Form 2 notes

Population growth and land use

The population growth of the world is about 70 million new people per year.

Population has been able to grow at this fast rate because

-better healthcare facilities which have reduced death rates especially children.

-Better nutrition.

-High fertility rates of people within the child bearing.

Effects of population growth on land use.

1. Human population growth has a corresponding rising demand for meat and dairy
products.This puts pressure on the world’s resources and the demands will cause an increase
in the demand for agricultural produces.

2. It affects the eco- system it leads to species loss as land is cleared for agriculture and
settlement.

3. Population growth also causes pressure on the water systems as it cause an increase in
water consumption

4. Increase in population leads to agricultural practices which create pollution as farmers will
increase production by using industrial fertilizers.

5. Pressure on energy resources high population levels will mean an increased in demand for
firewood resulting in massive deforestation.

6. Rising unemployment

Solutions to high population growth

5. It can cause full utilisation of land and improved farming methods as farmers try to fully
utilise the land space to meet the demand.

6. Family Planning

7. Increased industrialization

Population density

Itis the relationship between number of people and the land they live in it is calculated by the
number of people per square meter.
Farming systems

Mixed farming

This is a system in which both crop faring and livestock farming are practices.

Advantages

1. Farmers can utilize crop residues as supplementary annual feed

2. Manure from the animals can be used in crop production
3. Even use of labour though out the year
4. It economizes on space
5. If one crop fails the farmer can always turn to other for his livelihood.

Disadvantages

1. There is lack of specialisation

2. More labour is required
3. More capital is needed
4. Control of pests and diseases is difficult.

Monoculture

This is planting one crop year after year on the same piece of land

Disadvantages

1. Pests and diseases build up

2. There is high risk of losses in the event of total crop failure
3. Weed problems prevalent
4. Uneven utilization of nutrients.

Intercropping

This is a farming system in which more than one crop is planted on the same peice of land

Advantages

1. Risk of crop failure is reduced as more than one crop is grown

2. Soil erosion is reduced due to crop coverage of the soil.
3. Higher total yields per unit area as compared to monoculture.

Disadvantages

1. Some operations are difficult to carry such as spraying , wedding and harvesting
2. Pests and diseases build up
3. Close spacing may lead to poor yields.
4. Uneven utilisation

Intercropping
This is a farming system in which more than one crop is planted on the same pieces of land

Advantages

1. Risk of crop failure is reduced as more than one crop is grown

2. Soil erosion is reduced to crop coverage of the soil
3. Higher total yields per unit area as compared to monoculture

Disadvantages

1. Some operations are difficult to carry such as spraying, weeding

2. Pest and disease build up
3. Close spacing may lead to poor yields

Modification of environmental factors

Adverse environmental factors

1. Temperature – if temperature is above or below normal

2. Rainfall – if rainfall is above or below

Ways of reducing

Adverse environmental factors

1. Shading – is a process whereby a farmer protects the crop from the direct sun by
making a thatched shed
It is when we construct a shed using sticks and grass to cover our seedling
It is done to reduce the effects of temperature that are above
It reduces the impact of direct sunlight to the crop
2. Irrigate /watering – it also reduces the effects of temperature above or below normal
It reduces wilting because water helps the plant to recover from wilting caused by
excess temperature
It is the application of water to reduce high temperatures, low temperature and
shortage of rainfall
3. Mulching – it is a process of covering our bed with grass or crop residue to conserve
water, it is used to reduce effects of poor rainfall
4. Conservation Tillage – it reduces the effect of shortage of rainfall it help conserve
moisture and reduce process of evaporation
It helps maintain the effect of organic poor rainfall
It is a method of tillage in which we plant our crops with minimum tillage in crae to
conserve soil moisture, structure and organic material
It is used to reduce the effects of poor rainfall
5. Manuring – it is when we apply manure
It improves the soil structure allowing the soil to retain and absorbs water
It helps the soil to retain water and prevent less rainfall
It reduces the effects of shortage of rainfall
 6. Tied ridges –they are used on crops which are grown on ridges .The aim is to reduce
the environmental effects of poor rainfall .it also conserves water by preventing water
runoff
7. Pot-holing – it is when you dig holes at regular intervals in between rows
-Later then plant roots develop near the ponds
-It is usually done when crops are grown on flat lands
-Rain water collect in holes forming small ponds
-It is called hydropism

FORESTRY;

GROWING GUMTREES

Establishing a nursery site(factors to consider when choosing/ selecting a nursery site)

1. They should be a reliable supply of water that is near a river, ponds, near water tank
or a reservoir to store water-.
2. Good fertile soil
3. They should be protected from strong winds and livestock
4. The site should receive enough sunshine.
5. It should have a gentle slope.

Seedling production

Methods of planting seeds

1. Broadcasting – it is the uniform scattering of seeds across the seed bed

2. Seed sowing – it is when we plant seeds in pots or directly in seed bed
3. Watering can –seeds are sown by means of placing them in watering cans with fine
nozzles.

Seedlings

Management of gum trees seedling

1. Shading – to prevent direct sunlight

2. Watering – using watering cane with fine nozzles to prevent washing away of
seedling and to prevent soil compact and or opening up of seedlings
3. Pest management – we need to manage termites from seedling by adding water
treated with a chemical called aldrin to control the effect of termites
4. Fertiliser Application – for plant nutrients or we apply rotted manure and compound
fertilizers
5. Thinning - it is removal of excess seedlings to create space
6. Prickling out – it is the transferring of excess removed seedlings to pot .Seedlings are
often transferred when they are 3 to 5 cm
 7. Hardening off – it is when a seedling is exposed to direct sunlight

Two types of Timber

1. Hardwood
2. Softwood

Hardwood

Msasa, Mopane, Wattle tree or gum tree

Softwood

Pine tree

Characteristic of hardwood and softwood

Softwood

SOFTWOOD HARDWOOD

They burn fast and produce coal There are slow and produce charcoal

Soft and workable Hard and uneasy to work with

They come from no flowering trees Hard and last long (durable)

They have thin and needle shaped leaves They come from flowering trees

It has low intensity They have broad leaves

It has high density

The Gum Tree Planting Calendar

PERIOD/ MONTH ACTIVITIES DONE

January You water and weed the planted seedlings.
February You start to prepare compost
March You scout for pests and diseases in the plantation
April You start making fire-guards and
Collect seeds. {because the grass is starting to dry up}
May Land preparation for the next season
June You fill containers with sowing mediums which is a mixture of sand and
 organic matter
July You plant your seed
August You now water and caring for the seedlings
September You protect the seedlings from termites using water and aldrin
October You remove all dry grass to prevent fire breakout on the plantation
November You dig planting holes for seedlings
December We are now ready for planting our seedlings because the soil is now moist

Planting Seedlings

1. You plant strong and healthy seedling 25-30cm.

2. You space at a distance of 2.5 metres.
3. Treat your planting stations using aldrin.
4. Make a planting hole that can accommodate the length of a plant pocket.
5. After placing the plant you then press around to close out air pockets.
6. Water each seedling using about 20litres of water.

Management of Trees

1. Weed control
2. Put a fence to protect against animals by fencing around the plantation.
3. Protect against fire by preparing fire-guards which are 9 metres wide.
4. Termite control using aldrin

WILDLIFE

It is all undomesticated animals and plants.

Sustainable Use of Wildlife

Is taking action that do not cause a decline of wildlife resources

Methods of maintaining Our Wildlife Resources

1. Introducing laws restricting killing or poaching and trading in wildlife and their
products.
2. Artificial stocking and relocating. (restocking)
3. Educating communities and introducing CAMPFIRE programs.
4. Improvement of wildlife habitat. {by creating game parks with proper fencing}

Protected Animals and Plants in Zimbabwe

*These animals and plants are protected by the law.E.g elephant, python , pangolin, and rhino
and flame lilly

*Dangerous animals they cause a direct threat to human life.E.g lion, hippopotamus

Controlling Dangerous Animals

a) Creating game parks.

b) Reducing or the reduction of predators in an area.
c) The department of parks and wildlife assist in controlling by culling and relocating of
these animals.

Problem Animals

 These are animals which severe indirect damage to human life, livestock and crops for
instance they spread diseases such as rabies, foot and mouth.E.g Baboon, Spotted
hyena andJackal{black backed}

Soil types

Sand soil

Clay

Silt

Loam

Properties of soil types

1. Sand soil- it has above 50% sand and 20 % silt or clay.

2. Loam soil – it has equal proportions of silt and sand, it contains about 30% clay and
above 30 % silt.
3. Clay soil- It has over 30 % clay and less than 50 % sand

Characteristics of soil types.

Sand soil

It has single grain structure.

Itis course and rough

It has fewer nutrients

Good drainage

It is light in colour

It is workable when dry.

Clay soil.

It is soft

It has poor drainage

It is high in nutrients

It is dark in colour

It cracks when it is dry

It has poor aeration.

Loam soil

It sticks tome extent

It is well aerated

It does not easily leach.

Soil composition

Air
25%

Water
25%

Mineral matter
45% Organic matter
5%
FERTILIZERS

There are two types of fertilizers

1. Organic fertilizers
2. Inorganic fertilisers

Organic fertilizers

it is all material that comes from living organisms e.g.compost, animalmanure, crop remains
and kitchen waste

types of organic fertilizers

1. Animal manure- it comes from animal dung and urine. It is rich in nitrogen and has
small amounts of other minerals. Animal dung should be properly rotted for six
months before use to prevent it from burning crops.
2. Liquid manure-it is when we place animal manure in a sack and place it in a drum
filled with water. After a week you can irrigate the plants using the liquid manure.
When irrigating using liquid manure avoid contact with the stem and leaves because it
may burn the plant.
3. Compost- It is broken down organic matter which is dark in colour. It takes about two
months in summer to be ready and three months in winter to be ready. It has less
nitrogen compared to animal manure. Termites and ants are important in breaking
down of compost.

How to make compost

 Place sticks, maize stalk or crop residue to allow air to circulate.
 Place organic manure, top soil to provide nutrients and living organisms which
can lead to the decay of organic matter.
 Place kitchen waste and grass
 Place organic matter and top soil
 Water the compost heap.
4. Green manure- It is planting crops for the purpose of fertilising the soil. When a plant
reaches a certain stage it is removed, cut and buried. Legumes are mainly used for
green manure because they fix nitrogen.
5. Ash – it is the by product of any burnt living organism. It is high in potassium. It can
be used to kill termites in a garden.

Importance of organic manure

1. It improves soil fertility by adding minerals

2. It improve soil drainage
 3. It improves soil water holding capacity
4. It stop soil from being compact
5. It binds soil together.

Inorganic fertilizers

These are man-made substances that are used to make plants grow better.

Types of inorganic fertilizers

1. Straight fertilizers- They supply one major nutrient (ammonium fertilizers).

2. Compound fertilizers- they contain at least two major nutrients or in different
chemical proportions. Compound A it has 2% nitrogen, 17% phosphorus, 15 %
potassium. Compound D 8% nitrogen, 14 % phosphate and 7% potassium.
3. Mixture fertilizers- these are a combination of straight fertilisers e.g. ammonium
nitrate plus single super phosphate plus sulphate potash.
4. Lime fertilizers- it contains calcium and is used to limit the acidity of the soil.

Types of straight fertilisers

1. Nitrogen fertilisers e.g ammonium nitrate 34,5% nitrogen, urea has 46 % nitrogen,
and nitrate soda has 16 % nitrogen.
2. Phosphoricfertilizers- single supper phosphate it has 18.5 % phosphorus, double super
phosphorus 37 %.
3. Potasic fertilisers- Murate of potash it has 60 % potassium and sulphate of potash
50%.

Methods of applying fertilizers.

1. Broadcasting – it is scattering fertilizers over the whole field using hand and
machine. It can be done before or after planting.
2. Side dressing – it is application of fertilizers next to a plant.
3. Hill placement- it is the application of fertilizers using hands. Little mounds are
placed within rows.
4. Foliar spray- it is when water soluble fertilizers are sprayed on plant leaves.
5. Banding- it is the application of near or below the seed.

Irrigation

it is the application of water to the soil for good crop growth.

Importance of irrigation

1. To supply moisture when rainfall is totally in adequate for growth

2. To extend the growing season
 3. 3. To grow crop during the dry season.

Sources of irrigation water

1. Rivers
2. Dams
3. Underground water- obtained by sinking boreholes.

Classification of vegetable plants

Classification as monocotyledons or dicotyledons

class Description
Monocotyledon Leaves have parallel veins. It has got fibrous
roots. Seed embryo has a single cotyledon
e.g. maize seed.
Dicotyledon It has got veins which are branched. It has a
main or tap rootsystem. The seed embryo has
two cotyledone.g. beans

Classification according to botanical names

Class Description
Legumes These are plants bearing pods and fixing
nitrogen into the soil e.g. beans and peas
Roots and tubers Root and tubers are edible parts of these
plants e.g. carrots , cassava and potatoes
Brassica Vegetables which are grown for leaves e.g.
rape, cabbage and chomoulier
Solanacease These are vegetables grown for their fruits
e.g. tomatoes, pepper and egg plant
Cucurbits Class of creeping plants which produce
edible fruits e.g.cucumbers and pumpkin.

TERM 3

LIVESTOCK NUTRITION

NUTRIENTS REQUIRED BY LIVESTOCK

1. Proteins
2. Vitamins
3. Carbohydrates
4. Water
 5. Fats
6. Minerals

NUTRIENTS FUNCTION SOURCE DEFICIENCY

SYMPTOM
Carbohydrate A source of energy Cereals, grass. leaves Animal becomes weak
s
Proteins It causes growth and build-up Soya meal, Lucerne Stunted growth and loss
of body tissues grass, concentrates of weight
Fats It provides energy Sunflower seed and Respiratory diseases
ground nut seed.
Phosphorus Formation of teeth and bones Milk, Mono calcium Abnormal appetite,
phosphate, bone meal Rickets in young animals
Calcium Formation of teeth and bones Milk, Mono calcium Weak and brittle bones
phosphate, bone meal in older animals
Vitamin A Good eyesight, Help in Green plants Pneumonia and night
reproduction, Growth in mucus blindness.
membrane and normal body
function
Magnesium Formation of soft tissue and Epsom salt Poor soft tissue and bone
bones and Formation of body formation.
fluids.
Vitamin B Normal function of the body Green plants and Weakness, Nervous
cereal grains (wheat) disorders
Vitamin C Assist in chemical reactions in Green grass No symptoms
the body
Vitamin D Bone and teeth formation Green grass and Rickets and soft shelled
through metabolism of calcium sunshine eggs
and phosphorus
Vitamin E Assist in fertility of animals Green grass Infertility in animals
Vitamin K Assist in blood clotting, Fish meal and green Delayed blood clotting
fertility of animals plants

Broiler Production

Records kept in Broiler production

1. Mass
2. Feed
3. Financial (profit and loss account)

Record of Mass

week Standard
weight
1 120 g
2 240g
3 430g
4 700g
5 950g
6 1210g
7 1520g
8 1800-
2000g
Feed consumption rate

- Week 1 to week 4 a broiler feeds on 2kgs/bird

- Week 5 to week 8 a broiler feeds on 4 kgs/ bird

Feeding routine for broilers

- Broilers are feed ad libitum meaning they should have feed at their disposal all the
time.
- When changing starter mash, to growers or finishers mash at 4weeks do it gradually
from the last 3 days of week 4 to the first 2 days of week 5 for a period of 5 days.
- Abrupt change in feed can result in digestive problems.
- Water must be available all the time and it should be fresh and clean to avoid
diseases

Slaughtering broilers

- The 3 methods are

1. Neck dislocation
2. Cutting blood vessels
3. Stunning.

Neck dislocation

- It is the turning of the head upwards to separate it from the neck.

Cutting blood vessels

-In communal areas birds are cut using a sharp Knife, the legs and wings are pressed
down using feet to prevent the bird from freeing its self and spreading blood all over.

Stunning

- It is the use of a heavy object like a plank or any other appropriate material to hit
behind the head of a chicken, after stunning the bird is cut with a knife for bleeding.

Dressing broilers
 1. Bleeding- Allow the chicken to bleed for about 1 and half minutes to prevent skin
discolouration.
2. Plucking- it is the removal of body feathers by hand or by machine
a. Dip carcass in hot water (50-54C) for 15 seconds.
b. Remove high feathers
c. Remove tail and wing feathers and the remaining feathers
d. Remove fine hair and pin feathers using a blunt knife
e. Remove viscera (insides) and rinse thoroughly.

N.B when plucking do not tear flesh.

Killing out / dressing percentage

- It is the difference between live mass of the broiler and the mass of the carcass.
- It is calculated as : mass of carcassX 100
Live mass
- The Killing out percentage has to be above 65% and not lower than 50%.

Marketing

-Grade the birds according to size

- Price according to mass.

Financial records

A profit and loss account shows whether the enterprise is making a profit or not.

Example of Profit and loss a/c

Income

Sale of 50 broilers @ $ 8 each ……………………………………………… $400

Expenditure

Feed 6 bags…………………………………………………………………..$180

Vaccines………………………………………………………………………$20

Profit ………………………………………………………………………......$200

Livestock diseases and hygiene.

Causes of disease

1. Malnutrition or unbalanced diet

2. Poison
3. Physical injuries
4. Pathogens
5. Parasites
Disease Transmission

1. Diseases are caused by Pathogens, which are usually transmitted by tsetse flies, Ticks
and mosquitoes. These disease causing agents are called vectors.
2. Pathogens are also transmitted by wind, water and food e.g. worms such as
roundworms, tapeworms are spread when animals feed on contaminated food and
water.
3. Direct animal contact can also spread diseases such as that of the skin.

Importance of hygiene in the prevention and control of diseases

- Cleaning- Helps to remove dirt which invites flies and other insects which spread
diseases.
- Disinfection- Help to kill pathogens
- Ventilation- Helps to throw away odours which invite vectors and insects like flies.
Ventilation also provides clean air to animals and thereby preventing stress which
causes diseases.
- Water and Feed need to be clean any contamination may cause diseases.

Methods of controlling and preventing diseases

1. Natural immunisation- this when an animal can resist diseases without vaccines
2. Artificial immunisation-this is when animals are able to resist diseases after regular
vaccinations
3. Provide a balanced diet
4. Maintain hygiene conditions
5. Destroy noxious plants e.g. Lantana

Adjustments of animal drawn implements

Depth of ploughing
1. Loosen the front bolt of the hitch assembly and raise the hitch to make deep cut.
2. Lower the hitch assembly, the plough goes up and make shallow cut.
3. Lengthen the trek chain and the plough makes a deeper cut and shorten the trek chain
and it makes a shallow cut.
4. The wheel balances the plough and maintains the adjusted depth.

Width of cut of a plough

1. Move the hitch assembly to the right, the plough will move to the left and make a
wide cut.
2. Move the hitch assembly to the left, the plough will move to the right and make a
narrow cut.

Adjustment of a cultivator
 1. For narrow width, lever is moved forward
2. For a wider width coverage,lever is moved backwards.
3. Lengthen chain to increase depth
4. Shorten chain to decrease depth
5. Remove the front tines, deeper cut is obtained.
6. Increase the number of front tines, shallow cut is obtained.

Fences

Materials used to make fences

1. Wire
2. Wood
3. Stone
4. Bricks
5. Plants.

Tools for constructing a fence

1. Wire strainer – it is used for pulling or straining wire during fence construction
2. Pliers- is used for cutting and tying wire during fence construction
3. Shovel – is used in mixing concrete used to fill holes for holding poles upright.
4. Hammer- it used to drive nails into wooden poles so as to hold wire strands in
position.
5. Wheelbarrow- used to carry rolls of wire and other materials used for fence
construction.
6. Axe/ Machetes- used to cut trees, tree branches and shrubs along the line of the fence
7. Mattock- it is used for stumping trees and shrubs occurring along the line of fence.

Farm roads.

Factors to be considered when siting a farm road

1. Topography- farm roads need to be constructed on high land (watershed or crest) to
facilitate or improve water drainage.
2. Nature of the area- the area should make the road to be straight as possible to reduce
cost on distance travelled.
3. Soil type- avoid areas with soils which are easily erodible
4. Slope- avoid steep gradient to prevent soil erosion caused by runoff water.
5. Physical features- avoid areas which cross streams or rivers to reduce on number of
bridges to be constructed.
6. Position of farm operations- Farm roads should access all the farm operations.

Equipment needed when siting farm roads

1. Dumpy level(kern level)- for levelling the road surface and determining the gradient
along the road area during the siting of the road.
2. Wooden pegs- To mark the edges of the road
 3. Mattock- for digging and stumping trees and shrubs where the road is to be
constructed
4. Axe – for cutting and chopping felled trees
5. Hammer- to drive wooden pegs into the soil and breaking rocks.
6. Rammer- Heavy iron roller wheel used to firming gravel applied on the road surface.
7. Shovel- Used for removing soil from the mitre drains during construction
8. Pruning saw- for cutting tree branches protruding on the road.
9. Tape measure- it is used in measuring the width of the road and dimensions of mitre
drains.

Characteristics of well sited farm roads

1. It should be cambered ( sloping towards edges) to drain water out of the road
2. It should be wide enough to allow two vehicles or tractors to be able to pass each
other in opposite direction
3. It should be well firmed so that vehicles do not get stuck during rainyseason
4. Should have a gentle slope to avoid soil erosion
5. It should be an all-weather road-usable throughout the year
6. Should be straight to reduce costs.

harnesses

breast band – these are made from strips of old tyres or canvas cut into different lengths
and widths, breast bands consist of chest strap, shoulder strap, belly strap, support ropes
and the bridle.
-Breast bands from individual donkeys harnesses are joined together with support ropes.
-The bridle is used for controlling the donkeys with reins while one is seated on the cart
-you can harness two, three, four, five, six, seven donkeys at once using the breast bands
collar harnesses –
-these are wide bands of old tyre strip that is fitted on the donkey or horse or mule`s neck
that is breast and collar of the animal.
-it does not go round the animal but is worn by it, on the sides are ropes or chains that
will connect to the implement

Parts of a breast band

1chest strap,
2shoulder strap,
3belly strap,
4support ropes
5bridle.
Parts of a collar harness
1collar strap
2 breast strap
3 chains or ropes connected to implements
materials used for harnesses
-straps can be strong canvas, cut old tyre straps and rubber materials
-the straps are joined using bolts and nuts rivets
or can be tied using wire

NB harnesses are animal specific i.e. donkeys are harnessed using breast bands because they
pull using their chest and not withers like cattle.

Profit and loss account

Functions of profit and loss account

1. Calculate profit or loss

2. Helps the farmer to plan for the future
3. Helps analyse farm productivity
4. Helps farmer to access loans
5. Helps farmer in decision making

Profit and loss account

Returns/income

Date description value

20/11/18 sale of 2 broilers $20

22/11/18 sale of 10 broilers $100

Total income $120

Cost/expenditure

10/11/18 feeds x2 bags $10

11/11/18 vaccines $12

12/11/18 feeds broiler finisher $18

Total cost $40

Marketing

Controlled and uncontrolled marketing

Controlled marketing

-it is when sellers are forced by law to sell their produce to specific buyers e.g GMB

-price is usually determined by the government

-the buyer determines the standard quality of product they want.

Uncontrolled marketing

-selling produce to any consumers without interference from government

-the price is determined by market forces.

Formal Marketing of major crops

GMB-buys grain crops such as wheat, maize, soya beans, sunflower and groundnut

TIMB Tobacco industries marketing board compels farmers to register with the board in
order for them to sell their tobacco

Formal Marketing of major livestock

It is done through DZL dairiboard zimbabwe limited for milk and milk products, cold
storage company of Zimbabwe (CSC) for beef as well as PIB( pig industry board) for pork
and beacon.

Informal marketing of agricultural produce these are markets whereby agricultural produce is
sold to speculators who approach the farmers, or farmers sell to vendors. Eg sekusile, renkini
markets

Agricultural cooperatives

These are registered group of people who work together to achieve a common goal

Advantages of agricultural cooperatives

-lower costs are incurred due to discounts on bulk transportation of inputs and produce.

-sharing ideas amongst members

- access to loans for buying inputs.

-fixed costs are shared and this increases

- group has high bargaining power

- promotes friendship by working together

Problems faced by co-operatives

-Dishonesty – some members misinform others in order to get more benefits than others,
others don’t pay back money they borrow.

-Mismanagement – inadequately trained leaders embezzle funds

-Lack of capital

-Lack transport