lllr'(itrrt.

lt

1oge,1lier, l.lrc,Jiual:urclurosl rrzrljcl l,esl- \\{1,ltinlJtr.r'trtrfitiesr-r11lrelr-lir-ring

-
o.qr";rllrl'l('
llr 'J'he r,rl'r,,i'l'r:r1.
tr (:al]
1tzrrl.ici1.[utl d0.
lrcrlizoLrl.irl zlxisirrtiic:al.es 1.halc:zrl.egories nrir)'rtlsc.,iia.l1'lor"c,or lcrss
l.craclrer'(()I1.Lll,or-) centrecl.hi ilrc. lei'1 -]ri.uidc:al.egorjris,'1'c'r.cling';,urcl
'slir-)\4riilg',
the soulc'c-r-rfhrorrlc'c)geancll.helrroviclel'cr1clal.zr is tire trai:rel.
Parl.ici1tanl.s nra\r lvg 1'slxl.i1z1rlY hi 1Ie cal.egories crr-rthc- r'igh1;.'lc-rild-
'tlrrou'ing', f-iirssive.
iug: zrncl lrzrrticil-rzur1"sale mnch nrore actjve. Thc' cla.ter cin rniricli
rn'orlimal, L,(,tlieir ovlr exPedc,uce,anclthr.I'u'ili l-reca;-id;leir-rmal\r
1,lrr,\r
c;ase,s o1'shal-riug tht oul.coutc,.
I3otli axes are itrrl:)c)ltarltbecausc,thev clncollrageus t,o thinli zrbr-rut the
relevanceof oru training llrocessestc)conrse objectives,albeit itom differ.
ent persyrectirres. Talie the rreftical axis. If course ol-rjectivesare preclorni-
nanthr }oiou'ledge-orien1.ecl,it q'ill tre qriit,e appropriate for training
actirritiesto be mainll' located in the upper ]raif of the diagram;if, irolever,
the objecti\resare action-oriented,this shoulcll-releflecteclin the distribu-
tion of actiriities ovel the u'hole diagrani (if lxactice is to Lre conscious,
'cloing'needsto go together sntl'r 'lororn.ing'). The ]rc,rizontalaxis is impor-
tant becauseit raises the issue - important in anrzform of teacltlg - of tl-re
relationship betrn'eenlearner acLivitv and learner cl'roice. It rn'ou-lclbe
sha:rge,but by no means u:tlotou.n, if a ilainer \ zei:eto put fonn'ard the
case for self-directed learning, SAJ',rvithout offering tirat opportur-Lrt5r 16
coruseparticipants.(Tlie issue is actually a broadel one, of cour:se,of con-
gruencebetu'eenu'hat is saicland done on coruses.)
Let me nou' deal ra'itir each of tire categories il a little more detail. l\412
lrrinrary concem irere is not so much to entunerate tire ltros and cotzs of
the djfferent categor"ies but to emphasisethe need for a selection u'hich
takes objectives(intendedleaning outcomes)into account.

Feedi,tt,g
\4rhatI have been callhrg 'feeding' is otheru'ise lorovar as the jug and mug
mociel'or, less emotivel5',flie transmissionmoclel.At best, it is a rneansby
which a sl<illed and lorov'leclgeablelecf,uler can ecollomicall5r a:rcl effec-
f,irrel]'offer an auc[encean introduction to or oven'ieu' of sottle aspect of
the field, or synthesisereaclingsv'hich are not easi-ivavaiiable;sucir a lec-
turer car-L clarifir u'hat is unclear, create interest and stimulate reflection. A
fomal lecture may also be a thoroughiv tedious expelience for all con-
cerned,either becausethe lecturer lacks the necessalTpresentation slcills
or becausebotir lecturer anclaudiencetreat the e\zent, simply as a transn-iis-
sion exercise.To a lessere),:tent,the sa-merna5rbs tme of reading if partici
pants perceirzev'hat thelz are given to read as clefuritirze, sontetltilg to be
'l earttt' aucl then subseqlteutl5rrs ouro't2t g61.
The clisadvantageof rn'hatI am rather obrrior-rslycaricatuling as a folm of
sltoonfeedilg is that if participauts are r-rotengageduritlt course content, it
may not be integrateclinto their existing lorou'ledgeframev'orks; it malr
simpllz pass r-ight tl-rrough. Ard if tirerr imaoine that the5r 21'g simplv
e>,pectedto absorb and accept cor-rtentunthinkingi5r,this rna\/ encolll'ade
 Feed i.ng, Lea.cll'ttg, Sl t ot.u'i'tt.cy,
Tlt:r'o'tLri.tt,gI 6 7

clepenclence, as well as intellectual laziness.It also closes clown options:

pafticiparts might well irave something reievant to contribute.
In a broaclersense,moreover, feeding is strictly lirnited in its potential
contribution to the objectivesof a gpical teacher eclr-rcation programme.It
sirould certainly be used because, intelligently e4ploitecl, it can ftil-fiI the
sorts of objective referred to above (and on trainer training prograrnmes
can exemplify good practice - the brealdng up of a monologue by means
of rnteractive activities or the use of signpostirlg ald visual aids);
overusecl,it may perpetuate the notion that tiris is wirat teacher education
prograrunes ollght to be iike and that this is the best or oniy way to con-
duct such courses.

Leadi,ng
On the learner-centred sicle of the model - and still concernecl with the
development of ]clowledge or ru'rderstancling- is 'leactilg'. As a means of
facilitating tire acqrdsitionof lcrowiedge, tlds approach has been criticisecl
as unecorlonrical. It takes too long. It may also require a higirer tntor-
participant ratio than'feeding' since products have to be elicited and dis-
cussed. Its proponeuts argue that ttLis apparent lack of econorny is
inelevant. What is inporkurt is tirat it is effective: participants arrive at
their own unclerstancling,and because they have clone the prelirninary
thinking themselves and formulated their understanding in their owrr
words the outcome is more meaningftrl, literally, and rnay be retainecl bet-
ter (Stevick 1976)..Thisis an in'rporbantconsideration since one of tire
problems with torowleclge,as we all l<now to ow cost, is that it is only too
easily forgotben. Equally significant, however, in relation to the theme of
this paper, is the fact that awareness-raisingactivities of the sort enisaged
unclertlris head cal allow participants to erpetietzce the value and frustra-
tions of workir-rgrn'ithothers.
'leacling' r,r'hich is
A potential problem rn'ith not nonnally mentioned -
and tiris may manifest itself as rnore of a problem the more removed one is
frorr the language classroom - is that participants who are led torn'arcls
what appearto be precletennineclanswersmay resent being askeclto reacl
tlre ttrtor's mind, to fincl th,eworcl ot tlte solntion becausethey feel they are
being manipr-rlatecl,or lecl by tlw rt,ose.The tntor who, when participeurts
'No'n'
have ftrisheci a ftsk ancitheir solutions have been cliscussecl, says,
irere'srry answer' may not only put up the backs'of pafticipants ltut also
'leacling'as a training process.If there is zurobvious answer
clo clamageto
to a question 1:erirapsit is a vrrasteof time to get participants to look for it
zurclthen give it to them. fi4ry not sinrply give it to them ('feeciing') or give
it to Lhembut aslt whether tirey agreethat it is the right (or ouly) answer.
Sirnilarly, if the intenclecloutcorne is a'rlist of some lcincl,why not provide a
partial list, with the obvious points wrif,ten in; this saves time ancl woulcl
ensrue that everyboclyurclerstanclswhat is reqr-rirecl.Let us ilrove or1rlow
'cloilrg'cells.
lo the
 I (;6 Illr'(irrtlt

,9lunuin.Q
As :rriother'l,eachel\{rrol;c.al'l,era c'c}Lu's(, during rn4ricl'r;.r:u-tici1-rzrnts\\'ere
rrretlrocls:'lt's one
taughl at their ou'ti l:iugrtagelevel b\' ac',,'t'tt-,-,.ttri<:ati\/e
thirlg to lcro'r4',llrl clr-ril,c. a:rothcr-thing t,o experietrccr."Sl-rou'iug'is
clesignecll.crploviclc.c:ol1cl'el.e exliedences,1.cibring things 1,Olile. For rne,
il.'s the ec1:itarlenlo1'tl-rc'1-iicir-rre booli, 'u4ricitlrc.i1-rs
in tlie cc)olier"\r rne to
lcrou,u'ha1I'm ainringlbr.
\\rliat is 'siroun' can l:c, a nroclel- 1'orir-rstzu'rc€,'Ifelre are
sollle useflrl
'Bzrclrcliaining u'orlis
clas.sloournlzrnageurenl. lllrlases' c-rr lilie this . . .'.
M4ienu'e suppiv models \4ic,expecttliem l.o tre lbllou'ed, but u'e neeclto be
a\lrare that, if unfamiliar",they mav not trecome pafl; of a participanl,'s
repefl,oireLullessu'e also provicleopprortunitiesfor sheltered practice (ancl
feeclbaclr_;.
We also need to be explicit u,hen u'hal.$'e are off'edng is not intendecl to
be a model, bnt arr example or sample,something u'hiclt coulcl be said or
clone in 3.n5r61-taof a number of wavs. Hele too, l-rorve\,'er", I/e should
lemember ilrat if participar-rts rn.ishto follou' up the idea, the5' might value
all oppoftuni6' 1o. practice.
The difference betq'een models and exanples/sampies is particulari5r
'demonstration
ilrportant rvhen it comes to rryhat harre been called
lessotts',bJttt'hicl-tI tneau a lessonor part-lessollgi\renbJ' a coruse tutor to
participants (or a groqr of learners)for the 1lurfioseof demonstratingcer-
tain tecluriques.
As an exchange betrn'een\\/ajru1'b (1990) and Boljtho nt Tlue Tea,cltet'
Tt"ainet'illustrates, the use of demonstration lessons a:-rdil particular the
v'aJrin u'l-Licl-ithev are received is an issue that merits careful considera-
tion b5' a trainer. One of the questions \{re shor-rldbe asliilg oruselves as
trairers is rryhetirertlie gap beh{'een ourselves and tirose \4/eare trairring
(in terms of skills and au'areness)is so great that such lessons a::eunhelp-
'showing' come
fu-I.Are they, in fact, a form of ego-tripping?Does close to
'shou'ing off? Mv olvn fee[ng is that the usefu]less of a demonstration les-
son lies less in the element of tutor perfonna:rce ar.rclmor:e in its potential
as an illustration of the thinking that goesinto lesson pla-rutng - the stages
inrroh'ed, the options u'itirin each stage ancl flre reasons for the decisions
tal<en.Post-lessonalal5r5isof the kind that I irarrein mincl, rn'ltetethe tutor
is a:-iilrformant on his or her oun thought processes, can be ir-rterestingfor
participants ald of rralueto both parlicipants and tutor.
'Shou'ing' can of course be l-randledln al equalljr deliberate but rnore
subtle ilrarxler. S4ra1.may be particularly appropriate at the levei of
h"ai,net" haining is u'hat has in relation to teacher training has been called
'mirroring' (l\4ugglestone1979), 'learning through experience' (l\4cGrath
'loop input'
1986) and a more sophisticatecl version of these ideas,
(\Voodu'ard 1988,1991').The underl5'ingassumption of these approacires
to shou'ing is tirat, as \\Ioodrn'ardputs it, 'learnilg about teaching c:anhap-
lren v'hile )loll'l'ebeilg taugltt' (1988:72).
Ii4irroring itu'olves e>,fiosru'et.o a process eurda\{/areness-r'aisingin rela=
tion to the relevant features of thal,process.I4ugglestoneoffers the exam-
 Lea.clillg, Sl tot.triltg, T'ltt'ott'ittlt I 69

ple of a group of trainees who are sensitiseclto theoretical alci practical

irrr.rer concemeclin'ith groupwork through groupworl<tasks (expenence)
a1d cliscussiol cluring their training sessionszurcltiren apply tl're resuiting
insights in their own teachingpractice. in ioop input, on the other hand'
conlent ancl process ale m perfect congrlrence. Wooclwarcl (1991)
describes a jigsaw listening activity i-n trainees leam about jigsaw
"r'hich
ter-ts tirey a.re given while actually
iistening throirgh the content of the
involveclin a jigsaw activity.
At this point it rnay be appropriate to make brief mention of tire value of
'anti-
negative Lxperiences, what Wooclwarcl (1988: 16) has callecl the
t','tJdul'.By putting on a show of ineptitucle - or proviciilg blatantly bacl
exanples oi whaLeveris rurclerdiscussion - the trainer provokes cliscus-
'bacl' anclwhat the characteristics of a 'goocl'
sion dn why tl-reexarnplewas
example oi the gen-rewould be. (For trainer trailers,'good' the idea can be
extencleclto otirei cells of the moclel.) Alternativeiy, a exarnple can
be urpickecl ancl its key ciraracteristics isolated. Notice tirat if the trainer
be 'showing'; if it were a tasl<for
is canyhrg out tire analysis this would
participants,it wouJdbe'leading'.

nu"outilxg
'duowing'. In a positive sense, 'throrving' is a matter of giving par-
FinaJIy,
ticipants tire oppbrtunity to clo.Learning of various kinds can take place as
a result of the processeswe have cliscrisseclthus far, but sItiLLcant'oniy be
'tluowilg', then, is on
cievelopeclthrough practice. The empl'rasis in
relLearsq,L,i earning/getbing b etter by doing'
One of the inost obvior,rsskills neeclectby a trainer is that of conducting
a trailing session. If we assume that training is in some ways clifferent
irom language teachilg, then it requires preparation, practice and feecl-
back. This kincl of experience can be provicled in the training classroom
tluough peer-teachingtastis (Iviccrath, Nuttali ancl Trappes-Loma-x1989)
but if ar-iangenents Canbe macle for tutors to obser-v-e novice trainers in
ttre flelcl ilriJcal be even more nseful (hence the value now being atlached
-
to in-house apprenticeship ancl ilentoring scireines see, for exarnple
IVlai'siralland Eclwardsin this voiurne).
Trainers (anclteacirers)neeclother professioualskilIs - for example,the
ability t6 clealwith stLrclent problems and problem stuclents.Someof these
.rl b" taci<Iecl through simulatior-r f1\fcGrath a.nclAltay i990); others
tl'rroughrvorksiropactir,ities i:ractica] zrssiguments
or (.e.S.c9.TSedesign.t
Tirrbwilg, then, ct)rzersa rallge of arctil'ities.At one encl of the spectmm,
these nay be carefully -qlaciecl gtticlecl
::urci tasks enabling the participant to
cleveiopcompetenceluith cotrficlelce;at the other, we tr.Layhervewha[ is
tanfarnonnt to tlu'owing i.rzct,tttrc rlee:pelt.d, r'vltere tire cleep enclis a situa-
tiou fOr wirich Oue is ttnpreparecl,and for which one's resourqes lllay
prove tureclualJuclgementis cle:rrly neeclecl;rs to the st.ateof reaclinessof
inclivicluals-rurcl lire-potential for lean'ri-ngon tl're one hancl zurclclamzrge('to
conficlence, for [lstance) ott lhe otirer.
 l7() lllr'(jtrtllr

Crossing boundaries
l'.hns Ial I rnav ]rave given ti-reiurltlession tl-ral I l'ravc,a conceplion o1'
1hal,are somehou' u'a1,ertigh1..
l)r-c)c'esses lJrat tlie cliviclirtglir-resin Flg. 3
aborre'arc,li:ircl. On the ('or-rtran',i1 sc.cnrs1.onre troilt ;rossitrleancl clesir-
al,rlelhal u'ithiu a (trainer")training sessiorrthere shouiclLrea nrorrenrenl.
liom or-rc,proc:ess1,oanothel zurdtir;rl tliis ntorremetilslrouldtrol aiu'at'sbe
preclictableirr il.s clirection,Thus, or-rc,liossiblc,
cl-raitrnrighl.be:
) --; S]-]C)U'INCi
FElltlING (frtl LD.,rJrIl.tr,; -+ 1'tlIlO\\rlNG

zurclotirersu'ould iuclucle:
sltc)\4tNc-+ FEEDING-+'luRt)\\rlNc;
-+ SHC}\,\IING
TI.IRC)\\TINC;

Decisionsregarding the orcleringof processesq'oulcl be iMueuced bv thg

perceirrecllleecls or \'\rantsof participants or the topic being clealt rryith.
\\liat is impofiant if sltill derrelopmentis inrroh'edis that the transfer from
'lcrov.ing'to 'cloing'is not talien for grantecl.SIe rnight therefole do u'ell to
remembertl-readage:
hear ald I forget.
see alcl I uldersta.nd.
do a-tidI relnember.

Shifting roles
'cloilg' can actualhzi111r6i1rg
participalts in takilg
On courses for trainers,
role of course tutor. Thus the 'feeding'can be done b5'a participant,
on tiie
primed to a greater or lesser er,tent bJ' the tutor (1{roodrn'ald1988credits
'Leading','shou'ing' and 'tluou'iug' can also
Jolur }{orgal u'itl-rthis idea).
be devisecl and fronted b5zparticipants. ln such a case, participants ale
'tluorx'Lrg' and
erpeliencing the positirze and negati\/e aspects of this os
parti,ci,ltcr,ttfs,v'hile llaving to thilk about feeding, etc. in their assumed
role a,s trainzet"tt'a,i,net's.Tiris is rn4ratWooclvi'ard(1991: 5) describes as
n,ordng betu'een lerrels of 'the stack' (u'here pupil, teacher, trai:rel ancl
trainer trainer"a.reon different ]erzeis).For tiris approach to vt'ork u'ell, it is
obviouslv essentia"lthat tutors rvork closeh' v.ith particilrants (in a rela-
'clinical supen'ision').
tionsirili akin to that of

The importance of reflection

I have alread5'hinted at the importance of a reflective element iu training,
be it teacher training or trainer training (see for exanple the references to
'Shou'ing' and the a\ rareness-raisingelement
anal5'ticaldiscussion under
in mirloring and loop input). In fact, nl1i 14**' is that to be fttlly effectirue
each of ll-recategories of process I have discussedmust be follou'ecl bJi
(alci itossibl)talso prececledb5')reflectiot-i.\Ve might tirerefore v'ish to put
a little reflectiveheaclinto the cenhe of tl-rediagran:
 Feedi.ng, Lead'in.g, Sl totui ng, Tl t:rot.oittg I 7I

Knowing
FEEDING LEADING
ooy'
Tencher Learner
Centred Centred
,/
SHOWTNG TIIROWING
Doing

Figule 4

it may be helpful to give a few rnore exarnples of ways in which a reflec-

tive element can be incorporateclinto the use of these four categoriesof
process. These a.reset out below in the form of another task. In a trainer
training session,participants would be asked to extend tlts List.A hidcien
objective here might be a firrther check as to w-hetirerthe concepts had
been grasped and could be distinguisl-red.The reader may aiso wish to do
the task (the earlier part of the paper contains an example of 'leading',
incidentally).
Task 2 Here ale a nu:nber of exarnplesof reflective tasks linked to each
of the four categories.T\y to add at least one more task option in each
category.

Feeding
. ilteractive phasesduring lectures @ttzzgroups, etc.)
. task sheetsfor reading

Leadi.ng
a

Slrcwing
. recorclkeepingch,uingsessions
. observationtasks (for clifferentbipes of task, see e.g.Wajnryb 1992)

Throwittg
. teaching practice logs (tutors' vritten responses can shor,vthat they
too zu'ereflecting)
' delayeclfeeciback
 ,41r'(..i
trrl.lr

Elhs ( 1!)St;), \4/oocha'arcl( 1!)91.1!l!)21,

Pailtn.l ( 1[)tlijl irtrcltlre lrooiis l.rr'1;11,t,*
iurr.ll"ssocitrl,es,e.g. Gilrlis, l-lzr).resluutiuicl l-l:rl,rcslriru' (tllSS; ale' l'r-ir'1lter
riclt sonlc'(rsr-i1icleas.
At tire nfcrt) lc'r'el o1'slrrrL'ifc'lrr(x'(.sst.r1rl,icrt'rs,
lr.{lec'licrt'rit'tzt\:nl'rlit-'Li'r''
cliflirrtlc:c'i.rc,tu'ectt (,r il(lrtlltiltgii'il 1lrc'l11irct1J
zrclol'rl,itig
l)i;Lll,ic'il)znil.s lc'r't:lo1
clroic:es bel'ureeri lir'oc'ess c:a.l.r.gories,i1 t'rti.rYu't,ll t-tillic' t;i-reclill'cr-c'rrcc,
be1.v'eenlr]'(|(:ess-sr'lec'tiotras a nr:-rllel o1'r0ul;ittr',r-rr a,clt'ttitristliLtjvecou-
rrerrienc(,(\\riLllacel9!)l ) and udral I havc. sugE{ested:iiiglil Lre 1-rrirrcilr}ecl
l)Ioc:e.ss-selecti on.

Conclusions
It 1-rerhaps goes\{'illlout sal,{rlgthat vzrrietJr lrrocesses- ir-r
in clzrssrooltl
trainer training as \ rell as in teacher trailLinganclteaching - is a goocl
pzu'ticularpur-
tiiurg. TlLisprapermaliesa ciifi'elentpoint: that to acl'Lierre
ljose,sc:ertainmealls rrill be mole stdtable than otirers. This ma5'seL'il an
equallt' olrrriorn point, but tliere is scant eviclerrce(esprecialh;in tertiarTr
level institr-rtious)to suggesttirat tiris av'arerlessis tr zurslateclinto przr.ctice.
The vierryserlrresseclin this papel can therefore l-resumt'neuiseda-sfolloq's:
1. If in training (trainers_)\{re use onlv those categories of plocess or
ilrocess options vrith u'lich participants are alrea.clt'familiar, u'e catttot
e>qrecttheni to use other processes in their ov'n teaching. \4le llla]/ e\/en
dr-rlltlieir iuterest in their ov'n leanrilg.
2 Tf irr selectils Drocessesrve clo not asli oursehres v'hetirer tiiese
processes ale apliropriate rrrealls of achierir-Lgour ol'rjectives (i.e. the
intendecl}earnir-rgoutcomes), \{re111a\r
fai-lto achievet}rese olrjectives.
3. If u'e do
. usea larrgeofprocesses
' selectthesein a demonstrabh'principlecltllaluter
and participants f'eel that the resu-Iting course is both interesiing and
effective, there is e\rerTrcltance that ther: u'ilI adopt the same app::oach
u'hen planning their ourr courses - ancl er:lend the range of process
ontionsstill ftuther.