Entropy of dry vapour at evaporator pressure = 5,504 kJ/kg.K
7.1 Sketch the P-H and T-S diagrams clearly indicating the given values (5)
7.2 Calculate:
7.2.1 The actual coefficient of performance (7)
7.2.2 The power required to produce 1 000 kg of ice at 0 ºC in 24 hours (8)

from water at 25 ºC. Take the specific heat capacity of water as
4,187 kJ/kg.K and the latent heat of fusion as 327 kJ/kg.
[20]
TOTAL: 100

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Marking Guidelines
NOVEMBER 2014
POWER MACHINES N6
(8190046)
18 November 2014 (Y-Paper)

13:00 – 16:00

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Table of C
AUGUST 2014
POWER MACHINES N6
(8190046)
28 July 2014 (Y-Paper)

13:00 – 16:00
This question paper consists of 8 pages and a formula sheets of 6 pages.

200
Power Machines N6

POWER MACHINES N6
TIME: 3 HOURS
MARKS: 100
__________________________________________________________________
NOTE: If you answer more than the required number of questions, only the required
number of questions will be marked. All work you do not want to be marked
must be clearly crossed out.
1. Answer FIVE of the seven questions.
2. Read ALL the questions carefully
paper.

___________________________________________________________________

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QUESTION 1:
The intake conditions for the low pressure cylinder of a three-stage,

double-acting, reciprocating air compressor running at 340 r/min are 103
kPa and 29°C.
The pressure in the second intercooler is 1 632 kPa.
The clearance volume is 4% of the cylinder volume.
The swept volume for the low pressure cylinder is 0,0084 m 3
lntercooling is complete and the stage pressures are in geometric

progression.
.
1.1 Calculate:
1.1.1 The stage pressure ratio, the pressure in the first intercooler and (3)
the delivery pressure in kPa
1.1.2 The cylinder volume, the clearance volume and the effective swept (6)
volume for the low pressure cylinder in m3.
1.1.3 The power required to drive the compressor in kW (3)
1.1.4 The temperature after compression for each stage (2)
1.1.5 The heat extracted per intercooler in kJ/s if the compressor (2)
delivers 336 kg of air per hour and Cp for air is 1,005 kJ/kg.K
1.1.6 The heat transfer to the water jackets per stage in kJ/s (2)
1.1.7 The volumetric efficiency of the low pressure cylinder. (2)
[20]
QUESTION 2:
The following information was obtained from a test on a steam boiler

plant:
The rate of evaporation = 7 350 kg/h
The pressure in the evaporator and superheater = 3 000 kPa
The temperature of the superheated steam = 250ºC
The temperature of the feed water = 37,7ºC
The temperature of the water at the economiser exit = 99,6ºC
The mass of the coal used = 750 kg/h
The temperature of the flue gases at entry to the

202
Power Machines N6
economiser = 353,33ºC
The air supplied per kg fuel burnt = 18 kg
The specific heat capacity of the flue gases = 1,045 kJ/kg.K
The thermal efficiency of the plant = 80%
The dryness factor of the steam at entrance to the
Superheater =0,875
2.1 Calculate by using steam tables only:
2.1.1 The total heat to the economiser in kJ/kg (2)
2.1.2 The total heat to the evaporator in kJ/kg (2)
2.1.3 The total heat to the superheater in kJ/kg (3)
2.1.4 The calorific value of the coal in kJ/kg (3)
2.1.5 The equivalent evaporation from and at 100 ºC (2)
2.1.6 The temperature of the flue gases at the chimney base in ºC (3)
2.2 Draw up a heat balance in kJ/kg and as a percentage for each component (5)
of the plant to determine the heat unaccounted for.
[20]
QUESTION 3:
A four-cylinder, four-stroke petrol engine with a piston diameter of 75,15

mm and a stroke length of 90,18 mm was tested while running at 4 800
r/min.
The brake mean effective pressure was 1 250 kPa.
The brake specific fuel consumption was 0,288 kg/kW.h.
The mechanical efficiency was 80%.
The calorific value of the fuel was 39 062,5 kJ/kg.
The clearance volume was 5% of the swept volume.
The value of gamma was 1 ,41.
3.1 Calculate:
3.1.1 The swept volume of each cylinder in m 3, the brake power in kW (6)
and the indicate mean effective pressure of kPa
3.1.2 The brake torque in Nm (2)

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Power Machines N6
3.1.3 The mass of the fuel used in kg/s, the brake thermal efficiency and (6)
the indicated thermal efficiency
3.1.4 The volumetric compression ratio, the air standard efficiency and (6)
the indicated efficiency ratio
[20]
QUESTION 4:
Air flows through a convergent-divergent nozzle at a rate of 150 kg/min to

an exit pressure of 237,26 kPa.
At the throat the pressure is 475,454 kPa, the area is 1 534,6 mm 2, the
actual temperature is 131,11ºC and the velocity of the air is 398,801 m/s.
Take gamma for air as 1,4 and Cp as 1,008 kJ/kg.K.
4.1 Ignore the velocity of the air at the inlet and calculate:
4.1.1 The absolute temperature and the pressure in kPa at the inlet (5)
4.1.2 The absolute isentropic temperature, specific volume in m3/kg at the (6)
throat and the percentage heat loss before the throat
4.1.3 The absolute isentropic and actual temperatures, the velocity in m/s (8)
and the area mm2 at the exit. Assume the specific volume to be
0,4154 m3/kg
4.1.4 The Mach number at the exit (1)

[20]
QUESTION 5:
A single-cylinder, single-acting engine working on the diesel cycle rotates at 300 r/min.
It has a piston with a diameter of 187 mm and a stroke length of 233 mm.
Fuel cut-off occurs at 10% of the swept volume after T.D.C. At the start of
compression the pressure is 106 kPa and the temperature is 22,5ºC.
The index (n) for compression and expansion is 1,32. The cylinder volume is 17 times
the clearance volume. R for air is 0,287 kJ/kg.K.
5.1 Calculate:
5.1.1 The swept volume, the clearance volume, the cylinder volume and (5)
the volume after combustion in m3
5.1.2 The missing absolute temperatures and pressures in kPa at the (8)
principal points

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Power Machines N6
5.1.3 The mass of air in kg per cycle and the mass of the air in kg/s (3)
5.1.4 The work done by the engine in kW (4)

[20]
QUESTION 6:
The carbon dioxide refrigeration plant operates between limits of 04ºC

and 28ºC.
The refrigerant enters the compressor as a wet vapour and after

compression the refrigerant has a temperature of 52,8ºC.
In the condenser the refrigerant is undercooled to saturated liquid with a

temperature of 23ºC.
The refrigerant flows at a rate of 18 kg/min.
The specific heat capacity of the superheated refrigerant is 2,5261

kJ/kg.K and that of the saturated liquid refrigerant is 5,42 kJ/kg.K.
6.1 The following are extracts from carbon dioxide tables:
Saturation Specific enthalpy (kJ/kg) Specific entropy kj/kg/K

Temperature
(ºC) Liquid Vapour (hg) Liquid (sf) Vapour (sg)
(hf)
-4 81,4 318,6 0,312 1,183
28 178,6 263,8 0,638 0,922
Calculate:
6.1.1 The specific entropy in kJ/kg.K after compression and the dryness (5)
factor of the refrigerant entering the compressor
6.1.2 The specific enthalpy of the refrigerant at the inlet to the (6)
compressor and the specific enthalpy after compressing in kJ/kg
6.1.3 The specific enthalpy of the refrigerant before throttling in kJ/kg, (7)
the refrigerating effect in kJ/kg, the work done in kJ/kg and the
actual coefficient of performance
6.1.4 The power required to drive the compressor in kW if the (2)

mechanical efficiency is 83%
HINT: Entropy after compression = Entropy of dry saturated

vapour at
[20]

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Power Machines N6
QUESTION 7:
A two-stage, velocity-compounded, impulse steam turbine consists of two

rows of moving blades separated by a row of fixed blades.
The inlet and outlet angles for the first row of moving blades are 25ºC.
The outlet angle for the fixed blades is 16,5ºC.
The relative velocity at outlet from the first row of moving blades is 436
m/s.
The outlet angle of the second row of moving blades is 30ºC.
The steam is discharged axially from the turbine.
There is a 6% loss of velocity across all the blades due to friction.
7.1 Use the length of 35 mm for the average blade velocity and construct (10)
velocity diagrams for the turbine in the answer book and calculate the
scale. Indicate the lengths of ALL the lines as well as the magnitude of
7.2 Determine from the velocity diagrams:
7.2.1 The average blade velocity in m/s
7.2.2 The nozzle velocity in m/s
7.2.3 The velocity of the steam leaving the first stage in m/s
7.2.4 The velocity of the steam entering the second stage in m/s
7.2.5 The velocity of the steam leaving the turbine in m/s
7.2.6 The nozzle angle
7.2.7 The energy developed by the turbine in kJ/kg steam
7.2.8 The blading efficiency

(10)
[20]
TOTAL: 100

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Marking Guidelines
AUGUST 2014
POWER MACHINES N6
(8190046)
28 July 2014 (Y-Paper)

13:00 – 16:00

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Table of C
APRIL 2013
POWER MACHINES N6
(8190046)
9 April 2013 (X-Paper)

09:00 – 12:00
REQUIREMENTS: Steam tables
Calculators may be used.
Candidates will require drawing instruments, pens and a

ruler.
This question paper consists of 7 pages and a 6-page formula sheet.

223
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POWER MACHINES N6
TIME: 3 HOURS
MARKS: 100
__________________________________________________________________
NOTE: If you answer more than the required number of questions, only the required
number of questions will be marked. All work you do not want to be marked,
must be clearly crossed out.
1. Answer any FIVE questions.
2. Read ALL the questions carefully.
paper.
4. Questions may be answered in any order, but subsections of questions must be

kept together.
5. ALL formulae used, must be written down.
6. Show ALL the intermediate steps
7. Questions must be answered in BLUE or BLACK ink.
8. ALL the sketches and diagrams must be done in pencil in the ANSWER BOOK.

___________________________________________________________________

224
Power Machines N6
QUESTION 1:
A single-acting, three-stage, reciprocating compressor sucks air in at 100

kPa and delivers it at a rate of 900 kg/h at a temperature of 105,002 ºC.
The low pressure cylinder has a diameter of 345 mm and its stroke length
is 1,24 times the diameter of the piston.
 The power required to drive the compressor is 87,05 kW.

 The ratio of pressure for all cylinders is 3,4 : 1.
 The compression and expansion index is 1 ,3.
 The rotational frequency of the compressor is 324 r/min.
 Take Cp for air as 1,008 kJ/kg/K.
1.1 The effective swept volume of the low pressure cylinder in (4)
1.2 The swept volume in and the volumetric efficiency of the low (4)
pressure cylinder
1.3 The absolute temperature at the compressor inlet and the value of the (5)
characteristic gas constant
1.4 The clearance volume and the cylinder volume for the low-pressure (4)
cylinder
1.5 The heat extracted by the intercoolers in kW (3)

[20]
QUESTION 2:
A boiler plant operating at a pressure of 2,55 MPa produces 8 385 kg of

superheated steam, with a specific enthalpy of 3 010 kJ/kg, per hour from
coal burned at 975 kg/h.
 The specific heat capacity of the superheated steam is 2,75 kJ/kg.K.

 The economiser consumed 2 476,8 kJ of heat per kg of coal burned.
 The temperature of the feed water in the economiser is increased by
68,6 ºC.

225
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The following is an incomplete heat balance of the plant:
Q in ( ) Q out ( ) %
Economiser = 8,256
Evaporator = 65,684
Superheater = 8,62
Moisture = 5,25
Dry flues = 6,35
Unaccounted =
Total
2.1 Complete the heat balance above. (7)
2.2 Calculate the following by using steam tables only:
2.2.1 The thermal efficiency of the plant, the specific enthalpy of the feed (6)
water entering the economiser and its temperature and the specific
enthalpy of the feed water entering the evaporator
2.2.2 The dryness factor of the steam entering the superheater (4)
2.2.3 The normal temperature of the steam produced (3)

[20]
QUESTION 3:
A single-cylinder, four-stroke petrol engine working on the Otto cycle

principle has a
volume compression ratio of 8,5 : 1.
The polytropic index for compression and expansion is 1 ,31.
The brake power of the engine at 2 000 r/min is 11,9 kW.
The mechanical efficiency is 85%.
The length of the stroke is 1 ,25 times the diameter of the piston.
The indicated mean effective pressure is 1 000 kPa.
The initial pressure of the cycle is 1 00 kPa.
The temperature after expansion is 2,8 times the initial temperature.
Take gamma as 1,4.
3.1 The indicated power in kW (2)
3.2 The indicated work done in J/cycle (2)
3.3 The swept volume in m2, the diameter of the piston in mm and the length (6)
of the stroke in mm
3.4 The volumes in cm2 at the principle points (3)
3.5 The missing pressures at the principle points in kPa (5)

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3.6 The air standard efficiency (2)

[20]
QUESTION 4:
An engine working on the dual cycle principle has a volumetric

compression ratio of 16: 1.
The pressure and temperature at the beginning of the compression stroke
are 101 kPa and 32°C respectively.
The compression index is 1,35.
The pressure at the beginning of the expansion stroke is 1,4 times the
pressure after polytropic compression.
The pressure at the beginning of the exhaust stroke is 262,424 kPa.
The heat taken in at constant pressure continues for one thirtieth of the
stroke.
Take gamma as 1 ,4.
4.1 The missing absolute temperatures and pressures in kPa at the principle (12)
points
4.2 The expansion index (4)
4.3 The ideal thermal efficiency of the cycle (4)

[20]
QUESTION 5:
Superheated steam enters a convergent-divergent nozzle at a pressure of

3 MPa, with a temperature of 300 ºC and no velocity and is expanded to a
pressure of 860 kPa with an actual dryness factor of 98%.
At the throat the pressure is 1,6 MPa, the specific heat capacity is 2,825
kJ/kg.K and the index for superheated steam is 1,3.
At the exit the isentropic dryness factor is 99,286% of the actual dryness
factor.
The steam flows at a rate of 5,2 kg/s.
The specific enthalpy drop in the convergent part is 135,2 kJ/kg.
5.1 The velocity of the steam in m/s, the specific enthalpy of the steam, the (12)
temperature of the steam, the specific volume of the steam, the area in
mm2 and the diameter in mm at the throat of the nozzle
5.2 The actual specific enthalpy and the isentropic specific enthalpy at the (8)
nozzle exit, the actual enthalpy drop and the isentropic enthalpy drop
through the nozzle and the nozzle efficiency
[20]

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Power Machines N6
QUESTION 6:
Steam discharges axially from a velocity compounded, two-stage, impulse

turbine with a velocity of 80 m/s.
The inlet and exit angle of the first row of moving blades as well as the
inlet angle of the second row of moving blades are equal.
The exit angle of the second row of moving blades is 26°.
No axial thrust is developed in the second stage.
The steam flow rate is 45 kg/s.
6.1 Use a scale of 1 mm = 4 m/s and construct velocity diagrams for the (10)
turbine in the ANSWER BOOK.
Indicate the lengths of ALL the lines as well as the magnitude of the
angles on the diagrams.
6.2 Determine the following from the velocity diagrams:
6.2.1 The nozzle angle
6.2.2 The exit angle of the fixed blades
6.2.3 The inlet and exit angles of the first row of moving blades as well
as the inlet angle of the second row of moving blades
6.2.4 The inlet angle of the fixed blades
6.2.5 The average blade velocity in m/s
6.2.6 The nozzle velocity in m/s
6.2.7 The velocity of the steam leaving the first stage in m/s
6.2.8 The blade efficiency
6.2.9 The power developed by the turbine in MW (10)

[20]
QUESTION 7:
A vapour compression refrigeration plant uses carbon dioxide as a

refrigerant and operates between temperature limits of -8 ºC and 34 ºC.
The compressor has a piston with a diameter of 120 mm, a stroke of
141,5 mm and it rotates at 360 r/min.
The refrigerant enters the compressor as a dry saturated vapour and it
enters the condenser at a temperature of 64 °C.
The refrigerant leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid with no
undercooling.

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At: -8 ºC
The specific volume of the dry saturated vapour = 0,072

The specific entropy of the dry saturated vapour = 0,7008 kj/kg.K
At: 34 ºC
The specific enthalpy of the saturated liquid = 68,5 kJ/kg
7.1 The specific heat capacity of the superheated vapour and the specific (6)
enthalpy of the superheated vapour at the compressor outlet
7.2 The swept volume of the compressor in , the volume flow of the (6)
refrigerant in and the mass flow rate of the refrigerant in kg/s
7.3 The power required to drive the compressor in kW, the power required to (6)
produce ice in kW and the actual coefficient of performance
7.4 The energy required to condense the refrigerant in kJ/min (2)
HINT: s at 64 ºC = Sg at 34 ºC + Cp in [T at 64 ºC T at 34 °C]
[20]
TOTAL: 100

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Marking Guidelines
APRIL 2013
POWER MACHINES N6
(8190046)
9 April 2013 (X-Paper)

09:00 – 12:00

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1.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 6

Gateways to Engineering Studies

1.6.4 Reversible adiabatic compression of the gas .................................................................. 18

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 25

3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 53

4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 72

Gateways to Engineering Studies

4.2.1 Ideal Joule cycle....................................................................................................................... 74

5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 99

Gateways to Engineering Studies

5.4.3 Thermal efficiency and heat balance ............................................................................. 112

6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 132

7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 155

Gateways to Engineering Studies

Icons used in this book

Icon Description Icon Description

Assessment / Activity Multimedia

Demonstration/ observation Presentation/ Lecture

Did you know? Read

Experiment Site visit

Group work/ discussions, role-

Keywords Think about it

Gateways to Engineering Studies

 Describe the different gas laws

This module serves as a review and as a possible reference. The

Heat capacity is an extensive property of matter, meaning it is proportional to

When expressing the same phenomenon as an intensive property, the heat

Definition: Molar heat capacity

Gateways to Engineering Studies

Definition: Specific heat capacity

1.2.2 Specific Heat capacity at constant volume

1.2.3 Specific Heat capacity at constant pressure

1.2.4 For a specific gas

1.2.5 Characteristic gas constant

R is the characteristic gas constant.

1.2.6 Joule’s law

Gateways to Engineering Studies

1.2.7 Charles law

This directly proportional relationship can be written as:

Figure 1.1 PV diagram

Gateways to Engineering Studies

1.2.8 Boyle’s law

Boyle's law can be stated as:

1.2.9 Combined Charles and Boyle’s law

Equating (1) and (2):

1.3 Gas laws

Work done (WD)

Heat gained or lost (Q)

Change in internal energy ( )

1.3.2 Isobaric process

Work done (WD)

Gateways to Engineering Studies

Heat gained or lost (Q)

Change in internal energy ( )

1.3.3 Isothermal process

Work done (WD)

Heat gained or lost (Q)

Change in internal energy ( )

1.3.4 Polytropic process