UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DE CÓRDOBA

FACULTAD DE LENGUAS

EXPLORING SUPRASEGMENTALS IN ENGLISH

A THEORY AND PRACTICE HANDBOOK

Lidia R. Soler
Florencia Giménez
Martín S. Capell
Ma. Verónica Ghirardotto
Josefina M. Díaz
María Garay
Exploring suprasegmentals in english : a theory and practice hanbook / Lidia Soler ... [et
al.]. - 2a edición para el alumno - Córdoba : Fl copias, 2018.
127 p. ; 29 x 21 cm.

ISBN 978-987-1976-73-7

1. Enseñanza de Lenguas Extranjeras. 2. Inglés. 3. Fonética Auditiva. I. Soler, Lidia

CDD 420.7
 Agradecimientos

Agradecemos la preciada colaboración de las Profesoras de la cátedra:

M. Josefina Díaz y María Garay.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface iii

Chapter 1: Phonemic Adjustments

Introduction 1

Linking features 3

Elision 4

Assimilation 8

Compression 13

Practice Activities 15

Chapter 2: Stress in English Words

Introduction 25

Towards a definition 25

Features of stress 25

Levels of stress 27

Placement of stress 28

Stress in simple words 30

Practice activities 42

Stress in compound words 44

Single-stressed compounds 45

Double-stressed compounds 51

Stress shift 57

Practice activities 59

i
Chapter 3: Rhythm

Introduction 65

Stress-timed vs. Syllable-timed Rhythm 66

Degrees of rhythmicality 68

Main similarities and differences between English

and Spanish rhythm 68

Chapter 4: Prominence
Introduction 71

Prominence and information status 74

Prominence and rhythm 75

Prominence and usage 77

Contrastive patterns 80

Practice activities 82

Chapter 5: Intonation

Introduction 87

Intonation practice: tones 88

Intonation practice: the tone unit 90

Intonation practice: transcription of tone units 92

Integration: sound and intonation 94

Texts for oral and written practice 104

Appendix:

Extra practice material 116

ii
 PREFACE

All the readers of this book are likely to agree that pronunciation is an important
aspect of learning English as a Foreign Language (EFL). In addition, most of them
have probably learnt that the mispronunciation of a word can be a problem in oral
communication, even if that involves changing simply one sound for another.

A portion of the readers may even be aware that there is more to conveying a
spoken message successfully than merely producing the correct segments
(=individual sounds; phonemes) in every word. In fact, other aspects of the
pronunciation are equally (or sometimes even more) important because they have
an impact on such elements as syllables, words, phrases and even whole
sentences; that is, elements involving more than one segment. And because they
influence units larger than segments, they are labelled suprasegments
(=extending over or above segments; hence, the term). It is precisely with
suprasegmental (also known as prosodic) phenomena that this book is mostly
concerned and to this portion of readers that this book is addressed.

More specifically, the focus is placed on phonemic adjustments, word stress,

rhythm, prominence and intonation. Each chapter provides theory and extensive
practice in one of these topics, with the exception of Chapter 5. This particular
chapter has been designed to practise intonation in both relatively short stretches
of decontextualised language and more communicative, interactional pieces.
Besides, this section is meant to be used in tandem with Intonation in Context, by
Barbara Bradford (1988). Although the focus throughout this work is on the
contents mentioned above, it is worth mentioning that accurate production of the
sounds of the English phonological system is also considered of outstanding
importance in order to achieve a high standard of pronunciation and oral
performance in English. Therefore, practice of intonation has been combined with
segmental practice in Chapter 5.

Exploring Suprasegmentals in English is also expected to help its users continue

developing certain strategies that are regarded as useful for an EFL learner and
future professional of the English language: dictionary work, self-monitoring, self-
assessment and peer correction, among others. Moreover, in order to encourage

iii
readers to explore reference materials and expand on the data included here,
constant reference is made to the sources used to organize the information in all
the sections.

We hope that this handbook will help pronunciation learners improve their overall
oral performance in such a way that they become more confident speakers as well
as more proficient language users.

iv
 CHAPTER 1

PHONEMIC ADJUSTMENTS

As we speak, the sounds we produce “tend to be influenced by the speech sounds

that surround them.” (Wells, 2008, p. 159) Therefore, individual segments (=
sounds) can be modified in their articulation depending on the features following or
preceding them. Sometimes these modifications involve allophones (= variants of
phonemes in particular phonetic contexts), as you probably recall from your
Pronunciation Practice course. For instance, let us consider the English sound .
It is typically described as a nasal sound with alveolar articulation. This would
rightly be illustrated by the pronunciation of this sound in the phrase in Toronto.
However, if we think of a context such as in the city, the presence of  causes the
nasal sound to be dentalized1.

Other types of modifications concern phonemes proper. When applying phonemic

adjustments (= phonemic simplifications), instead of pronouncing a variant of the
same phoneme, we produce a different phoneme altogether. A typical example is
the one in the phrase one problem. If we pay particular attention to the final sound
in one, we may find out that it is easier or simpler to say /m/ instead of /n/ due to
the influence of the initial sound in problem. Therefore, what we ideally transcribe
as ,can more comfortably be rendered as  in connected
speech.

At this point, it is relevant to consider the reasons why fluent speakers usually
produce these modifications in preference to more careful, dictionary-like
pronunciations. According to Finch and Ortiz Lira (1982), phonemic adjustments
tend to be made following two basic principles, namely, ease of articulation and
economy of effort. In addition, other authors state that English speakers apply
these features in order to comply with the rhythmical structuring of their language.
In this respect, Celce-Murcia, Brinton and Goodwin claim that the primary aim of
the production of adjustments is “...to promote the regularity of English rhythm –

1
For an in-depth discussion of English phonemes and their allophones, you can refer to Finch and Ortiz
Lira, 1982 (Chapters 6 and 7) and Cruttenden, 2008 (Chapter 4), among other sources.

1
that is, to squeeze syllables between stressed elements and facilitate their
articulation so that regular timing can be maintained” (1996, p. 157).

Adjusting our speech to meet these targets is not a characteristic of English alone,
as this also occurs in Spanish and probably in many other languages around the
world. However, phonemic adjustments in English should be made in a way that is
appropriate for this language and should not result from the application of rules
operating in another language. By way of example, one type of these features,
elision (=deletion of a sound), is used both in English and in Spanish, but in a
different manner. In the former, in particular cases, we can elide weak vowels and
leave a syllabic consonant instead. This is not possible in Spanish. Conversely,
some Spanish speakers may soften plural-marking endings by replacing
withor elidingcompletely. Again, this is not normally found in Standard
English. Therefore, it is critical for would-be EFL professionals to understand how
speech can be modified when speaking English in ways that are both appropriate
and advisable.

Below you will find a description of the following types of phonemic adjustments:
linking features, elision, assimilation and compression. Next, you will see a
number of activities that have been designed to help you learn these features of
pronunciation. Then you can listen to the recorded versions of some of the
exercises.

2
 LINKING FEATURES

Linking /r/

In RP and other British English accents, postvocalic /r/ is normally not pronounced
unless it is followed by a vowel. Therefore, we say:

The car won’t start /and

The car is mine /

Whereas /r/ is not pronounced in either case in the first example, it is used as a
linking feature in the second example. Think of other such cases, which are
extremely common in English.

Intrusive /r/

This post-alveolar sound is sometimes used across word boundaries where there is
no -r- in the spelling of a word. Very many speakers, on the model of combinations
such as mother and father, extend the use of /r/ in other combinations and,
consequently, insert it mainly in words ending in // where the following word starts
with a vowel. This feature is used “rather less frequently after final ”
(Cruttenden, 2008, p. 305).

Read the example given taking care to pronounce intrusive /r/. Study the following
cases and try to pronounce them using this linking feature.

China and India 

drama and music

area of agreement

law and order

thaw out

spa and bubbles

3
As linking /r/ is an established feature of RP, students are strongly encouraged to
adopt it every time they speak English, regardless of their speech style or pace.
Conversely, intrusive /r/, being realized in more restricted contexts and even
disapproved of by some speakers (Wells, 2008), will not need to be adopted unless
students feel comfortable enough to use it in a natural manner. In other words,
whereas the former feature should be considered important in terms of both
production and reception, the latter should be practiced mostly from the point of
view of reception.

ELISION

This articulatory adjustment can be defined as the omission of vowel and

consonant sounds (Finch & Ortiz Lira, 1982, p. 79). It is likely to occur in rapid and
informal speech.

Vowel sounds

a. The vowel sounds that are affected by elision are mainly the weak centralized
There may be elision of a weak vowel sound in present-day English
when it is preceded and followed by consonants in non-prominent syllables.
Elision takes place most frequently when weak vowel sounds are followed by
/

E.g.: tension 

/-___/ /-___C/ /-___/ /-___C/

certain importance didn´t conscience



written potent student ancient

pattern important prudent sufficient

4
/-___/ /-___/ /-___/ /-___/

mansion explosion classical peaceful

station occasion musical powerful

nation division local watchful

/-___/ /-___/ /-___/ /-___/

medal kettle commercial nasal

candle cattle special appraisal

middle little official phrasal

/-___/

chapel

people

Think of other examples. You can refer to Finch and Ortiz Lira (1982) and
Cruttenden (2008), among others, to find further examples of this kind of elision.

Exceptions: elision of vowel sounds does not normally occur in nouns ending in
–ful. Examples: fistful, mouthful

5
b. There may also be double vowel elision in the same word.
e.g.:

liberal 

optional

civilization

presentation

Consonant sounds

Elision of consonant sounds can occur inside words and at word boundary.

A. Inside words
a. The alveolar plosives  when medial in a cluster of three consonants are
generally elided.
e.g.: exactly

facts

handsome

handbag

lastly

Westminster

Christmas

(more rarely /t/ in such words as attempts, prompts)

b. The dental fricativeis generally elided from:

asthma

isthmus

c. The dental fricative may sometimes be elided in:

months

twelfths

6
 fifths

d. The velar plosive  can also be elided in asked.

e. The velarized is liable to be elided when preceded by 

   e.g.: always

although

almanac

B. At word boundary
a. Word final alveolars /t, d/ are generally elided when preceded and followed
by consonants.
e.g.: next time

best three

send ten

left school

raised them

gold cup

b. The glottal fricative  is elided in unaccented, non-initial his, her, himself,
herself, have, has, had.
E.g.: Give him a big bottle of beer.

c. There is a tendency to retain the alveolar plosives  before initial .
E.g.: most hackers

land here

d. There is a tendency to retain the alveolar plosive  in 

combinations.
E.g.: don’t they

dealt with

7
 Exceptions:
a. Disyllabic contracted negative forms:
E.g.: didn´t say

wasn´t mine

b. When andare followed by , another type of simplification takes

place. It is called assimilation.

ASSIMILATION

This articulatory adjustment involves a process by which “sounds are influenced by

neighbouring sounds and come to share some phonetic characteristics” (Finch &
Ortiz Lira, 1982, p. 77). It only affects consonant sounds. It is likely to occur in rapid
and informal speech.

Assimilation can be regressive or progressive, the former being the most common
one.

e.g.

this show  REGRESSIVE

British school  PROGRESSIVE

Juxtapositional assimilation

A. Word-final alveolars  tend to assimilate to the place of articulation of

the following consonant but retaining the original voicing. This usually happens
at word boundary but it can also occur word-internally.

8
  before 

e.g.

taught Paul put back cabinet member



that pool that book that man

 before 

e.g.

good man bad behaviour denied making



Lord Peter Grey should be avoid packing

  before 

e.g.

on Monday can be can mean



on probation in Burger King can purchase

/t/ /k/ before /k, g/

e.g.

get caught get going



not calm let go

  before 

e.g.

9
stayed calm Dad goes


did Carol did Grace

  before 

e.g.

one case in Greece



in custody men golf shoes

  before 

e.g.

this shop this chair across Georgia



six shoes miss China less generous

 before

e.g.

in case you need it.  

this year

miss you

10
  before 

e.g.

those sheep these chairs is George


is Chandler was John

 before 

e.g.

Has your letter come?   

these years

there´s your handbag

A. It must be noted that this type of modification can also take place in word
internal position.

e.g.

admit thanks

handbag income

cardboard ongoing

atmosphere ingredients

basketball

11
Coalescent assimilation

A. When are in contact with /j/ they coalesce, i.e. they combine to form one
single segment.

  

   e.g. put yourself 

    meet you

let you

/d/ + /j/ 

   e.g. did you 

    could you

would you

B. This type of assimilation has been used in word internal position in some words
for a long time now. The options without assimilation are considered “a more
studied, conservative style of speech” (Finch & Ortiz Lira, 1982, p. 81). Some
examples include:

perpetual graduate

situation gradual

intuition schedule

question modular

righteous individual

virtue dual

creature soldier

12
In other cases, coalescence is variable and depends on speech style, as in
Tuesday and induce. However, the coalesced versions are becoming more and
more frequent in RP (Hannisdal, 2006).

COMPRESSION

This simplification feature is typically used in high frequency words or, as already
mentioned, in fast or casual speech (Wells, 2008). It consists in the reduction of a
sequence of vowels so that a diphthong becomes a monophthong (= pure vowel),
sometimes preceded by a semivowel. In the rarer cases of syllables containing
triphthongs, they are typically reduced to diphthongs and even to monophthongs.

e.g.

brilliant 

influence 

romantic 

diagram 

Across word boundaries, this phenomenon generally involves the conversion of

vowels into semivowels, as in the cases below.

e.g.

the other day 

to other people 

to any of us 

13
 

14
PRACTICE ACTIVITIES

A.

Elision

over the last months the most powerful weapon

I don´t suppose you´ll manage I should have asked for it

your worst sleep second thoughts

last class the postman is here

we went to Paris quarter past nine

you used to play football mind the dog!

I crossed the street and turned right you’ve spilt the milk

Assimilation

1. 2. 3.

hot potato record player in Britain

that pen food poisoning in public places

pocket money good people I’ve found part of it

commitment over my dead body when Bob was here

It’s not about money good brother garden party

your seat belt bad behaviour check that input.

I went for it before he could make it on my behalf

he went back red markers he´s sunburnt

Great Britain feed babies in my opinion

15
4. 5. 6.

smart clothes record collection clean clothes

write clearly answered quickly I didn’t care

can't keep bad cook second cousin

don't cry I´ve read good novels the postman came

great crowds started gathering friends in common

he can’t go tinted glass intonation in context

that guitar is mine such a good guy. on good terms

he’s a great guest she did go to the party one guy

don’t go away good guidance in golf bags

7. 8.

nice shoes things she said.

this ship those shocking evening dresses

miss you these shining little cars

class charts was Jack at home?

less charm is Chuck in?

kiss Charles as bad as you thought

over the last six years visualize yourself

this year are these your shoes, Sue?

express yourself where´s your Dad?

16
9. 10.

last year I told you

trust your instincts surround yourself

go after what you want d’you remember?

think about yourself in past years what did you say?

put your hands on your head you had your chance

let you down education is a must

eat your snack could you come, please?

at your place mind you

didn´t you like it? hide your sweets

B. Read the following sentences making all possible adjustments and then
transcribe them. Next, listen to the recordings and compare your
versions with the ones on the files. Do the speakers make all the
adjustments studied whenever possible?

1. Work in pairs please.

...............................................................................................................................

2. Where’s the next stop?

...............................................................................................................................

3. Is this your first visit to New York?

...............................................................................................................................

4. In ten minutes tell me all about you.

...............................................................................................................................

5. Not many people have best friends.

...............................................................................................................................

17
6. At present, people work longer hours than before.

...............................................................................................................................

7. As she was really furious, she didn’t mind talking back to her father.

...............................................................................................................................

8. She already wrote one hundred words in pencil.

...............................................................................................................................

9. Let me introduce you to Brian.

...............................................................................................................................

10. Could you rephrase your answer please?

...............................................................................................................................

11. Did Carol buy a new dress yesterday?

...............................................................................................................................

12. I first switched on a computer when I was in primary school.

...............................................................................................................................

13. A great many people were brought to our attention.

...............................................................................................................................

14. Send the essay by email and don’t forget to write your name and group.

...............................................................................................................................

15. The make-up test will be on November 1st so try not to be absent that day.

...............................................................................................................................

16. She said she would come in case it caused trouble.

...............................................................................................................................

17. Smoking must be banned among those young people whose health is at
risk.
...............................................................................................................................

18
 18. It’s sometimes difficult to spend your spare money wisely.

...............................................................................................................................

19. You should carefully read the instructions and then get in groups.

...............................................................................................................................

20. What d’you call a person who studies the human mind?

...............................................................................................................................

21. I don’t think it’s much cheaper than the handbag you bought in Great Britain.

...............................................................................................................................

22. He came on Monday and said he had a difficult time with the hand drill.

...............................................................................................................................

23. Don´t you like staying at your place on weekends?

...............................................................................................................................

24. Find out what you have in common with the person sitting next to you.

...............................................................................................................................

25. No one has yet claimed responsibility for the bombing.

...............................................................................................................................

C. Read the following passages and then transcribe them making all
possible adjustments.

1- Time, it seems, is what most people are short of at present. This is one reason
perhaps why there are thousands of studies and excellent books every year into
how you spend your time and how you can spend it better. Some figures show
some amazing facts. Did you know that watching TV is by far the most popular
leisure activity the world over? The British read quite a lot too. Actually, the vast
majority, eighty-eight percent, read papers every day. Is your time spent wisely?

19
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

2- A good memory is often considered to be something that comes naturally and a

bad one as something that cannot be changed no matter what you do. But actually
there is a lot you can do to improve it. To organize your ideas in a logical way can
be good to remember them. Grouping numbers in a certain way helps you
remember too. Take a good book, for example, and make notes of the main
characters. If you don’t want to lose your memory as you get older, exercise it just
like your body.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

20
3- As an organization that caters largely to young people, the school is in an
excellent position to educate people on the responsible consumption of alcohol. We
have to provide our students with a safe and healthy learning environment. We are
also working with student groups to build up the right cultural framework that will
determine what constitutes appropriate behaviour on campus.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

4- You’ve just finished your A-levels and you’ve got a place at university, but you’d
really like a break from the academic world. Why not think about going abroad and
taking the year out? While most students go straight from school to university, more
and more young people today are choosing to spend a year at ‘the university of life’
first. There could be lots of things to choose from. You could work in a bank or do
something adventurous. If you’re interested in planning a year out, you must make
sure that the university will hold your place for you till next year. Most people are
quite happy to do this, as they find that year-out students are more mature,
confident and independent.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

21
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

5-

Dear Jenny:

You find yourself in a special situation. If I were you I would have asked
your boyfriend to make his position clear about you having a career after marriage.
If he really loves you, he won’t go any further. But if he insists, you would have to
make up your own mind. Would you be willing to make a sacrifice for him? Wouldn’t
you be likely to blame him afterwards if you felt frustrated at home? It’s not that bad
if you could bear to wait until your mind clears of any doubt. It may relieve you
greatly. Take good care!

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

6-Throughout the second half of the twentieth century, television became a bare
essential in people’s lives and increasingly more sophisticated. Now many of us
have television sets with multi-channels and can spend a great deal of time
watching programmes. It is so important that how one performs on television can
affect young people, as well as adults and children. Television did not become
readily available in countries such as the United Kingdom until the 1950s. This
breakthrough started to spread around the world. The first images were blurred and
interfered but they got better and better as years went on.

22
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

23
24
 CHAPTER 2

STRESS IN ENGLISH WORDS

TOWARDS A DEFINITION

Stress is one of the linguistic properties of a word by which one (or more) of its
syllables stands out with respect to the others. This term has, on occasions, been
used interchangeably with accent and prominence. However, in this work, stress
will be employed consistently to refer to a property of words, particularly when
thought of out of context. But what is it that we perceive when we hear a stressed
syllable? In other words, what are the phonetic properties by which a syllable is
heard as standing out above the rest or “perceptually salient in relation to others”
(Chun, 2002, p. 148)? Even though stress can be analysed from the point of view
of the work done by the speaker (production) and that by the hearer (perception),
this phenomenon is commonly studied and described in terms of the latter.

FEATURES OF STRESS

Stressed syllables are said to be characterized by four properties: pitch movement,

length, loudness and vowel quality.

In order to understand the first of these components, let us consider the

pronunciation of the word importance.



Fig. 1: pitch level of each syllable clearly differentiated (160, 224 and 109 hertz2)

2
The hertz measures included in the diagrams on pages 25 and 26 represent the average value of the
highest and lowest measures for each syllable.

25
When we say this three-syllable word out loud, we notice that there is an important
movement of the voice when the second syllable is pronounced. In very simple
terms, pitch is “a perceptual characteristic of speech” (Roach, 2009, p. 74) by
which the voice can be heard as ranging from high to low (including all the possible
in-betweens). Notice that if no variation in pitch were produced, the word would
sound in an unnatural, monotonous manner. Below is displayed an example of this
word with three relatively equally low-pitched syllables.



Fig. 2: three relatively equally low-pitched syllables (126, 127 and 128 hertz)

A straightforward concept, length refers to the duration of a sound, especially the

vowel sound in a stressed syllable. In general terms, this syllable is normally heard
as the longest in a word. In the lexical item chosen for exemplification, the sound
 is clearly the longest. This is only logical, as this sound, together with
and all the diphthongs, are classified as long vowels. Notice,
however, that the effect of length is reduced considerably when the same sound
occurs in unstressed syllables, as is the case in authority .

Another aspect of stress to consider is loudness, which is the intensity with which
a sound is produced. A stressed syllable is typically louder than the other syllables.

The last feature to be considered is that of quality. It refers to the fact that a
stressed syllable carries any of the vowels of English, except the reduced or weak

26
ones ,,, ( ,)3 or syllabic consonants. In this respect, it is important to note

that “[w]e can look on stressed syllables as occurring against a ‘background’ of

these weak syllables, so that their [salience] is increased by contrast with these
background qualities” (Roach, 2009, p. 74).

LEVELS OF STRESS

So far, we have referred to stressed and unstressed syllables. But it is often

necessary to identify other, intermediate levels of stress. It is very commonly the
case that words, especially those involving affixation (see below), have more than
one stress. The word irresponsible is classified as a double-stressed word. Its most
noticeable syllables are the first and the third: ir- and -spon-. The stresses,
however, do not have exactly the same status. For ir-, in a decontextualized form of
the word, we may find almost all the features discussed above. As for pitch
movement in these syllables, it will never be strong enough to be perceived. For
this reason, we can say that the pitch change in -spon- is clearly noticeable and
that in ir- is a minor one. Therefore, -spon- carries the primary stress and ir- takes
the secondary stress. By definition, primary stress will be the last stress in a word.
It is worth mentioning that the syllable that carries the secondary stress can initiate
pitch movement, particularly in cases in which the primary stress is dropped (See
Stress Shift below).

In most EFL dictionaries, secondary stresses are marked below (  ) and primary
stresses are shown with a sign above (  ). However, in this course, we will not be
using such distinction. Therefore, irresponsible will be alternatively marked as
irresponsible.

As to unstressed syllables, it has already been stated that they are those
containing weak vowel sounds or syllabic consonants. In our example word, the
other syllables are all unstressed: -re-, -si- and -ble.

3
When unstressed, these vowels are considered reduced (Cruttenden, 2008, p. 237).

27
There is yet another level, which constitutes what some authors (notably
Cruttenden, 1997) call tertiary stress. The final syllable in the word institutionalize
is somewhat different from regularly unstressed ones. It is distinguished by virtue of
vowel quality, i. e. a strong vowel sound. A transcribed form of the word shows the
way it is to be pronounced: . As important as this level is, it will

not be marked in any way in this course in order to avoid complexity. Nevertheless,
it is interesting to point out that, to native Spanish ears (probably on account of
transfer), the tertiary stress often sounds stronger than it should actually be. This is
usually the case to such an extent that students often consider this syllable as the
primary stress, with institutionalize* as a recurrent mispronunciation of the word. In
contrast, when the tertiary stress appears in word-initial position, Spanish speakers
often weaken the syllable, thus producing a wrong pronunciation, for example, the
first syllable of cartoon.

PLACEMENT OF STRESS

Not only is it relevant to know what stress is and how many degrees of stress can
be found in a word, it is also crucial to know where stresses should be placed. For
relatively safe allocation of stress, we can follow some strong tendencies that can
playfully be labelled golden rules of word stress. One such rule can be stated as
follows: “[i]f the primary stress is located on the third or later syllable of a word, then
there must also be a secondary stress on one or other of the first two syllables”
(Wells, 2008, p. 783). Three examples are under stand (1st & 3rd), classifi cation
(1st & 4th) and fa mili arity (2nd & 4th). Another such rule concerns the distribution of
stresses in a word; thus, stresses are generally separated from each other by one
or two unstressed syllables, for example, curi osity and e lectrifi cation. However,
it should be remembered that the case of two consecutive stresses is perfectly
possible, though “relatively unusual. They derive mostly from prefixation, e.g. redo
, unlike , etc” (Ortiz-Lira, 1998, p. 24).

Finally, it is convenient to make some considerations which may be helpful when it

comes to learning word stress.

28
1. As far as English is concerned, the stress pattern of any word is part of its
phonological identity. Therefore, when you pronounce any word, you will
inevitably assign one stress (or more). This pattern is known as the citation
form, that is, the pronunciation of a word exactly as it appears in a dictionary.
Nevertheless, the citation form of a word is not necessarily the way it will be
pronounced in connected speech, as principles applied in connected speech
typically override citation patterns.

2. A set of rules and classifications can be proposed for learning word stress in
English, but as Cruttenden (2008, p. 238) suggests, they can be “bedevilled by
the existence of large numbers of exceptions to almost any rule”. They should be
taken as “tendencies rather than absolute rules” (idem). Also, the lists below are
by no means exhaustive but representative of the patterns provided.

3. No particular method of learning word stress is inherently better than any

other, but we suggest that they should be studied by repetition and/or association
on the basis of the component parts of words.

29
 STRESS IN SIMPLE WORDS

When dealing with simple words, there is probably one term that has to be made
clear from the start. The word morpheme refers to “a minimal meaningful part”
(Kreidler, 1997, p. 131) such as foot, clock and drum. When these morphemes can
be used without any other, and they make sense on their own, we call them free
morphemes. In addition, there are other morphemes that add meaning to a word
but cannot be used independently. These are called bound morphemes. Two
examples among hundreds of them are un- in uncover and -ist in journalist. More
often than not, it is impossible to use these items alone to make any meaning. This
is the reason why they are “bound” to be accompanying the other morpheme types.
Technically speaking, words such as foot (free morpheme) and uncover (bound
morpheme + free morpheme) are different word types. However, we will consider
them as belonging to the group of simple words because a high degree of
specificity among the different word types is not considered relevant for the sake of
learning stress patterns. Besides, this may cause unnecessary confusion given our
purposes.

Below you will find lists of simple words sorted according to their syllable numbers
and their stress patterns. The organization of the words has been slightly adapted
from Finch and Ortiz Lira (1982), and some stresses and pronunciations have been
updated from Wells (2008) and Jones, Roach, Hartman and Setter (2003). From
the very start, you will notice that English words have one stress (=single-
stressed), two stresses (=double-stressed) or three stresses. This final case,
however, is found in relatively few words and typically in citation form or for
emphasis.

30
SBE: Standard British English
GA: General American

Two-syllable words

(1)

teacher apple illness senate Monday

husband chocolate colour little region

circus island preface mountain entrance

(2)

female empire conduct expert epoch

access colleague climax aspect forecast

fortune borrow contact contrast proverb

(3)

again alone fatigue career above

remark believe caress patrol offence

(4)

canteen arcade cartoon boutique

31
brunette champagne augment (v.) although

campaign shampoo donate technique

(5)

unknown Chinese decode non-stop

misuse mayonnaise farewell eighteen

elsewhere rewrite rebuild violin

Three-syllable words

(1)

fortunate lunatic comparable generally

catholic literature necessary decorative

subsequent commentary comfortable fashionable

(2)

corridor absolute catalogue caravan

handicap paragraph subtitle corpuscle

32
pullover cucumber triangle rectangle

(3)

important behaviour confusion abandon

substantial advantage determine

develop consider horizon historic

(4)

ambition fantastic partition authentic

optician transmission tomato tobacco

SBE GA
SBE
GA SBE
SBE
attaché distribute fiancée contribute
SBE
GA _ _ _ ) (_ _ _ )

(5)

substandard prejudgement remarry non-fiction

scientific nonsmoker upcountry subconscious

(6)

guarantee seventeen cigarette magazine SBE GA

(_ _ _ ) GA (_ _ _ ) GA SBE

33
picturesque serviette recommend understand

orangeade millionaire SBE GA refugee volunteer

(_ _ _ ) GA

Four-syllable words

(1)

category arbitrary delicacy eligible

preferable irritable memorable testimony

ceremony accuracy imitative matrimony

(2)

centimetre commentator calculator demonstrator

architecture operator characterize capitalize

( __ _ _ )

aristocrat SBE GA regularize systematize automobile SBE GA

( __ _ _) GA SBE (_ _ __ ) SBE GA



(3)

geography SBE GA obligatory combustible accompaniment


(_ _ _ ) SBE 

34
demonstrative laboratory SBE preparatory certificate


 GA
arithmetic advertisement SBE particular deplorable

( _ _ _ _ ) GA

(4)

preoccupied appreciate enthusiast apologize

similitude economize orthography authority

teetotaller mortality diameter antiquity

(5)

variation circulation explanation elementary

demonstration cafeteria idiotic adolescence

conversation advantageous interference emigration

(6)

acceptation conurbation expectation retardation

departmental relocation demarcation importation

35
Five-syllable words

capitalism SBE GA puritanism figuratively cannibalism

( __ _ _ _ ) SBE

monosyllable radicalism qualitatively speculatively

-SBE
-SBE GA
(2)

inevitable catholicism inadequacy communicative

SBE
SBE GA

administrative metabolism impracticable vocabulary

(3)

accelerator refrigerator incinerator sophisticated

enthusiasm administrator ingratiating apologizing

SBE GA
GA SBE

(4)

curiosity aristocracy archeology university

pedagogical ideology capability irresistible



possibility inexplicable inconsiderable ambiguity

(5)

differentiate underestimate rehabilitate decontaminate

36
(6)

classification characteristic Mediterranean qualification

(7)

continuation consideration appreciation enthusiastic

SBE GA
GA SBE
pronunciation abbreviation association examination

(8)

predisposition preoccupation self-preservation

SBE GA 
SBE GA


prefabrication revaluation miscalculation

 

 

Six-syllable words

(1)

unexceptionable individualism indistinguishable

illegitimacy unprofessionally unimaginative

(2)

irritability characteristically etymological

37
discontinuity SBE unsystematically SBE GA sentimentality

SBE SBE

GA
(3)

familiarity availability inferiority responsibility

(4)

electrification solidification experimentation

personification exemplification disqualification

(5)

differentiation insubordination individualistic

mispronunciation misappropriation recapitulation

Seven-syllable words

(1)

intelligibility inevitability invulnerability

impracticability unalterability impressionability

(2)

irresponsibility individuality unconventionality

38
 superficiality incompatibility unreliability

Alternative Stress Patterns

Two-syllable words

(a)

adult SBE GA brochure SBE bureau SBE chauffeur SBE GA Christine SBE GA

(-GA SBE (-SBE GA (--) SBE GA (--) SBE GA

contact (v) SBE decade SBE GA defect (n) SBE GA detail (v/n) SBE GA finance SBE GA

(--) SBE GA (--) SBE GA (--) SBE (--) GA SBE (--) SBE GA

meantime SBE mishap SBE GA

(--) GA (--) SBE

(b)

bouquet SBE GA discharge (n) SBE GA elsewhere SBE meanwhile SBE Pauline SBE

(--) SBE discharge (v) SBE GA (--) GA (--) GA 

(--) SBE GA

perfume (v) SBE GA quinine régime SBE GA research (n) SBE GA syringe SBE GA

(--) SBE SBE (--) SBE (--) GA SBE (--) SBE GA

(--) SBE
GA
terrain SBE GA weekend SBE

(--) SBE GA (--) SBE GA

39
 Three-syllable words

(a)

disputant SBE GA exquisite sonorous SBE GA uprising SBE GA

(---) SBE GA (---) (---) GA SBE (---) SBE



(b)

discothéque gabardine registrar SBE GA souvenir SBE GA submarine SBE

(---) SBE GA (---) SBE (---) SBE (---) SBE GA

(---) SBE GA (---) SBE GA

undersigned SBE GA

(---) SBE

(c)

caravan SBE GA caviare SBE GA Ecuador kerosene SBE GA parachute

(---) SBE (---) SBE  (---) /--SBE GA

Four-syllable words

(a)

applicable SBE GA controversy SBE GA exigency SBE GA formidable SBE GA

(----) SBE GA (----) SBE (----) SBE GA / SBE GA

kilometer SBE GA nomenclature SBE GA

(----) SBE GA (----) GA SBE

(b)

demonstrable SBE GA despicable SBE GA disputable SBE GA explicable SBE GA

(----) SBE (----) SBE GA (----) SBE GA (----) SBE GA

40
hospitable SBE GA metallurgy SBE

(----) GA SBE (SBE GA

(c)

television SBE GA

(----) SBE

Five-syllable Words

(a)

momentarily SBE GA necessarily SBE GA

(-----) GA SBE (-----) GA SBE

41
PRACTICE ACTIVITIES

A. Odd one out: Circle the word with a different stress pattern (consider only
SBE).

a. horizon – historic – consider – catholic

b. cigarette – contribute – seventeen – refugee

c. communicative – figurative – qualitative – speculative

d. radicalism – metabolism – puritanism - cannibalism

e. irritability – alterability - sentimentality – responsibility

B. Join these words with their correct stress pattern.

1. qualification a. 

2. arithmetic b. 

3. imitative c. 

4. interference d. 

5. inferiority e. 

6. individuality f. 

7. comparable g. 

8. administrative h. /

C. Provide other words for the following stress patterns.

decode …………………………………...............................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

42
augment (v.) …………………………………………………..………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………...……………

decorative ……………………………………………………………………..…….

.....................................................................................................................................

inevitable ……………………………………………………………………….…...

…………………………………………………………………………………..…………….

acceptation ………………………………………………………….………………

……………………………………………………………………………..………………….

familiarity ……………………………………………………………….………….

………………………………………………………………………………………..……….

mispronunciation …………………………………………………………….……

…………………………………………...........................................................................

43
 STRESS IN COMPOUND WORDS

According to several linguists, COMPOUND WORDS consist of two or more

independent elements (free morphemes) which function as one, e.g. drug dealer,
penknife, user-friendly. This must be emphasized from the very beginning since the
same items, when used separately, may have totally different meanings or be
stressed differently. In dealing with these items, we also have to consider whether
they are written as two separate words (bus conductor), or as one lexical item
(penknife) or using a hyphen to indicate compounding (user-friendly).

There are, in addition, certain combinations which are not strictly speaking
compounds but which come in a fixed pattern. Such is the case of good boy and
important question (modifier + head). These constructions are called noun
phrases. Although they are not compounds, they share the same stress pattern as
many compounds, i.e. they are typically double-stressed4.

Spanish-speaking EFL learners have to bear in mind, at least, two issues that may
arise regarding stress in compounds. As for the first one, “English does not seem to
be at all consistent in the way it treats compound, either from the point of view of
writing or from the point of view of pronunciation and especially stress” (Taylor, 1991,
p. 67). The inconsistency referred to above, as will be seen later on, is reflected in the
number of exceptions that are often encountered in certain compound classes. The
other issue to be considered involves a comparison between the two languages. For
instance, whereas the primary stress can fall in the first or the second component
of English compounds (e.g. word processor & guardian angel), the primary stress
in Spanish compounds will always be on the second component (barra brava &
gorro frigio, with gorro frigio sounding rather awkward or unnatural).

As with stress in simple words, exhaustive lists are impossible. However, an

attempt can be made at fairly reliable classifications by considering the
relationships between the items making up the compounds and their categories.
Both syntactic and semantic criteria will be used, depending on each case.

4
See discussion of Stress Shift below.

44
SINGLE-STRESSED COMPOUNDS

1. Noun + Noun

a. There are N + N combinations where the second element indicates the person or
thing doing the action. For example, bandleader can be paraphrased as “X leads a
band”. We generally use nouns with –er or –or endings.

bandleader moneylender

cabinet-maker painkiller

chain-smoker paperhanger

egg beater purse-snatcher

lie detector screenwriter

proofreader theatergoer

screwdriver word processor

line manager road manager

EXCEPTIONS: some compounds with manager5, school governor

b. In the following list, the first noun delimits the meaning of the second by stating
“what type of thing it is”. (See Practice Activities, exercise 1.)

access road daytime

airline keyboard

5
Some of them include middle manager, stage manager, actor-manager and department manager,
among others.

45
 aptitude test ladybird

ballot box nail varnish

birth control ozone layer

Christmas card police officer

coffee break question tag

Very few compounds may have two stress patterns depending on the meanings
expressed.

family name family name

(last name) (family reputation)

paper bag paper bag

(a bag for newspapers) (a bag made of paper)

2. Adjective + Noun

a. A sequence of adjective plus noun is usually stressed on both items. However, in

the cases below, the stress falls on the first item and the compound is considered
to be long-established. The adjectives used in these compounds are relatively short
and are not semantically dense.

black people sick pay

grandchildren real estate

freehand whiteboard

highlight wholesale

46
 hothouse hardback

lowland thickhead

short-list busybody

Again, if the stress pattern is altered, the combination may carry a different
meaning. (See Practice Activities, exercise 4.)

blackbird black bird

(Sp. mirlo) (any bird which is black)

common room common room

(college staff room) (one used jointly)

Greenland green land

(Sp. Groenlandia) (any land which is green)

heavyweight heavy weight

(boxer) (a weight which is heavy)

English teacher English teacher

(a teacher of English) (a teacher who is English)

special school special school

(for disabled children) (out of the common)

Whitehouse white house

(US President’s residence) (one painted white)

3. Noun + Participle

47
a. In the cases below, the noun is usually the subject of the P, as in moth-eaten:
moths have eaten X. (See Practice Activities, exercise 3.)

action-packed sunburnt

flea-bitten air-conditioned

heartfelt time-honoured

moth-eaten weather-bound

moonlit blue-coloured

snowbound pear-shaped

snow-capped type-written

Unlike other compounds, the stress pattern doesn’t change if the word is used
predicatively or attributively.

4. Noun + Verb

a. A nominal element (=noun) can combine with a verb ending in -ing and the
resulting combination may be a noun or an adjective, as in:

breathtaking air conditioning

childbearing fire fighting

mind reading labour-saving

money lending language teaching

role playing law-abiding

thought-provoking shoplifting

48
 weightlifting ski jumping

EXCEPTIONS: family planning, town planning, zebra crossing

b. A verb ending in –ing can precede a nominal element in the combination, with
the resulting compound used as a noun. In such compounding, the nominal
element is normally not the subject (S) of the action represented by the verb (V).
For instance, swimming trunks refers to “trunks for swimming” and should not be
interpreted as “the trunks(S) swim(V)”. (See Practice Activities, exercise 7.)

purchasing power sleeping pill

meeting point eating apple

frying pan swimming pool

tuning fork washing powder

reading room writing paper

c. Verb + noun combinations sometimes make up compound nouns.

cease fire spendthrift

chat show landslide

hold all talk show

pickpocket firefly

EXCEPTIONS: stop press

49
d. Phrasal verbs and prepositional verbs, which are generally double-stressed,
become single-stressed when their noun forms are used.

breakthrough playoff

checkin roll-on

comeback sit-in

cutout stopover

kickoff takeaway

letdown write-up

5. Other considerations

a. Compounds including the words street and gate are always single-stressed, in
contrast to other words denoting (important) roads. This list includes compounds
containing the word building and others referring mainly to organizations (Kreidler,
1997, p. 148).

Bond Street Bishopsgate

Regent Street Deansgate

Downing Street Fishergate

Woolworth Building Ford Foundation

the Hoover Commission Gideon Society

Compare: Fifth Avenue

50
 DOUBLE-STRESSED COMPOUNDS

1. Combinations with nouns

a. Noun + Noun. The first noun has specific reference and can be paraphrased as
follows: family doctor = “the doctor of the family”. N1 may represent an
organization, a time, a location, a value. It includes some genitives.

family doctor trade union

academy awards family planning

ground floor peso coin

school hall students’ union

family tree devil’s advocate

b. Noun + Noun. N1 and N2 have the same referent. This means that “two
elements refer to different aspects of the same person” (Taylor, 1991, p. 69) or
thing. Such is the case inbaby boy, where the referent is both a boy and a baby.
Notice that although baby boy and ground floor have the same stress pattern, we
cannot use the same explanation for the two compounds, because it is impossible
to say that ‘something is both a ground and a floor.’

acid rain garden city

guardian angel queen mother

strip cartoon woman writer

twin sister clock radio

student teacher infant prodigy

51
c. Noun + Noun. N1 (and sometimes N2) is a proper name. Most of these
compounds are place names; they include certain genitives.

Greater London River Thames

World Bank Channel Tunnel

North Sea Iron Curtain

Mother Nature Adam’s Apple

Morse code Noah’s ark

EXCEPTIONS: Home Office, Lake District, Labour Party

d. Noun + Noun. In this case, N2 is made of N1, as in applepie (a pie made of

apple).

bacon sandwich gold medal

ivory tower cotton wool

mince pie log cabin

chocolate biscuit brick wall

Main exceptions are compounds made up of juice and cake

lemon juice chocolate cake

sponge cake orange juice

52
e. Verb [-ing] + noun. A great number of compound nouns with this combination
are single-stressed6. However, a few of them take two stresses. The main
difference resides basically in the syntactic relationship between the elements. In
this case, the noun is normally the subject of the verb, as inrollingstone (the
stone(S) rolls(V)).

running water leading author

standing ovation flying colours

moving picture supporting role

sliding door shooting star

Sometimes compounds may have figurative meanings, such as flying colours,

which should be interpreted as “high marks/grades”, for example, in an exam. Also,
it is particularly important to understand that similar compounds may have totally
different meanings despite their identical surface structure. Consider the following
examples:

walking stick walking dictionary

The first one is definitely a “stick for walking” but the second example is to be
interpreted as a “dictionary that walks”, where dictionary figuratively points to a
person with a sound knowledge of word meanings.

2. Combinations with adjectives and nouns

6
For comparison, see Single-stressed Compounds, item 4.b above.

53
a. Adjective + adjective generate combinations which are double-stressed in
citation form. The default pattern can be altered.

Anglo-American bitter-sweet

royal blue deaf-mute

dark green red-hot

b. Adjective + noun combinations are usually double-stressed by default. Most of

these items function as noun phrases. Some of them can be proper names.

best man first aid

civil war second-hand

floppy disk wishful thinking

general knowledge Middle East

Red Cross full house

Notice that this also applies to compounds including nationalities, where the item
denoting nationality is the adjectival component.

French windows British English

German measles Spanish onion

Dutch courage Irish coffee

However, certain such combinations ending in –man and –woman tend to have a
single stress. A few examples are Englishman, Frenchwoman, Dutchwoman,
Welshman.

54
c. Noun + adjective combinations function generally as adjectives. 

tax-free sky-blue

stone deaf class-conscious

worldwide bottle green

d. Adjective + noun with adjectival [ed] collocations form a group of adjectives

which are double-stressed.

empty-handed quick-witted

high-pitched four-legged

long-winded ill-humoured

open-minded sweet-tempered

dark-haired three-storeyed

e. Adjective + verb [-ing] give rise to adjectives with double stress.

easygoing far-reaching

hard-working forthcoming

long-lasting ever-changing

3. Other combinations

a. Self + verb [-ing] originate adjectives.

self-catering self-supporting

self-raising self-defeating

55
b. Adverb + Participles give origin to adjectives.

far-fetched far-flung far-gone

4. Three-word compounds

The list contains collocations grouped according to their stress. No rules are given
for the resulting patterns.

a. - - -

audiovisual aid nuclear-free zone

self-made man top-class model

nextdoor neighbour two-piece suit

one-way traffic nationwide coverage

old age pension well-balanced diet

b. - - -

morning-after pill good luck charm

April Fool’s Day teacher training-college

no-win situation school-leaving age

c. - - -

coffee-table book greenhouse effect

inkjet printer windscreen wiper

fingernail polish football team

56
 STRESS SHIFT

There is a final note we need to make concerning stress. You have noticed that
each word (whether simple or compound) has a stress pattern attached to it.
Nevertheless, this pattern may be subject to change in connected speech. For
example, in citation form, we are expected to pronounce the following words with
the given stresses

pictu resque long-winded

However, if these words (adjectives) occur in attributive position (= before the

noun they are modifying), their primary stress tends to be lost and the pattern is
now as follows:

 a picturesque setting the long-winded speech

There is a well-established tendency in English rhythm by which two stresses are

not normally too close to each other or, put another way, stressed syllables are
separated from each other by one or more unstressed syllables. As we can see
from the above examples, stress shift helps us avoid the clash that would be
produced by having two stresses together (Wells, 2006, p. 232), as would be the
case in

a pictu resque setting (X) the long-winded speech (X)

Furthermore, because of this rhythmical characteristic of English, this shifting

tendency can be applied even to a few single-stressed words, resulting in a new
pattern when they are used attributively. In connection with this, Cruttenden (2008,
p. 297) offers the following examples:

57
 unique but unique features

ornate but ornate carvings

To continue citing this author, “[t]he alternation tendency extends into…utterances

and may be seen in examples such as i dea but The idea pleases me;
recommend but I recommend several” (Cruttenden 2008, p. 297). To conclude,
although there might be exceptions, this shifting tendency is responsible for most
such alterations at all levels in language use (from word combinations to long
stretches of discourse)7. For this reason, you are strongly advised to abide by it and
apply these rhythmical modifications whenever possible.

7
To see more examples of modifications made in connected speech to comply with English rhythmic
patterning, refer to Finch and Ortiz Lira, 1982, pp. 98-102.

58
PRACTICE ACTIVITIES

1. A number of compounds are formed by two nouns, of which the first

element states what type of thing the second one is. Considering this
pattern, make compounds with the words below. After that, read them
aloud.

______ ______

______ ball ______ mate

______ ______

______ ______

______ room ______ table

______ ______

______ ______

______ box ______ card

______ ______

2. In the following examples, fill in the gaps with a suitable compound so

that the second sentence means the same as the first one.

 He is only interested in making trouble.

He is only interested in …………………...

 That’s a school in which you have to pay a fee to attend.

That school is …………………...

 Bill Robinson was widely known as a tap dancer.

Bill Robinson was widely known for …………………...

59
  The event at that time really broke my heart.

The event at that time was really …………………...

 You need strength and courage to be a firefighter.

You need strength and courage to do …………………...

 In her lessons, students sometimes play roles.

In her lessons, students sometimes do …………………..

3. Fill in the blanks using the compounds in the box.

- Most Sylvester Stallone’s films are exclusively ……………………

- Those ideas have been described as ……………………

- Her face and arms were harmoniously ……………………

- Almost every place in Poland was ………………… when WWII started.

- Look at the …….……………… mountains. The landscape looks like a postcard,

doesn’t it?

- As you may know, you must hand in a research paper …………………

moth-eaten type-written suntanned

horror-stricken action-packed snow-capped

4. Consider the following compounds. Give each the appropriate stress

pattern according to the context given.

1. toy factory 4. grey matter

2. dark room 5. heavy weight

3. funny man 6. English teacher

60
 1. Philip works in a factory which makes small vehicles for children to play with.

2. Let’s not have the meeting in that office. The lighting is very poor.

3. Betty’s boyfriend wears paisley shirts, flares, dreadlocks and piercings. Her
parents say he is a ….

4. As a child, Einstein was branded as someone dumb, but he actually had…

5. I definitely cannot lift that box. It’s a …

6. Peter Watson’s mother was born in Liverpool. She teaches History…

5. Read the following compounds and analyze the elements involved and the
relationship between them. Then, on the basis of your analysis, assign the
corresponding stress pattern in each compound. The first one has been
done for you.

 break-up:

A phrasal verb made into a noun

 sunlit: ………………….…………………………………………………………………

 ironing board: …………………………………………………………………...………

 breakneck: .……………...………………………………………………………………

 star-spangled: ..…………………………………………………………………………

 table tennis:……………………………………………………………………………...

 dishwasher: ..……………………………………………………………………………

6. Combinations of noun + noun can be single- or double-stressed. In the

cases below, place stress following the rules you have studied. The first
one has been done for you.

dishtowel N1 says what type of thing N2 is

woman doctor

61
 rubber stamp

fruitcake

mother hen

bedroom window

headphone

law-breaker

7. The following compounds consist of verb [-ing] + noun. They are either
single- or double-stressed. Analysing their constitutive elements, decide
on the stress pattern of each compound. The first one has been done for
you.

filing cabinet: a cabinet for filing

living fossil:

flying suit:

moving picture:

working practices:

moving truck:

revolving doors:

living room:

visiting professor:

flying visit:

wrapping paper:

working class:

sliding door:

62
 8. Identify the stress pattern in the following compounds in citation form.
Next, make up noun phrases using these compounds attributively. Can
you produce the difference between the citation and the attributive forms?
The first example has been done for you. Use a dictionary if necessary.

a. split second: split second timing

b. low-lying: ……………………….…

c. dotcom: …………………….……

d. fully fledged: …………………….……

e. open air: …………………….……

f. full face: …………………….……

g. one-to-one: …………………….……

h. right-wing: …………………….……

i. New Jersey: …………………….……

j. C D: …………………….……

k. barefooted: …………………….……

l. homegrown: …………………….……

9. For each pair of compound words, decide which is single- and which is
double-stressed. Can you say why? Work with a dictionary if necessary.

milk tooth high life

milk chocolate high profile baby tooth

tin whistle
baby girl
tin opener paper clip
down payment
paper tiger
Down’s syndrome opener fast-talk
home front

shop assistant fast day

home banking
Office lime green
shop window
lime tree

63
64
 CHAPTER 3
RHYTHM
An important aspect of the spoken language which serves as the “backbone of its
intonation” (Cruttenden, 2008, p. 6) is rhythm. English rhythm is based on the contrast
of stressed and unstressed syllables, that is to say, that stressed syllables tend to be
separated from each other by unstressed ones. Furthermore, stressed syllables tend
to be separated from each other by relatively regular intervals.

This concept of the rhythmical succession of stressed and unstressed syllables applies
equally to words in isolation and in connected speech. In dealing with word stress, it
was mentioned that stresses in English do not normally occur too close to each other
but tend to be separated by syllables that are unstressed (see Stress-shift).

Examples:

computational

familiarity

It is important to note that, throughout this work, the term stressed is used to refer to
those syllables which stand out from the rest when the word is said in isolation. In
connected speech, on the other hand, the syllables which are highlighted are said to
be prominent (Brazil, 1997).

In connected speech, not all syllables that are stressed when the word is said in
isolation are made prominent. In speaking, in order to comply with English rhythm,
structural and/or content words are left non-prominent.

Example:

He bought a bright yellow bicycle

65
The word “yellow”, when said in isolation, takes a stress on the first syllable. In this
utterance, however, it is left non-prominent.

Many scholars prefer to treat English rhythm from a strong-weak contrast perspective.
For example, Dalton and Seidlhofer (1994) state that “rhythm is seen as a by-product
of the alternation of weak and strong syllables, rather than something which exists
independently and in its own right.” (p. 108). Hagen and Grogan (1992) discuss the
rhythm of English in relation to length and strength, and state that in words with more
than one syllable, “one syllable is longer and stronger, and the others are shorter and
weaker” (p. 111). In connected speech, through a process of analogy with polysyllabic
words uttered in isolation, it is possible to say that “there are usually longer, stronger
words and shorter, weaker words” (p. 111).

STRESS-TIMED VS. SYLLABLE-TIMED RHYTHM

According to their rhythm, most languages can be classified as either stress-timed or

syllable-timed. The first category implies that stressed syllables tend to occur at
relatively regular intervals, whereas the second category refers to the organization of
rhythm in terms of the regular occurrence of syllables, whether stressed or not.

English, together with Russian, and other languages, is said to have a stressed-timed
rhythm. In contrast, Spanish, as well as French and other languages, is considered to
have a syllable-timed rhythm.

Examples:

Tomorrow is the deadline for handing in the form

La presentación de la carta vence mañana.

As regards English rhythm, it is important to point out that in order for stressed
syllables to occur at relatively regular intervals, regardless of the number, there should

66
occur different types of adjustments. Unstressed syllables tend to be weakened,
compressed, assimilated and/or elided. Although weakenings and reductions mostly
affect structural words (weak forms), content words may also undergo these processes
due to rhythmical requirements.

As stated by Brown (1990), in a sequence of two consecutive stressed syllables, the

first one is stretched out so that it takes twice or three times longer than what it would
normally take if it were followed by (an) untressed syllable(s).

Example:

dark _

dark hair __ _

darker hair _. _

The larger the number of intervening unstressed syllables, the stronger the tendency
for these syllables to be squashed together.

Example:

It would have been much better if you had completed the form they sent you

In the following example taken from García Lecumberri and Maidment (2000, p. 18)
decide which syllables would be shortened and/ or compressed and which ones would
be lengthened.

David had seen helicopters at the airport

67
DEGREES OF RHYTHMICALITY

Although for teaching purposes it may be useful to think of English rhythm as

consisting of beats (stressed syllables) that occur at regular intervals, the fact is that in
connected speech, speakers vary the degree of rhythmicality according to different
factors such as the style of speaking and/or the context. Roach (2009, p. 109) states
that “stress-timed rhythm is thus perhaps characteristic of one style of speaking, not
of English speech as a whole”. Therefore, if rhythmicality is considered as a
continuum, rehearsed reading aloud of a passage or a poem will be placed at the most
rhythmical end of the scale and spontaneous conversation, where speakers hesitate,
interrupt each other or produce false starts, will be at the most arrhythmical end.

MAIN SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ENGLISH AND SPANISH

RHYTHM

In both languages content words tend to be made prominent and structural words to
be left non-prominent. Another similarity between the rhythm of both languages is
related to speed of delivery, that is to say, it is possible to reduce the number of
prominent syllables in order to quicken the tempo.

As already mentioned, an important difference between English and Spanish rhythm is

that Spanish is said to have a syllable-timed rhythm as opposed to the stress-timed
rhythm of English. This would imply that the time it takes to say a Spanish utterance
will depend on the number of syllables the utterance contains. In English, however,
this time will depend on the number of stresses the utterance takes.

As a consequence of the tendency in English for prominent syllables to occur at

relatively regular intervals, non-prominent syllables undergo different processes of
weakening. In Spanish, where all syllables take approximately the same time to be
produced, the degree of weakening is negligible, practically non-existent.

Finch and Ortiz Lira (1982) add a third difference between English and Spanish
rhythm: “…Spanish polysyllabic words may take extra stresses apart from those that
would normally occur in the citation form…” (p. 114).

68
Es el acontecimiento más importante (Ortiz-Lira, 1982, p. 114)

Estoy absolutamente desesperado.

69
70
 CHAPTER 4

PROMINENCE

To start analyzing connected speech, it may be convenient to review the basic

definition of stress we presented above, since “[c]onnected speech, i.e. an utterance
consisting of more than one word, exhibits features of accentuation that are in many
ways comparable with those found in the polysyllabic word” (Cruttenden, 2008, p.
263). By way of example, consider the expression ‘mine is the best in it’ and the word
‘irritability’. You must have noticed that both instances of language can be made
accentually alike. As was said earlier, on page 25, “stress is one of the linguistic
properties of a word by which one (or more) of its syllables stands out with respect to
the others”. The term prominence is similar in that it affects words. However, these
words are not considered in isolation but in context. Throughout this work,
prominence8 will be used to refer to syllables of specific words in one utterance (or
more). These syllables stand out from the rest by virtue of being in words which are
somehow salient in the context in which they are uttered. In other words, through
prominence, the speakers signal “the points of focus in connected speech”
(Kenworthy, 1996, p. 32).

But, which words are generally prominent in an utterance? It is known that, within the
field of phonology, on very few occasions can we speak about rules, since a number of
exceptions seem to go against any pre-established pattern of prominence placement.
There is, however, a general tendency to make prominent9 those words that carry the
information load of the utterance and to leave the others non-prominent. From a
grammatical point of view, we can say that, in general, content words (nouns, lexical
verbs, adjectives and adverbs) are made prominent and structural words (auxiliary

8
This term is not used by all pronunciation specialists with exactly the same meaning.

9
Technically speaking, syllables are prominent, not words. However, it seems easier to say “prominent words”.
An alternative to this would be “highlighted word”, which (probably more) aptly describes the salience of a word
by virtue of carrying a prominent syllable.

71
verbs, pronouns, prepositions, articles, possessive determiners and conjunctions) are
left non-prominent.

However, we must also point out that the above-mentioned tendency is not always
reflected on spoken English, since “there is a certain degree of elasticity” as to the way
speakers express their thoughts in words (Finch & Ortiz Lira, 1982, p. 98). There are a
number of factors that affect prominence allocation. One of them refers to the different
meanings or attitudes that can be conveyed by uttering the same words. Let´s analyze
the following example:

(1) a. Does he always have to come late?

b. Does he always have to come late?

(Finch & Ortiz Lira, 1982, p. 98)

If we imagine the circumstances in which the two utterances in example (1) could be
uttered, we will feel that utterance ‘a’ may convey some kind of annoyance that is not
present in utterance ‘b’. Although from the lexical point of view both questions are
exactly the same, the effect they produce is different due to the choice of prominence
allocation.

Another factor is the relationship between old and new information in connected
speech. Consider the following exchange:

(2) B: […] And we also played games. That was great.

A: What sort of games?

B: Guessing games, for example. A simple game is the bag game.

One group has a big bag and the other group guesses what´s in the
bag.

(O’Connor & Fletcher, 1989, p. 53)

72
The word ‘games’ is made prominent the first time it is mentioned. After that, it is
repeated several times and, for this reason, it is left non-prominent, as it is considered
to be old information. Towards the end of the exchange, ‘in’, a structural word, is made
prominent, since it is informationally important and, consequently, becomes the “point
of focus” (Kenworthy, 1996, p. 32).

A third aspect that influences prominence is rhythm. As a feature and a product of the
phonological structure of English, rhythm is made up of the regular succession of
prominent and non-prominent syllables. In example (3), the word ‘little’ is important in
terms of meaning because it presents new information. However, it is left non-
prominent to fit in with the rhythmical patterning typical of English.

(3) You´re a nice little girl!

Finally, usage may determine the choice of prominent words in a given utterance.
There are some grammatical structures, expressions, set phrases and collocations
that follow patterns that are established in the language and that can only be changed
for the sake of contrast or emphasis.

 4) That is the shirt you wanted.

In short, prominence placement is a complex aspect of the pronunciation of English

which is influenced by different factors. It is precisely for this reason that it is worth
making the effort to master it, since it is one of the features that, when misused, may
cause serious breakdowns in communication (Jenkins, 2000).

73
PROMINENCE AND INFORMATION STATUS

The fact that a word is prominent signals that the speaker has chosen to present it as
new information, i.e. “as not being already available to the hearer” (Halliday, 1970, p.
40). The general rule is that we foreground new information and we leave old
information in the background.

A. What items are generally left non-prominent?

a. Repeated items

Do you like cats? No, I hate cats.

Are you done with your homework? Most of it is done.

b. Synonyms

Can you complete these forms, please? Sure. I love doing paperwork.

Have you been to Paris? No, I’ve never visited Europe

c. Situationally given information

(watching B having a warm cup of coffee) I’m dying for a cup of coffee.

B. As said before, new information deserves prominence. At times, this principle is so

strong that applies even in the case of words that are highly predictable but still
new.

How long did the movie last? Two hours.

How much did the book cost? Fifty dollars.

What do you think of Paul? He’s a good person.

74
(the sun is shining) What a beautiful day!

(at the end of the class) What an interesting class that was!

PROMINENCE AND RHYTHM

Being made up of a succession of prominent and non-prominent syllables, rhythm is

such a strong prosodic feature that, at times, overrides the tendency to make new
information prominent.

A. In a sequence of three content words, there is a tendency for the second one to be
left non-prominent, provided it has no more than two syllables. However, depending
on a number of variables, such as speed of delivery, a word with more than two
syllables may be selected as non-prominent.

dark brown hair nice old woman

long curly hair nice pretty woman
long luxuriant hair nice intelligent woman

B. Phrasal verbs:
The stress pattern of transitive phrasal verbs changes according to the position and
the nature of the object they are accompanied by.

switch on take off

switch the radio on take your shoes off

switch on theradio take off yourshoes

switch it on take them off

75
 In the case of intransitive phrasal verbs, both parts, the verb and the particle, attract
prominence, unless they are immediately preceded and/or followed by another
prominent word.

get up go up

I can´t get up prices go up

I get up early they go up steadily

C. Double stressed compound and simple words generally lose one of the two
stresses if they are preceded and/or followed by another prominent word.

unknown material a Chinese vase

the material is unknown this vase is Chinese

D. Names of letters and numerals

These are generally considered to be separate words. Thus, in a group of several
letters or numbers, some will receive prominence and others will not.

It’s as easy as the ABC. He is HIV positive.

Let’s watch the BBC. Let’s eat a BLT.

My phone number is 4525461 I was born is 1995

76
PROMINENCE AND USAGE

There are a number of constructions in which the last content word is left non-
prominent, since it can somehow be recovered from context. These content words are
said to be items “with low semantic load” (Ortiz-Lira, 1998, p. 57).

A. Event sentences:

The phone’s ringing. The baby’s crying.

The car broke down. An accident happened.

B. Subject + passive verb

 Classes have been cancelled. The president’s been killed!

Elections have been called. The bank’s been robbed.

C. Final adverbials

There are no buses today. The paperboy is here.

It rained last night.  George’s on the phone.

He’s graduating tomorrow.  Clean the board, please.

D. Nouns + Infinitives:
I’ve got some letters to write. Put this shirt to wash.

I don´t know which brand to buy. I doubt which book to read.

77
E. Wh-questions ending with a verb:

How are things going? How’s your mother feeling?

Where’s the baby sleeping? How much weight have you lost?

F. Final defining relative clauses:

Here’s the dress you lent me. This is the necklace I wanted.

Is that the doctor you mentioned? Look at the tree you’ve planted.

G. Nouns + Adjectives/ participles

 Keep your mouth shut. Don´t leave the kids alone.

 Leave the door open. He got all the work done.

H. Empty words

He keeps saying things.

Do you enjoy visiting places?

I love interacting with different people.

I. Final vocatives, reporting verbs

78
 What’s the matter, Jim? Do it, he said.

Hello, honey10! I don´t want to go, Mary cried.

J. Reflexive and emphatic pronouns

When these pronouns are used as true reflexives –pronouns referring to the
subject of the sentence, clause or verbal phrase in which they stand-, they
are left non-prominent.

Look at yourself. She cut herself.

Don’t hurt yourself. I bought myself a new coat.

If, on the other hand, they are used for emphasis, they are prominent.

She did it herself. I was completely by myself in that place.

K. Idiomatic expressions: many idiomatic expressions have fixed prominence

patterns that are generally different from their corresponding literal
expressions. It is worth mentioning that, in some cases, changing this
pattern may give rise to “humorous or bizarre effects” (Ashby, 2006, p.
1580).

To have eyes in the back of one’s head To push the boat out

To be rolling in money To have a bee in one’s bonnet

10
Sometimes vocatives are made prominent with a particular choice of tone. (See Bradford, 1988)

79
 To have a chip on one’s shoulder It’s pouring down

To get on like a house on fire It is raining cats and dogs

To have a screw loose I’m leaving in a day or two

To keep your nose clean By all means

To put one’s house in order There’s nothing to it, really

To have one’s hands full (She) of all people

CONTRASTIVE PATTERNS

A. Sometimes speakers need to make a ‘given’ item prominent for the sake of
establishing contrast.

- She has a red car.

- Oh not red. It’s green.

B. Some other times, when an explicit contrast is expressed, the opposing

elements attract prominence and the repeated items are left non-prominent.

- Did you say Oxford Street?

- I didn´t say Oxford Street, I said Oxford Road.

C. The stress pattern of words may also be overridden by contrast.

I´ve received many birthday presents, but just one birthday card.

The tour stops at Central Park, Bryant Park and Battery Park.

80
- Did you say fifteen or sixteen?

- Fifteen.

- I thought you knew about the problem?

- It was completely unknown to me.

81
 PRACTICE ACTIVITIES

1. Phrasal Verbs. Read the following sentences and mark prominence.

a. Can we maybe put the phones down and have an actual human
conversation? (as suggested by someone in a group of friends whatsapping each other
while in the same livingroom)
b. This situation is unbearable; I don’t know how you can put up with it.
c. All of the girls immediately cracked up when they saw him.
d. You don’t quite get my joke. Maybe I need to dumb this down for you.
e. The president has stepped up the pressure on them to come to an
agreement.
f. If you don’t want to end up blind, turn the lights on.
g. The driver knocked the mirror off while he was crossing a bridge.
h. If you don’t want to catch a cold, put your coat on.
i. Keep the torch on till the power cut ends; then you can turn it off.
j. Steve and Alice have broken off their engagement.

2. Prominence and usage. Read the following sentences and mark

prominence.

1. That must be the beret I ordered.

2. Who was that guy you were talking to?
3. Meeting her in Los Angeles, of all places, was sheer serendipity.
4. Which plane are you taking?
5. My nose is bleeding.
6. Martha said her mother was leaving in a day or two.
7. Where’s that book I lent you?
8. Melanie is gonna go get her nails done.
9. Can you tell me who holds the purse strings at home?
10. Your jacket fell. (as announced to the owner of the jacket)
11. It’s a nice coat but it’s rather on the big side.
12. Clarity didn’t turn out to be his strong suit.
13. To be on the safe side, carry some extra money in your shoe.
14. As it's your birthday, I think we can push the boat out and have a bottle of
champagne.

82
3. Synonyms. Read the following exchanges and mark prominence in the
answers, foregrounding the words you think should be made most
noticeable.

- Do you think the Nicks will beat the Pacers?

- No idea. I’m not interested in basketball.

- Do you generally wash the dishes at home?

- No, I hate doing the housework.

- Winning the lottery is not impossible.

- I’ve never been lucky with games.

- Let’s go for a run in the park.

- But you know I can’t do exercise.

4. Read the following exchanges and mark prominence in the answers

foregrounding the words you think should be made most noticeable.

a.
- How long have you lived in Paris?
- I’ve always lived in Paris.

- Have you ever visited Paris?

- I’ve always lived in Paris.

- Where have you lived since you were born?

- I’ve always lived in Paris.

b.
- Did you find your glasses?
- They were under the table.

- I thought you’d left your glasses on the table.

- They were under the table.

c.
- How does your father know so much about computing?

83
 - My father’s a programmer.
- Your brother is a programmer, isn´t he?
- No, my father is a programmer.

d.
- What did you do last Friday?
- I stayed in last Friday.

- Will you relax at home next Friday?

- No, I stayed in last Friday.

- Did you say you had stayed in last Saturday?

- No, I stayed in last Friday.

5. Read the following conversation and mark only prominent syllables.

Review the factors that may affect prominence placement and explain
why some words have been made to stand out above the rest.

Amy: My sister’s soon gonna be nineteen.

Mike: Sorry, did you say eighteen?

Amy: No. She’s gonna be nineteen. Next month. Early next month.

Mike: Oh. And have you thought of a present?

Amy: Well….I guess she would be delighted with a blackboard.

Mike: A blackbird?

Amy: No, a blackboard. She’s studying to become a teacher and she loves
practising standing up, as though she were in a classroom.

Mike: So that would be an ideal gift. What about a bookshelf? Is she tidy? That
way she can always have all her books in the shelf.

Amy: No. She is absolutely untidy.

(Capell & Ferreras, 2011)

84
6. Read the following sentences and mark prominence.

a. Why don’t you come over to my place and we discuss it?

b. He woke up early this morning although he had had weekend parties on

Friday, Saturday and Sunday.

c. Mary´s ordered six blue cheese muffins and a large orange juice.

d. Try to put on your thinking cap and have that problem solved.

e. They bent over backwards to move the conversation forward.

f. That was an incredibly hard thing they were shooting for.

g. In 1938, American aviator Douglas Corrigan was given permission to take

off from an airfield near New York.

h. The gold sandy beach of the hotel welcomes you to dive into the crystal blue
waters of the sea.

i. This is a great recipe for an easy, foolproof chocolate cake.

j. A nice comfortable house is what I want for my next summer holidays.

k. The ex-president´s death will have long-lasting effects in the country.

l. He bought her a beautiful red dress to be worn in her best friend’s wedding
party.

m. Our heated, saltwater pool is surrounded by palm tree gardens and very
near our all-weather tennis court.

n. Located on the ground floor, our lobby store is a one-stop-shop for all the
basic necessities of your stay.

o. John Rockefeller was an American millionaire that died in 1937.

p. William has pale aqua green eyes that look blue when he wears blue.

q. The Lakers will meet the Bulls in the forthcoming playoffs.

r. Scientists are hoping for a major breakthrough in the search for a cure for
cancer.

s. We used to sit outside this café and watch the world go by.

t. She keeps worrying about it even after I’ve told her not to.

85
86
 CHAPTER 5

INTONATION

Many scholars define intonation in terms of rises and falls of the pitch of the voice
in speech (Finch & Ortiz Lira, 1982; Roach, 2009; Tench, 1996; among others). In
simpler terms, it can be said that intonation refers to the melody that speakers
produce when they speak. What is important to highlight is that intonation is an
integral part of language and it is present in the speech of speakers of all
languages (Tench, 1996). For this reason, when we hear speakers of other
languages, we can sense that, for instance, the intonation of Italian is peculiar and
different from the intonation of English, Chinese or French.

The system of intonation that will be introduced is Discourse Intonation by Brazil et

al (1980) and Brazil (1997). This discourse approach has been chosen because,
we believe, it has many advantages over other intonation systems. The main one is
that it describes the intonation of English in context and that it refers to the
intonation that speakers of the English language actually use. Another advantage is
that it is a relatively simple system, with a restricted number of choices through
which it is possible to account for a great variety of utterances with multiple different
meanings. The third most important advantage is that the system has been
designed to fit different accents of English and it can eventually be used to teach
intonation in other languages. The different intonation choices are referred to using
abstract terms (proclaiming, referring) which have to be mapped onto particular
pitch movements.

The exercises below aim at the perception of prominence and tones, the location of
tonic syllables and the production of tones through systematic and guided practice.

To conclude, learning the intonation of English may not be easy at first because, as
Tench (1996, p. 2) says, it is a feature of “language in use rather than of language
in units (like words)”. Nevertheless, constant practice will be the key to master it.

87
This and the following five pages have been taken from Roach (2009).

INTONATION PRACTICE: TONES

Unit 15 Tones

Exercise 1 Repetition of tones

Listen and repeat:

yes no well four

yes no well four

yes no well four

yes no well four

yes no well four

Exercise 2 Production of tones

When you hear the number, say the syllable with the tone you hear:

1 them

2 why

3 well

4 John

5 what

6 no

7 here

8 you

9 now

10 end

88
Exercise 3 Identification

You will hear each syllable twice. Write an appropriate tone symbol. (1-10)

Now check your answers.

Exercise 4 Repetition of tones on polysyllabic words

Listen and repeat:

obviously delightful magazine

positive related disappeared

normally apparently around

terrible enormous disagree

Exercise 5 Production in context

When you hear the sentence, say the response with the tone you hear.

Hello, is that 661071? Yes

Do you know any scientists? Some

Keep away from that road! Why

How many dogs have you got? Two

Have you ever heard such a terrible thing? No

What color is your car? Red

Do you want my plate? Please

Don’t you like it? Yes

You haven’t seen my watch, have you? No

What was the weather like? Wet

89
INTONATION PRACTICE: THE TONE UNIT

Unit 16 The tone unit

Exercise 1 Identifying the tonic syllable

Listen and repeat, then underline the tonic syllable.

1 We could go by bus

2 Of course it’s broken

3 The car was where I’d left it

4 How much is the biggest one

5 I knew it would go wrong

6 It was too cold

7 Here it is

8 That was a loud noise

9 We could go from Manchester

10 Have you finished?

Now check your answers.

Exercise 2 Pronouncing the tonic syllable

When you hear the number, say the item with the tonic syllable in the place
indicated, using a falling tone:

1 Don’t do that

2 Don’t do that

3 Don’t do that

4 Write your name

5 Write your name

6 Write your name

7 Here’s my pen

8 Here’s my pen

90
 9 Here’s my pen

10 Why don’t you try

11 Why don’t you try

12 Why don’t you try

13 Why don’t you try

Exercise 3 Repetition of tone units

Listen and repeat, trying to copy the intonation exactly; no transcription is given.

What time will they come?

A day return to London

The North Pole would be warmer

Have you decided to buy it?

I recorded them on cassette

Exercise 4 Partial analysis of tone units

The items of Exercise 3 will now be said again twice, and you must do the following
things:

a) Identify the tonic syllable and underline it.

b) Identify the tone (in these items the only tones used are fall and rise) and
place the appropriate tone mark before the tonic syllable.

c) Identify any prominent syllables preceding the tonic syllable.

You may need to pause the CD to allow time to complete the analysis of each item.

1 What time will they come?

2 A day return to London

3 The North Pole would be warmer

91
4 Have you decided to buy it?

5 I recorded them on a cassette

Now check your transcription

Exercise 5 Reading intonation transcription

When you hear the number, read the sentence with the intonation you hear.

1 Is there a car park?

2 Meet me at the bus stop

3 It really isn’t the best

4 I cycled to work

5 What was it called?

INTONATION PRACTICE: TRANSCRIPTION OF TONE UNITS

Unit 17 Intonation

Exercise 4 Transcription of tone units

Each item will be pronounced as one tone unit, and will be heard three times. You
must do the following things:

a) Identify the tonic syllable and underline it.

b) Decide which tone it carries and put the appropriate tone marks before the
tonic syllable.

You will probably need to pause the CD to complete the transcription of each item.

1. Now here’s the weather forecast.

2. You didn’t say anything about rates.

3. A few years ago they were top.

4. No one could say the cinema was dead.

92
5. Is there anything you wouldn’t eat?

6. Have you ever considered writing?

7. That was what he claimed to be.

8. We try to do our shopping in the market.

9. But I never go there now.

10. It wouldn’t be difficult to find out.

93
INTEGRATION: SOUNDS AND INTONATION

As you become familiar with the intonation system, try to attend to both these
features and to the target sounds. Remember always to speak in complete tone
units. Also, it is important to consider that a tone unit boundary is not necessarily
realized orally as a pause. Sometimes, in fact, a succession of several tone units
can be said without any interruption.

The intonation choices marked in these sets of tone units are represented in the
recorded versions.

1. 

// half pastseven //

// I started tosmoke //

// I put it in thejar //

// I can´t eat // what youoffer me //

// are they having fun here //

// apart from what youthink //

2. 

// we´ve got to work //

// around the world //

// there are thirteen cats in my garden//

// it´s not my first visit//

// I´d like to have a word with you //

94
3. 

// I ran therace //

// can I go to thetoilet //

// I´ve seen theprogramme //

// your hands look chapped //

// it´s near the chapel I think //

4. 

// it´s caused lots of trouble //

// next August // I´m traveling to NewYork //

// my daughter is walking toschool right now //

// it´s a beautifulmorning //

// I´m going to the store //

5. 

// I live at sixty eight Finn Street //

// that´s big // isn´t it //

// I still don´t know //

// I slipped on a banana  skin yesterday //

// she picked him up //

95
6. 

// I left it in thebar //

// she was verythin //

// my clothes werewet //

// it´s twenty toseven //

// is it next to the fence //

7. 

// I´ve just finished with thepaperwork //

// hurryup Pam //

// He doesn´tlove me anymore //

// I wonder // what´son //

// have you been playing withmud //

8. 

// can you lend me your threedollars //

// the e xam // was very easy //

// I haven´t even started //

// are you reading anything these days //

// let´s see if we can //

96
9. 

// your socks lookdirty //

// the chest in your bedroom // islocked //

// there seems to be aproblem //

// it´s got to betrue //

// how long have youlived here //

10. 

// what can Ido for you //

// I´ve bought a pair ofboots //

// there´s a brightmoon tonight //

// is there anyfood left //

// the shoes I borrowed from you // are reallybeautiful //

11. 

// look the word up in thedictionary //

// let´s cook somepizza tonight //

// would you like some //

// good foryou //

// have you finished thebook //

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12. 

// I´d love tostay here //

// do you mind changing //

// wait forme please //

// it´s ten toeight //

// you´ve made myday //

13. 

// they´ve stolen mybag //

// no // it´snot //

// this isn´t the bestmoment in my life //

// phone me // as soon as you gethome //

// goback // as quickly as youcan//

14. 

// where is yourbrother //

// turn left // as soon as you get to thestairs //

// the chairs // are allbroken //

// there are three new bears in thezoo //

// your hair looks stunninglygorgeous //

98
15. 

// that´s the cleverest idea // Ben //

// that´s the most likely cause of theproblem //

// provided you get there on time //

// my cousin is coming toBrighton tomorrow //

// it´s time // you started towork //

16. 

// that was sheerluck //

// knock at the rearentrance //

// here // you´ll havefun //

// he´s full of ideas //

// an irrational fear ofspiders //

17. 

// tell us what thebook is about //

// turn around // and get towork //

// how are you going to solve thisproblem //

// I´ve just found a solution //

// is she leaving now //

99
18. 

// the baby´s yelling his head off //

// pass me the pepper // please //

// the bus stop // is next to the toy shop //

// who´s responsible for this //

// put yourbooks down // and help me with thispaperwork //

19. 

// I don´t know // who´scoming tonight //

// the doors are closing atten //

// does your teacher know you´releaving //

// Dan is definitely right //

// let´s take the dog for awalk //

20.

// get ready for the party //

// come as soon as possible //

// goodmorning // Mr.Motherwell //

// can youcome please //

// go bycar // and then // walk for awhile //

100
21. 

// I think // you shouldgo //

// those youngmen are here //

// it´s three o´clock //

// there´s a bathroom at theend of the hall //

// that dog over there // must be taken to the vet //

22. 

// don´tfool with me // Harry //

// avoid any kind ofcomments //

// let´s watch a DVD tonight // shall we //

// the vending machine // is opposite theprinter //

// although my friends aren´t going // I´dlove to be there //

23. 

// don´t say it please //

// roses are my favourite flowers //

// Sally´s just finished secondary school //

// Sam´s sippy cup´s in his bag //

// sorry to inter rupt you //

101
24. 

// calmdown // and stopshouting at me //

// Sharon´s bought a new television //

// reading // gives me a lot ofpleasure //

// these shoes // are very expensive //

// leisure activities // are good for ourhealth //

25. 

// Jim´s girlfriend´s got dark brownhair //

// he´schoking //

// these children are onholiday now //

// January // is thehottest month of the year //

// when youfinish // change yourclothes //

26. 

// learning a foreign language // is absolutelynecessary at present //

// our autumn starts inMarch //

// no Idon´t //

// neither John norPam // has studiedEnglish //

// I think I should beleaving //

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27. 

// I´m ten yearsold //

// that woman over there // isstaring at me //

// the car’syellow //

// do you really think so //

// the wood duck is in danger of extinction //

28. 

// there´s a red lizard in mygarden //

// look atme //please //

// that´s absolutelyright //

// the lights arelow //and there´s a glow around thespirit //

// leave me alone //

103
TEXTS FOR ORAL AND WRITTEN PRACTICE

Mark intonation in the following dialogues. Follow the instructions of your

teacher.

1. (as from minute 1.09)

Q: Can I ask what you’ve got in your bag?

A: Fruit and nuts, snacks.

Q: All good healthy stuff then?

A: Yep, dried apricots, raisins, cashew nuts, and some pistachios. All organic, all
fair trade.

Q: Do you always buy fair trade?

A: Whenever possible, yeah.

The British Council https://drive.google.com/file/d/1LnrpX2m9BTkZCVewzvVcDWXf-TLJj9Wf/view?usp=sharing

2.

Keith: Are you free on the thirteenth in the afternoon?

Cathy: No I'm afraid not. I'm meeting Ruth then. How about the fourteenth in the
morning?

Keith: I'm sorry. I'm attending a meeting at the Hilton then.

Cathy: What about the next day?

Keith: No. I'm busy then too. I'm meeting Dorothy Heath at North Bridge Road. Are
you free on Thursday afternoon?

Cathy: Yes, I think I am. Let's meet for lunch at mouth restaurant.

Keith: Good idea! Is two o'clock okay?

Cathy: That's fine. See you there!

https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/dialogues Dialogue 4

104
3.

A: Excuse me. Can you tell me how to get to the nearest pharmacy please?

B: Yes. There´s a chemist´s quite near here. Turn left at the traffic lights, then take
the second right and the pharmacy is on the corner.

Daily Step English

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1XuAohc4hGL9UvvLOA9O20TMYShRwEvXo/view?usp=sharing

4.

A: Come in. You’re Elena Burgess, aren't you?

B: Yes, that’s right. I see you have two jobs available for psychologists. I’ve just
finished my studies, and I’m not sure which job to apply for. This would be my
first job.

A: Well, please tell me about yourself. What do you see as your strengths?

B: Strengths? Hmmm…Well, people say I have a lot of compassion.

A: You're compassionate? In what way?

B: I’m able to understand other people’s feelings – to put myself in their shoes. I
think I must have gotten that from my parents. Both my parents are
psychologists, too.

(Saslow & Ascher, 2006, p. 45)

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1Mks0WGXUOf6AoZApwMwuQCNpitCBWvyz/view?usp=sharing

5.

Janet: Hey, Lucy! Looking for anything special?

Lucy: Janet! No, I’m just browsing. What are you up to?

Janet: I’m picking up some garden magazines for my mom. She can’t get enough
of them. So, are you reading anything good these days?

105
Lucy: Well, I’ve got a book of poetry on my night table, but I just can’t seem to get
into it. I guess poetry just doesn’t turn me on.

Janet: Have you read the new John Grisham?

Lucy: No, actually, I haven’t. I didn’t know he had a new book out.

Janet: Well, I can’t put it down. It’s a real page-turner.

Lucy: Thanks for the tip. I think I’ll get that.

Janet: Don’t bother. I’m just about finished. If you can wait till the end of the week,
I’ll lend it to you.
(Saslow & Ascher, 2006, p. 75)

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1B5xZ1ilp8bWFjaDcxllp3cnL-AgG7W8I/view?usp=sharing

6.

A: Can I have a word with you, in private, please?

B: Yes. What is it? I’m incredibly busy at the moment.

A: Well…I don’t like having to say this but I think that if you and I are to continue
working together, we’re going to have to draw up some ground rules. We’re not
exactly getting along like a house on fire, are we?

B: Oh! And d’you think it’s all my fault, I suppose?

A: No, no. I’m not saying that. I’m just trying to get to the root of the problem and to
understand where we’re going wrong. I’m not trying to lay all the blame at your
feet. I know that I probably share at least 50 per cent of the responsibility.

B: I’m sorry. I’m being out of order. Let’s start this conversation over again, shall
we?

A: Yes. Let’s. As far as I’m concerned, I can’t see any good reason why you and I
can’t get along a bit better.

Daily Step English

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1HhsHDQjobsmICZhgixL1BgUUw_FBEBya/view?usp=sharing

106
7.

Jean: Where shall we sit? Look! There are some free seats in the corner.

Jill: The seats by the window are better. It'll be cooler there.

Jean: Okay. What would you like to eat? Jill: I'm really hungry. I think I'll have
chicken and chips with baked beans. Why don't you have chicken too?

Jean: I don't eat meat. It makes me ill. I'll have a cheese sandwich instead.

Jill: And what about drinks? I think I'll have some mint tea.

Jean: No, that's really expensive! It's three dollars sixty cents! I'll have a coffee; it's
much cheaper.

Waiter: Good evening.

Jill: Good evening. We'll have one chicken and chips with baked beans and one
cheese sandwich please.

Waiter: No problem! What would you like to drink?

Jean: A mint tea and a coffee please. Oh - and please bring me some cream for
the coffee.

Waiter: Okay. let me repeat your order. One chicken and chips with beans, one
cheese sandwich, a mint tea and a coffee with cream.

https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/dialogues Dialogue 7

8.

- I walked into the kitchen yesterday and I said to my dad, "Hey, I'm hungry!" and

my dad said, "Hi hungry, I'm Dad."

107
- Dad asked me, "Have you heard about the new movie 'Constipation'?" I was like,

"What? No." And he said, "It never came out." Who even calls a movie

Constipation?

- My dad and I were going past the aquarium and he said to me,"How many tickles

does it take to make an octopus laugh?", and he said, "Tentacles." Like what? Ah,

tentacles.

- Hey Dad, can you make me a sandwich?

- And what did Dad say?

- Abracadabra, you are the sandwich.

https://es.englishcentral.com/video/25593

9.

Boy: Where were you two hours ago?

Girl: Go easy on him, he's had a long day.

Boy: Do you even have an alibi?

Girl: Calm down, James.

Boy: I bet you missed dinner just so you can have that Kraft Homestyle Mac and

Cheese Bowl.

Dad: I was covering Kevin's shift.

Girl: Lies!

Boy: Hey, I thought I was the bad cop.

https://es.englishcentral.com/video/20418

108
10. (from minute 4.14 to minute 4.48)

Katie: Tom you’ve traveled a lot. Do you…

Tom: Yeah.

Katie: Do you get jet-lag and how do you deal with it?

Tom: Yes, I do get jet-lag sometimes…erm…and I only deal with it by trying to

change my sleep patterns, my sleep times a little bit before I travel, so … so they’re

more …

Katie: Yeah.

Tom: … in tune …

Katie: … with where you’re going …

Tom: … with where I´m going, yeah. And that’s it basically.

http://zappenglish.com/podcast-vocabulary-pronunciation-3-4-travel

11. (from minute 6.05 to minute 6.38)

Tom: Have you ever lost a boarding card?

Katie: Er … no, I haven´t. In the recent years … my partner seems to think that I

can´t be trusted to look after my own boarding card, and so, I´m not allowed to

carry it … er … which is probably why I haven’t lost it. Have you ever lost one?

Tom:No, I´m very careful with my boarding card, my passport and all the travel

essentials when I´m in an airport…

Katie:Me too. I count them all …

Tom: I’m obsessed with it.

Katie:about ten times …

Tom:Exactly.

http://zappenglish.com/podcast-vocabulary-pronunciation-3-4-travel

109
12.

Brody: Look, I've been down this road before. I'm not what Carrie says I am. Ask

David Estes. He'll tell you.

Quinn: By Carrie, you mean Carrie Mathison?

Brody: Yes.

Quinn: And what exactly does she think you are?

Brody: A terrorist.

Quinn: And you're not?

Brody: No, I'm not.

Quinn: You should know that everything that you say in here will be used against

you in your trial. You should also know that you are facing a possible death

sentence.

Brody: I want a lawyer.

Quinn: Well, life is full of disappointments.

Brody: I want a fucking lawyer!

Quinn: After your capture in 2003, you were subjected to a period of five years of

profound and constant torture. It says here, "Brutally beaten, electricity, isolation

and worse." Am I getting things right so far? It is important that we're accurate.

Hmm? Hmm … Why did the torture stop?

Brody: I'm completely off the grid here, aren't I?

Quinn: Why did the torture stop?

Brody: I don't know.

(Homeland https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o9-hC-I77vA)

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13.

The oldest woman skydiver

I don't worry that my carpet is rather threadbare and old as long as I'm skydiving.

But I do get scared and I used to be so scared that I would drive the car up to the

drop zone and think, "I could go back, I don't have to stay here," but I knew if I went

away, I'd never come back again. So, the ecstasy was more than the fear. The first

time I jumped out of an airplane, I thought I was gonna die,and as I fell, I thought,

"What a mistake. This is death”. I could remember it now. And then the next

second, I thought, "Ah! I'm flying!" Skydiving gives you the most intense, wonderful

feeling. I think sometimes we get pulled down by fear. We get pulled down by

necessity of work and it's a mistake. But having done skydive, I learned courage. I

learned to go and that has been the biggest turning point in my life.

https://es.englishcentral.com/video/28666

14.

The power of kindness

One day, a man was walking along the beach when he noticed a boy picking up

starfish and throwing them into the ocean. Approaching the boy he asked, "Excuse

me, but what are you doing?" The boy replied, "Throwing starfish back into the

ocean. The sun is rising and the tide is going out. If I don't throw them back, they'll

die." The man laughed to himself and said, "But there's too many starfish on this

beach. You can't possibly make a difference." After listening politely, the boy bent

down, picked up another starfish and threw it into the ocean. Then, turning to the

man, he said, "I made a difference to that one."

https://es.englishcentral.com/video/28864

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15.

Google goes green

Since the Industrial Revolution, we've been taking new materials from the ground to

make things, things that we toss away after we've used them. When it comes to

resources, we have to start thinking circular, not linear, keeping materials out of the

landfill and conserving resources such as energy and water. At Google, we've

applied this circular approach to our data centers, which are engines of the internet

and the most energy-efficient in the world. We've redesigned the system so nearly

all components are maintained, reused, refurbished, or recycled.

In 2015, 52 percent of machine upgrades used refurbished inventory, and Google

resold nearly 2 million units into secondary markets for reuse by other

organizations. By practicing circular concepts and server management, .we saved

hundreds of millions of dollars in redirected materials. back into the marketplace,

instead of the landfill.

https://es.englishcentral.com/video/27764andfill.

16.

Dearest Lilibet,

I know how you loved your papa, my son. And I know you will be as devastated as I

am by this loss. But you must put those sentiments to one side now, for duty calls.

The grief for your father's death will be felt far and wide. Your people will need your

strength and leadership. I have seen three great monarchies brought down through

their failure to separate personal indulgences from duty. You must not allow

yourself to make similar mistakes. And while you mourn your father, you must also

mourn someone else. Elizabeth Mountbatten. For she has now been replaced by

another person, Elizabeth Regina. The two Elizabeths will frequently be in conflict

with one another. The fact is, the Crown must win, must always win.

(The Crown https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FnBjb5imPLY)

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17.

You accuse me of breaking the rules, and I tell you I am playing by the rules; the

very rules that you and I have all agreed upon; the very rules that you and I all

wrote together. So, yes, I’m guilty as hell, but then so are all of you. Yes, the

system is corrupt but you wanted a guardian at the gate like me. And why?

Because you know I will do whatever it takes and you have all enjoyed it being

party to it and benefited by it.

(looking at the audience) Oh, don’t deny it, you’ve loved it. You don’t actually need

to stand for by anything. You just need me to stand, to be the strong man, the man

of action. My God, you’re addicted to action and slogans. It doesn’t matter what I

say. It doesn’t matter what I do. Just as long as I’m doing something, you’re happy

to be along for the ride. And, frankly, I don’t blame you. With all the foolishness and

indecisions in your lives, why not a man like me? I don’t apologize. In the end, I

don’t care whether you love me or you hate me just as long as I win. The deck is

stacked. The rules are rigged. Welcome the death of the Age of Reason. There is

no right or wrong. Not anymore. There’s only being in … and then being out.

(House of Cards https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GIXFsy924BI)

18.

(0:57 to 2:37)

Neil: So…the website hotels.com commissioned some research about how much
time young adults, that’s millennials, spend doing life admin. Do you know what
proportion of their free time they spend doing life admin tasks? Is it A) a quarter of a
day, B) a third of a day, C) half a day?

Rob: Based on my personal experience I would say about a quarter of a day.

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Neil: Well, we’ll see if you are the same as other people at the end of the
programme. But, as we all know, life admin is necessary but it can be a bit of a
chore, a boring, ordinary task you do regularly.

Rob: Experts have studied the subject and look to how we do it and how we can
make it less boring. One of them is Elizabeth Emmons, Professor of Law at
Columbia University and author of The Art of Life Admin.

Neil: She’s been speaking to the BBC Radio 4 programme Woman’s Hour and
described what she thought life admin is.

Elizabeth: Life admin is the office work of life. It’s the invisible layer of work that is
the kind of thing that managers and secretaries, AKA admins, do for pay in the
office but that everyone does in their own lives for free.

Rob: She calls life admin “the invisible layer of work” so it’s work, tasks or chores
we carry out that people don’t notice we’re doing or don’t realize we have to do
them. It’s extra work in our life.

Neil: And we don’t get paid for it unless we are at work, when it is the role of
someone to do it such as secretaries or AKA admins. AKA is short for also known
as. So secretaries might also be known as admins. That is short for people who do
administration.

19.

Turning anger into action (Brita Fernandez Schmidt)

What I’ve realised, and I think we’ve all seen this at the beginning of this year with

the Women’s March, is that there is huge movement of women and men who

believe in equality and who are willing to stand up for women’s rights. But what I’ve

also realised is that we need to focus on creating a positive discourse of hope

rather than being against something. That creates such a negative downward spiral

where you can get to a point where I think people get so disillusioned, so

disempowered that they feel like: “What am I gonna do?” I mean “What am I gonna

do about the war in Syria?” But if you can find a way to talk about these issues

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showing how individual action can make a difference then I think you can inspire

people. And at Women for Women International our key ask is always to sponsor

one woman for a year to go through our programme and the change that you are

helping to achieve becomes really real. I think we really need that because it

sometimes can be extremely disheartening.

https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p05dswmv

20.

Casting Game of Thrones (Nina Gold)

We had quite a long time to do it. They gave us several months to look for the kids,

so we spent a lot of time looking for the kids. It all worked out incredibly well in the

end, but we cast some really young people in the first season who then had to grow

through over seven or eight years, and you don’t really know what’s going to

happen, and it’s a big leap of faith. And then I think with the senior characters there

were lots of people in there who were probably unknown to an American audience

but that I and my partner Robert Stern, who cast it with me, we know them really

well and we watched these British character actors for years, and we have a real

feeling for them. And then there were the sort of young, early twenties late teens

characters. There was quite a lot of them in the first season, and that was really

great sort of meeting all of the just graduating drama students, or even younger and

just young actors starting out, test them in a lot of detail and really get a feel for

who was there and who was good at what basically.

https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p05k3p8c

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 APPENDIX

EXTRA PRACTICE MATERIAL

Adjustments

1. Let´s meet Mrs. Shaw, who’s designed those shocking evening dresses.

2. There’s been a growing interest in intercultural studies in Britain over the last six
years.

3. I don´t suppose you’ll manage to get away this year, with all the coming events.

4. The election had caused such a stir that great crowds started gathering in
public places.

5. I told you your behaviour wasn’t as bad as you thought.

6. What did your English teacher say last class?

7. Surround yourself with good people.

8. Last year we went to Florida for our summer holidays.

9. What did you used to think about yourself in past years?

10. Fasten your seat belt and make yourself comfortable.

11. Education is the most powerful weapon that you can use to change your life.

12. I should have asked for it before but I didn’t care.

13. He went back to the office when Bob was shouting at his secretary.

14. He isn't coming to my garden party.

15. This ship leaves at eight past ten.

16. This book is mine. Where’s yours?

17. Mind that car! Look at both sides before crossing the road, Kim!

18. It’s the biggest sandcastle I’ve ever seen.

19. The girl was eating that cake you’d prepared.

20. Life is not meant to be easy. Take courage; it can be delightful.

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21. Should you need help, don’t hesitate to contact me.

22. Ruth had a quiet but very friendly nature.

23. There’s your sister. Go and tell her we’re here.

24. There are plenty of places to go shopping in Brighton.

25. The DJ played my dad’s favourite music from the sixties.

26. Government officials were asked a range of questions about current policies.

27. David Cameron said he is willing to limit certain benefits to non-nationals living
in Britain.

28. They had been asked whether they had made any concrete plans to move.

29. The survey suggested that people interested in moving to the UK are likely to
have a postgraduate degree.

30. Most candidates will have passed the habitual residence test before they can
claim.

31. Having the "right to reside" means you are economically active, or are able to
support yourself.

32. Don’t you know that curiosity killed the cat?

33. Ted doesn’t want to admit that some of his stories should be more interesting.

34. She told me many lies; that’s why I don’t believe her anymore.

35. As you may know, she’s feeling a little bit better since she moved to Paris.

Prominence

1. The high wooden fence around your house prevents dogs from jumping into

your beautifully mowed lawn.

2. Running that long lasting race exhausted most of the participants.

3. It was a bright cold day in April and the clocks were striking thirteen.

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4. Senior trade union leaders say governments shouldn´t be forced by strikes.

5. Having a first-aid kit in accidents can sometimes save lives.

6. An overhead projector is a type of slide projector since both are used to

display images to an audience.

7. Mary´s ordered six blue cheese muffins and a large orange juice.

8. My sister is the most popular girl in town; she´s got long curly hair and green-

brown eyes.

9. The impact of divorce on children can have long-lasting effects.

10. This year´s Academy Awards ceremony was held in Hollywood.

11. To cook a mince pie you need a big frying pan and lots of olive oil.

12. The thick white sauce made of raw egg yolk is called mayonnaise.

13. The Literature teacher asked me to re-write my last week assignment.

14. My favorite teacher is a fine chess player and has won several state-level

tournaments.

15. He bought her a beautiful red dress to be worn in her best friend´s wedding

party.

16. I love drinking orange juice and eating chocolate biscuits.

17. He´s an extraordinary looking man with dark green eyes and a shock of hair

prematurely white.

18. The hotel only offers cable TV and a clock radio in every room.

19. The demonstration was organized by local trade union officials.

20. She struggled to control her red-hot anger at her son´s disobedience.

21. A carefully chosen part-time job gives you more than money.

22. I´ll cook a big apple pie and some vanilla ice-cream for dessert tonight.

23. The first time I saw the dawn in the distance it was glowing bright orange.

24. If you don´t want to have a heart attack, you should calm down a bit.

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25. He plays both popular music and classical music.

26. Mark´s girlfriend loves home-made food especially for dessert.

27. I saw him when he was buying a birthday present.

28. Indoor plants are difficult to find.

29. Greenland is a country within the kingdom of Denmark.

30. Hardback books are generally more expensive than paperback ones.

31. Pick-pocketing is very common in big cities nowadays.

32. Some people sprinkle lemon juice on top of fish fingers.

33. Performance by an Actor in a Supporting Role is one of the Academy Awards.

34. Roll-ons don´t harm the ozone layer.

35. Inkjet printers are the most common type of printers.

36. Tourism has had far-reaching effects on our country´s culture.

37. The North Sea is located in Europe near the English Channel.

38. I love drinking orange juice and eating chocolate biscuits.

39. Oprah´s chat show is the most popular one worldwide.

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