Mobile network la er veloped for the net- rk layer to support mobility. The most prominent example is Mobile to-— Jenikseed HTM rst-sectto1r Which adds Sob isos itch lit i chapter introduces protocols and mechanisms de f: ee x layer protocol IP. While system: ith” rin BINT, THE TAternet started at a time when Ro one had thought of sje computers. Today's internet lacks any mechanisms to support users trav- oe Cond the World IP is the comion base for thousands of applications cant over dozens of different networks. This ls the reason for su porting sey at he TP Tayer; mobile phone systems, for example, caiiiot off the” 2. af mobility for heteroyeneous networks. To merge the world of mobile oats with the internet and to support mobility in the small more efficiently, Ualed micro mobility protocols have been de veloped. snother kind of mobility, portability of equi ost configuration protocol (DHCP) presented in section 8,2. In former conipaters did not often change Tha location. Today, due to laptops or satedooks, students show up at a university with their computers, and want to slag them in or use wireless access. A network administrator does not want to ‘configure dozens of computers every day or hand out lists of valid IP addresses, ONS servers, subnet prefixes, default routers etc, DHCP sets in at this point to .sgport automatic configuration of computers, net ths PO — __ The chapter concludes with a Took at ad-hoc networks in cor ‘tenetwork layer. This is a fast mbination with ‘rowing field of research with standards that are unclear as yet. How can routing be done in 4 dynamic network with permanent ia In Connectivity? What if there are no dedicated route tllng us where a node currently is? ‘The last section d Heaches offering routing by extending standard internet, Knowled ige Of the current situation of the “nent location can be utilized, - have been desig th. pment, is supported by the 18 oF databases Is with some algorithms known from the physical medium or of the TA CRs Dyna rai c Hot Cov { protourt @ Scanned with OKEN Scanner 303Mobile communications 8.4 Mobile IP nee gives an overall view of Mobile IP, and the extension, {he internet to suppor the mbit of Hoss A good teterence-for yee ees 02, Tekin, 1996) is Perklns (1997) and Salome, ay which describe the development of mobile Hall packet format, meen 4 eons he protocol and alternatives etc. in detail. The new 2M Mobile IP does not involve major changes in the baste architectur Sion some minor problems (REC 3344, Perkins, 2002). The follow but coreg with Internet protocols, especially 1p. ci ‘ Tequires some familiarit overview which includes detailed descrij a riptions of classical Internet prog. 2% oon in Steve i given in Stevens (1994). Many new approaches related to Interne at is otoey, applications, and architectures can be found in Kurose (2003). 8.1.1 Goals, assumptions and requirements As shown in chapter 1, mobile computing is clearly the paradigm of th ¢ intemet is the network for global data communication with hu “cr of users, So why not simply use a mobile computer inthe Meee The reason is quite simple: you will not receive a single pacet st song jetwork, Le, the network your Computer is configured water (wireless of Wired) at another place (Fees ‘Gisional mechanisms are available). The reason for this is quite simple i Consider routing mechanisms on the i A Wiost sends at = thecheaGer containing a destination address ‘with other fields*"THe-testinatioe- address Hot only determines the receiver of the packet, but also Subnet of the receiver. For example, the destination address 129.13-42.99 shony {HEPIe recetver MUST be connected to the physical subnet with the network prefix 129.13.42 (unless CIDR is used, RFC 1519, Fuller, 1993), Routers inthe internet now look at the destination addresses of incoming packets and forwas! them according to internal look-up tables. To avoid an explosion of routing tables, only prefixes are stored and further op ions are applied Ae at 0 nthe Inte chedL within is would otherwise have to store the addresses of all computers, winteh 1s obviously. not feasible. As long as the receiver canbe reachedLsithins a he submet 2 as soon as it moves outside tl called topologically correct allies physical subnet, it gets the packets; packet will not reach it. A host needs a so: 8.4.1.1 Quick ‘solutions’ a night think that a quick solution to this problem woutd Be 10 assign ttt ‘This is what many users One computer a new, topologically correct 1 adds. ss with the help of DHCP (sce section 8,2), So moving 10 2.8 lo aie ‘address. The problen is that nobody rnows about ast ott the ne mean assigning a new IP pew address. TCs almost impossible 136 | to find a (mobile) he st changed its address. os 5 (DDNS, RFC DNS (DDI Cros hare h the help of dynamic One could argue that with the help of dyna Vixie, 1997) an update of the ma ping logical wane — adress Is POT | ~ @ Scanned with OKEN ScannerMovie nets teyay cat pny computer users do IE they hag mnvanenitly reachable. using the same ingest ey ite that these considerations, indeed most stant (“ant fa user wants 10 offer me WIP g as server. Typically, the IP a this case DUC at inte te tices ftom a tmobile rere, 12 dlltess 18 Of nia special interes f Is suffictent. Another motivation for perce, sae: Mi mergency communication with permane ses ye IP address. “ane sepout dynamically adapting the 1 address with regard te the exe So hat S rhe problem ts that the domain name systern (eis, nee atl? - it updates the internal lables necessary to map a logical pare Foe is approach does not work Hf the mobile node meres quite spades oe and DNS have not been built for frequent updates, Just imagi snc mle F nodes moving at the same time, DNS could never present 4 con, ny of names and addresses, as it uses caching to improve scalability. It cot ON expensive to update quickly. sl ois severe problem with higher layer protocols like TCP which Toe. Changing the IP address while still having a TCP conneenoc t and quick rearhaty view of ses. a adres qeaking the connection. A TCP lon ts identified by # address, SOURCE port, destination IP address, destination por Sowers SOCKET pair (a SOcKeE Consists of address and port). Therefore, We ection cannot survive any address change. Breaking TCP connections | ont using even Simple programs like telnet would be impossible. The mob! Pe would also have to notify all communication partners about the new aleiross 2Snother approach is the creation of specific routes to the mobi outers always Choose Ute-best-fitting prefix for the routing decision. it a rout savas an entry for a prefix 129.13.42 and an address 129,13.42.99, ie wount oOSE ME port assOTaté iated With Whe Tatler for forwarding: it=-pe Zatination address 129.13,42.99 comes in. While it is theoretically p ange routing tables all over the world to create specific woutes to a m0) rode, this does not scale at all with the number of nodes in the interne iguiers are built Tor extremely fast forwarding, but hot Tor fast Updates oF cour ing tables, While The first ts done with special hardware support, the latter ically a piece of software which cannot handle the burden of freque’ ¢ the ‘brains’ of the internet, holding the whole net to, No service provider or systenr administrator Woull allow Changes to the tables, f lily, JUSCLO Provide mobility forTadividualD general architecture Since the quick ‘solutions’ obviously did not work, a more : hnd to be designed, Many field trials and proprietary syste tial Is Mobile IP as a standard torenable: mobility in the internet, Several equenss! “companied the development of the standard: . Compatibility: ‘The installed base of Interact compare 1° Tunning TCPAP and connected to the intemnet, b Ns @ Scanned with OKEN Scanner306 mmunications Mobile eanmot intodaes changes for applications ara tise, Poupte still want tv nse thet favottte bromene to change applications just for mobllity, the a ems, Mobile I has to be Integtated hte extern lt fae Teast work with them (aay Tteavailable far ngodtata in te internet shold not necessary require ann a ss posite to enhane the capa af sane routers to sont wl to chanel thes Moti ben lc with all lower layers used for the stancadstiongee st tay HO BEMACIEEC protocols Mh py New {O00 ang i Hm Hoth i tare dust Hot require special Ai Ne interfaces and mechanisms to access the | ‘Finally, end-systems enhanced with hile WP i be awe to communicate with fixed systems wi faa aha has to ensure that users can stil access all The other My in the internet. But that implies using the same advo Mo routing mechanisms. ame address foe Transpa at ™ protocol and appltons Bees maybe noting a6 col ations. maybe noticing a lower ban te ome Interruption in service, higher layers should continue k aa Tobile computer has changed its point of attachment to = this means that the computer must keep its IP adiroees above. Ifthe interruption of the connectivity does not take too ee connections survive the change of the attachment point. Probie 2 to the performance of TCP are discussed in chapter 9. Clearly nes today’s applications have not been designed for use in mobile ee ments, so the only effects of mobility should be a higher delay andi bandwidth. However, there are some applications for which itis better ts ‘mobility aware’. Examples are cost-based routing or video compress Knowing that it is currently possible to use different networks, the sta: could choose the cheapest one, Or if a video application knows that ea Jow bandwidth connection is currently available, it could se a dif ‘Additional mechanisms are necessary to inform the 1998). ng a new mechanism to the inten Enhancing IP for mobility must wes whole network, Special care bs ess Tinks, Many: aly sone compression scheme. applications about mobility (Brewer, Scalability and efficiency: Introdu must not jeopardize its efficiency. @ foo many new messages flooding the bandwidth of wire went point, $0 0 ei to be taken considering the lower wireless link to an attach nay necessary between a mobile sy ana tthe member of computers counted ‘communication, i 12 We mobile compost plane sou inside # systems will have ditional packets should be in the network. Looking @ internet and at the growth rates of mobile s will participate in the internet ite phones, every seat in every PME ‘some IP implementati myriad devi think of cars, trucks, mol world etc, ~ many of them will have @ Scanned with OKEN ScannerMobile network tayey sn atiferent networks and requite mobile fP.fe 4 pet pe sealable over a large namber of Baticipans PL oe anttov ile 1 Nfobility poses many sec y problems. the 1 co Mall the messages telatel (a the management re ne steed. The TP layer must be sure that it it foraaea eat that this host receives the packet. he tt | rine W address OF the tecelver Is correct the pile Sa. packet tora Lean only guaran ci There are Fi oo Wg fake IP addresses or other attacks, Accordin 1 efting r pris is left to higher layers (keep the core of the opts: Maple services to the edge). pore © i to Internet piles. internet simpte, p oal of a mobile IP can be summarized as: ‘supporting end-system ve a enile maintaining scalability, efficiency, and compatibility in ati * sith existing applications and Internet protocols’, r entities and terminology 542 cing defines several entities andl terms needed to unders sel 344 (Perkins, 2002; was RFC 2002; Perkins 195; 5 tes an example scenario. Mobile node (MN): A mobile node is an end-system or router that car "change its point of itichment fo thememet using ieobiet—s ps ts IP address and can continuously communicate wit ssiem in the internet a8 Tong as link layer connec is given. \iobi suerare not necessarily small devices such as laptops with antermo “motile phONEy; a router onboard an aircraft can be a powerful mobile ne Figure 2 Mobile IP cxamae — ener Router ta HA * natwork on Router vo @ Scanned with OKEN Scanner308 Mobile com) nicatio Correspondent node (CN): At least one tion. 1 the following. the CN represen ‘ay hea fixed or mobile node, Home network: The home network is the with respect to its IP address, No mobileife, he Msi hone network MNT ST ag Foreign network: The foreign network is the current andl which Is not the home network. Sh Foreign agent (FA): The FA can provide several services its to the foreign network. The FA can have the c on ting as tunnel endpoint and forwarding packets to the " “The default router for the MN. FAs can ale, Provide security tt they Delong to the foreign network as opposed MN i iting. For mobile IP functioning, FAs are not neces an FA 1 Sto, Ie SOA define HEEN location o¢

‘phat.-revers sggoned DY the FA. T fi Snagent setting he FM n ne FOUN ise izsubnet can now receive dfordign agent. This 5 one Ws @ Scanned with OKEN ScannerMobile communications 4.2. ot soliettation Wve agen ecriscmngl ls bho Ge tie Inter attival titge NHN hae nol evcived a COA by other means, eg, DIC S82othe mobic hotest send based on REC 1256 for router solicitat itation messages, i ie er SON 35 SOOM a8 nner shOURTDE noted that i wireless net WOTKS With me probably with applications requiring continuous packet Streams ey, Intervals between solicitation messages might be too long. Before an is & new address many packets will be lost without additions, mechanism, Ifa node does not receive an answer to its solicitations i ust der of solitations expon avoid flooding th “nium interval between solicitations (typically one can be done anytime, ot ust ifthe MN isnot eon Cay gt After these steps of advertisement ; 2 COA, either one for an. ‘o-located COA, a (rome itor oF Toregn rete) and the capabilities of The next step for the MN is the registi ign network as descri & Hf the COA is at the FA, registration is done as illustrated in Figure 84 fe ‘The MN sends its repstratic Tequest containing the COA (see Figure 83). the TA. which is forwarding the request to.the HA THE NA now ses Sr nobility binding containing the mobile nle's hone Te aadessanT ther sent COA, Additionally the »bility binding contains theliistianmer Jegistration whi Ws heyotiated luting the registration process. Registatoe ‘pines automatically after the lifetime and is deleted; so, “UT NINT should eee plet before expiration. ‘This mechanism is necessary to avoid moti bindings which are no longer used, Alter setting up the mobility binding HA sends a reply message ack to th FA whieh forwa ne PME COAG corlocuted, registration ean he sinypler, few (right). The MNT may send the Fequest directly to the HA an vie ve frat: by the way, 5 AsO the reyistitions procedure for NING retwtig theit home network, Here they ase ‘egister directly with tie FA Howe ithe MN received an agent advertisement from the FA it should rst this FA if the R bits set in the advertisement, @ Scanned with OKEN ScannerMobite network layer ma wot " mens tr ein “of a tenia ts “% ramet thor aru ot 04 to mei cos | eres Registration oust @ Scanned with OKEN Scanner314 reg gure 8.6 Rogitiation mn Table B.1 Exampie n reply codes Mobile communications 6 0 7]n 18 type= a code home addons, homie agent identification Mtieng | | extensions ne denotes the eval of the registration in seconas icates infinity. The hon re One gent is the IP-address of the ne es ang er h registration replies. Ths es, ele aioe registrations. The exter ia Lifeti indicates east contain parameters for autlienticati ~~A registration reply, which is conveyed in a UDP Pe oma field set to 3 and a code indicating the result of the regittaie be "BIS Tgneons Compe cos EERE Table 8.1 gives some example codes, Registration Code —_ Explanation 7 successful oO registration accepted | 1 «registration accepted, but simultaneous medi | bindings unsupported | Genied by FA 65 administratively prohibited | 66 insufficient resources | 67 mobile node failed authentication 68 home agent failed authentication | 69 requested lifetime too long Genicd byHk 129 —_administratively prohibited | 130 insufficient resources | | 131 mobile node failed authentication | 192 ent failed authentication | 133, ification mismatch | 135 @ Scanned with OKEN ScannerVL Wy aw { By ae ) ' Mobite fotwdrie tayo as e field indicates how many oti ome address and hone seconds the 1 RENE ate the oe ively. The 64-bit identifi ation Ts ised to matet registrar A eee ies. The value is based on the jdentitcanareneta team wit Terannihenitication method. Again, the extengi “areteis Tor authentication, : anew 7 saneling and encapsulation 4.6 Tn describes the mechan isms_sised for forw: 58 ng des e mechanisms us tration is valid if it addresses of the MN and The Teg-— 2 ACTOS ATT on an aaa an arding packets by ween LE + an xe OHO The COA, jown in i 8.2, Step2=tetunnebestabtisheresee f v LAR ae packets bet Da tunnel entry“and a tannels - Az pipe 10 : rtpornr. C entering a tunnel are forwarded inside the lunnel and leave the tunnel Kets ae spe. Tuning Sending @ packet through'a tunnel Seaton R the mechanism of takin, Gnd data and putt a part of a racket. The reverse 1 Tow taking a packet lata_part of another packet, Ws catter— ie aio Encapsulation and “decapsulation are the o rations typicatty— eee nien a packet is Aransferred from a higher protocol layer to + lone, from a Tower to & higher layer respectively, Here these functions are ee withitihe same layer. his mechanism is shown in. Figure 8.7 and describe: sthe tunnel entry does. The HA takes the ot h i terion, puts it into the data bart of a new packet and Sets the new IP header in ‘ee ay that the packet Ts routed to the “OA, The new header is also called ieouter header for obvious Teasoiis, Additionally, There Wan tamer header snich can be identical to the original header as this is the ocIMinay puulation, of Wie inner Wi mputed during encapsulation s exactly what the HA riginal packet he MN ay desti- 4.6.1 IPin4P encapsulation There are di ways of performing the encapsulation ne between HA and COA, Mandatory for mobile IP paNeT in KC 2003 (Perkins, 1996b), Figure ‘uinel. The fields follow the standard speciti veded for the tunnel 1S Pie TP encapsutationas 8.8 shows a packet inside the ‘ation of the LP protocol ay detined Fue 4? BP encapsuaton mittens | ounsann | new IP header how data, outer header @ Scanned with OKEN Scannermobile communications ian IF identifica IintP IP checkauny IP neldrenn of HA Care-of address of COA [tant a iP chockourn TOP/UDPY ... payload im RRC 791 (Postel, 1981) and the new interpretation of the former 1 Ds deld in the context of differenitiated services (RFC 2474, Nichols, fai 20 Fe set as follows. The version field ver is 4 for (. lengtlr or tie outer igs of the outer header art Son 4, the internet header Tengtlr UHL) denotes th is om ie inner ead creaximgtormobile Wand are set according to RFC 791. TIL mus tee Sagi so the packet can reach the tunnel endpoint. The next elo sea with IP-in-IP, 16 WHE Type OF the provcor wsed in the IP payload, a Set to 4, the protocol type for IPv4 be because again an IPV4 pace Falon, Checksum calculated as Usa THE MENT HT is outer header. fer ‘as source address (the IP address of the HA) and the tunne eat point as destination address (the COA). If no options follow the outer header, the inner header starts with the same Gelds as just explained. This header remains almost unchanged during encaps: lation, thus showing the orf alsender-CN-and the receiver MN of the packet ange is TTL which 1s decremented by 1. Th means that the whi nisi ingle-hop fronr the originat packets point of view. Tis 'y important feature of tunneling as Tt alfows the NIN fo behave aT were attached to the home network. No matter how ma yy Year hops tne PRK has to take in the tunnel, it is just one (logical) hop away for the MN. Final the payload follows the two headers. For example trea 8.1.6.2 Minimal encapsulation ‘As seen with JP-in-JP encapsulation, several fields are redundant il needed ete, Therelor’, mun ipo S is just copied, fragmentation is often not fe encapsulation (RFC 2004) as shown in Figure g.oisar optional enc tat method for mobile IP (Perkins, 1996c). ‘The tune en ST specified. In this case, the field for the ‘ype of the folfowing header O° — @ Scanned with OKEN ScannerMobile network layer WP address of HA care-of address of COA ie. a protec. |S | reserved eee IP address of MN Seca ee — original sender IP address (f’ S=1) ‘TCP/UDP/.... payload ye minimal en' ncapsulation. le! ‘it i BEF eeded. tthe S itis set, the orignal sender address ofthe GN is Source Is quite often not an option. No field for frag— ‘the inner header and minimal encapsulation does not ted packets. Sue fort ;psulation protocol, The inner header is diff ct ferent type of the following protocol and the address, se routing encapsulation 93 Se capsulation and minimal encapsulation work only for, the = EE psulation scheme also supports other network ayer protocols in ae renal The encapsulation. EE “fone protocol suite into the \d portion of a packet of another Ze rate Clanks, 1994), igure 8.10 shows this procedure. The packet of col suite with the original packet header and data is takert and a new ds Together this Forms te wEW data’ part OF Ehe Tew, =r Finally, the header of the second protocol suite is pat it front: gare 8.11 shows on the left side the fields of a packet Inside the tunnel - rome agent and COA using, GRE_as an encapsulation scheme peconlinng iter header is the standard IP h aden with TA'as source festination address, The protocol type used in this outer wv veneen ome. oC 1701. The ou ssand CO) ‘original hoader | Ea new header ; ql @ 7 Paws 3.9 Figure 8.10 Genetic routing encapsulation ‘Scanned with OKEN Scannermonite comnmnreations n)nis|sfre| rs | ver proton ‘checksum (optional) ose (optionay (optional) Sequence number (opt IP address of CN IP address of MN TCP/UDPY... payload cade is 47 for GRE. The other fields ofthe outer packet, uch as 71 os ‘ed by 1 when the packet is decapsulated to prevent naan The GRE header starts with several flags Indicating W cern z sent or not. A minimal GRE header uses only 4 bytes; neverthelen Gi Sexible enough To include several mechanisms in its header Th7 Orme! if the checksum field-Is present ar valid i checksum he ~ Jose. The R bit indicates if the offset and routing fields are present and oe, velid information. The offset represents the offset in bytes for the hate routing entry. The routing field, if present, has a variable length ana ‘fields for source routing, If the G , the offset eld ISaSO Present ant, vice versa, if the R bit is set, the checksum field must be press any reason for this is to align the following bytes. The checksum fells Valid only if Cis set, and the offset field is valid only if Ris set respective: GRE also offers a key field which may_be used for authentication, If this field is present, the K bit is set, However, the authentication algorithms ace further specified by GRE. The sequence nu mber bit § indicates if the sequent nurober field js present, if the Shit is Set, strict source routing is used. Sequent numbers may be used by a decapsulator to restore packet « der Thiscan Haportant, If a protocol guaranteeing in-order transmission Ws encapsulated ad @ Scanned with OKEN ScannerMobile network ty: a9 weed | vee | ecko fptionad | ~~ rorerowd ft atorad Praurs 8.49 jrotocol Which does not ee guarantee inorder de josits Pte tome exit restore Teena ee aes protocol, eee TH oo eT control field (ee.) 8am impo rat eo 48am fnyportant field that adlitionatl pe SOc trom PANT RTT aal cheapar tation. his nell Rees fe OR eaas The Hume of allowed recursive encapsulation. aa pam encapsulator cs wheter Ts el ‘eauals zero I the 2 aiional encapsulation salloied ~ the packet is eau n ted by one. Otherise the packet wll most ely be di seed See anism prevents indefinite recursive encapsulation whi fs Lath ‘he other schemes if tunnels are set up improperly (e., see , Mg a loop). The default value of this field should be 0, thus 1 of encapsulation. : ‘intain “ist 6 P0 ya decreme ‘ocol of the packet followin; der, Several EE reh, ©, 0% 6558 for transparent ‘bridging using a GRE se of a mobile IP tunnel, the protocol field contains 0 x 800 for Ip. fj neader of the original packet follows with the source address * Sepondent node and the destination address of the mobile node. rr g.12 shows the simplified header of GRE following REC 2784 fa sq), which is a more generalized version of GRE compared to REC Zesjon does not address mutual encapsulation and ignores several pose. The field C indicates again if a checksum TT alspecific nuances on Pur athe next 5 Dits are set to 7er0, then 7 reserved bits follow. The ver- ‘reid contains the value zero. The protocol type, again, defines the ve 7a) of the payload following RFC 3232 (Reynolds, 2002). If the flag C is set, oe eexsum field and a field called reserved follows. “The latter field is con: veo set to 2er0 follow. RFC 2784 deprecales several fields of REC 1701, but ss poperate with RFC 1701-compliant implementations Nite? oye stander 147 Optimizations wane the following, scenario. A Japanese and a Geena 0 oth want to use their Japtops for exchangiag data, Doth run mobile gure 8.2 ancl think of the way the packets weet at a conference sth “tx mobility support. Now recall stween both computers take. ithe Japanese sends a packet to U a the German, be,, froin await to Geen