Energy and Power Engineering, 2017, 9, 217-231

http://www.scirp.org/journal/epe
ISSN Online: 1947-3818
ISSN Print: 1949-243X

Impact of Accelerated Stresses on Power

Transformer Insulation

Jashandeep Singh1, Yog Raj Sood2, Piush Verma1

1
Rayat-Bahra Group of Institution, Patiala, Punjab, India
2
NIT, Puducherry, India

How to cite this paper: Singh, J., Sood, Abstract

Y.R. and Verma, P. (2017) Impact of Acce-
lerated Stresses on Power Transformer The paper is based on the experimental investigation of accelerated stresses on
Insulation. Energy and Power Engineering, insulation of power transformer. The effects of individual thermal and elec-
9, 217-231. trical stresses have been graphically presented. The factors accelerated thermal
https://doi.org/10.4236/epe.2017.94015
aging factor (ATAF) and accelerated electrical aging factor (AEAF) have been
Received: July 18, 2017 introduced, it helps to understand the contribution of thermal and electrical
Accepted: April 17, 2017 stresses and degradation trends of insulating properties. The accelerated aging
Published: April 20, 2017 factors have been mathematically correlated with different properties of insu-
lation such as moisture, breakdown voltage (BDV), tan delta and resistivity.
Copyright © 2017 by authors and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
These parameters were determined experimentally for fresh oil samples and
This work is licensed under the Creative for samples subjected to accelerated aging.
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0). Keywords
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Open Access Accelerated Thermal Aging Factor (ATAF), Accelerated Electrical Aging
Factor (AEAF), Moisture, Breakdown Voltage (BDV), Resistivity, Tan Delta

1. Introduction
The insulation of power transformer degraded under a combination of various
stresses. The stresses reduce the dielectric capability of a transformer and increase
the probability of failure. In this paper, the impact of accelerated stresses of power
transformer insulation is presented. The various parameters used to measure these
impacts are moisture, breakdown voltage (BDV), tan δ and resistivity [1].

2. Experimentation
To measure the impact of accelerated thermal and electrical stresses on the
transformer insulating oil, the special test cell shown in Figure 1 has been fabri-
cated. The capacity of the test cell was 3 liters. The description of test cell is given
in Table 1 [2].

DOI: 10.4236/epe.2017.94015 April 20, 2017

J. Singh et al.

Figure 1. Test cell set up.

Table 1. Description of test cell.

Description Material Dimension

Cover plate Mica sheet 5 mm
Sealing ring Silicone rubber 5 mm
Tank Mild steel (Coated with enamel paint) 235 mm × 100 mm × 150 mm
Round stud and nut Copper
Bolt Mild steel
Transformer oil As per IS: 335 - 1993 (2005) 3 liter/cell

Copper strip
Copper 205 mm × 12.5 mm × 1.96 mm
without paper wrapped

Electrical grade paper,

Insulating paper
as per IS 9335-1993

3. Accelerated Aging Factors

The aging of transformer insulation is intimately connected with the magnitude
and duration of stresses. To understand the effect of thermal and electrical
stresses on transformer insulation, accelerated thermal aging factor (ATAF) and
accelerated electrical aging factor (AEAF) have been introduced:
ATAF= T × D , unit is degree C-hours (˚C-hr) (5)
AEAF= E × D , unit is kV/mm-hours (kV/mm⋅hr) (6)
where T is temperature in ˚C, D is the duration of stresses in hours and E is
electrical stresses in kV/mm.
Both factors help in generating the mathematical equation which helps in dif-
ferentiate the degradation trends. The thermal stresses of 190˚C, 200˚C and
210˚C and electrical stresses of 2 kV/mm, 4 kV/mm and 6 kV/mm were used.
The electrical stresses have been performed at room temperature. The ATAF
and AEAF were calculated using Equations (1) and (2) and results are shown in
Table 2 and Table 3 [2].

218
 J. Singh et al.

Table 2. Accelerated Thermal Aging Factor (ATAF).

Temperature (˚C) Aging (hours) ATAF (˚C-hr)

190 150 ATAF1 = 28,500

200 150 ATAF2 = 30,000

210 150 ATAF3 = 31,500

190 300 ATAF4 = 57,000

200 300 ATAF5 = 60,000

210 300 ATAF6 = 63,000

190 450 ATAF7 = 85,500

200 450 ATAF8 = 90,000

210 450 ATAF9 = 94,500

190 600 ATAF10 = 114,000

200 600 ATAF11 = 120,000

210 600 ATAF12 = 126,000

190 750 ATAF13 = 142,500

200 750 ATAF14 = 150,000

210 750 ATAF15 = 157,500

Table 3. Accelerated Electrical Aging Factor (AEAF).

Electrical stress (kV/mm) Aging (hours) AEAF (kV/mm-hr)

2 150 AEAF1 = 300

2 300
AEAF2 = 600
4 150
2 450
AEAF3 = 900
6 150
2 600
AEAF4 = 1200
4 300
2 750 AEAF5 = 1500
4 450
AEAF6 = 1800
6 300

4 600 AEAF7 = 2400

6 450 AEAF8 = 2700

4 750 AEAF9 = 3000

6 600 AEAF10 = 3600

6 750 AEAF11 = 4500

4. Moisture Content
The virgin insulating oil and paper have moisture content of 50 ppm and about
0.5% by weight respectively. Moisture in the transformer reduces the insulation
strength. The main reasons for moisture content changes over the life cycle are:

219
J. Singh et al.

moisture interactivity with environment due to leakage, additional moisture

generation due to chemical reactions [3], transformer breathing, decomposing
the cellulosic materials under stresses, aging phenomena, exposure to atmos-
pheric moisture during maintenance, failure to dry out the insulation during
manufacturing [4]. The moisture content is a life-shortening parameter. It can
weakens the withstand breakdown voltage of the insulation system [5], promotes
local heating, reduces the overload capability of transformers in emergency con-
ditions [6], accelerates the process of insulation deterioration [5], decreasing the
electrical and mechanical strength [7]. Electrical or partial discharges can occur
in a high voltage region due to a disturbance of the moisture equilibrium [8] [9]
increase the electrical conductivity and dissipation factor. According to Fabre
[10], the rate of thermal aging of paper is proportional to its moisture content.
Moisture in transformer oil can also lead to partial discharge, bubble formation
when high temperatures are attained in the winding and an abrupt desorption of
moisture takes place from the paper toward the oil [9]. Moisture is a polar liquid
having high permittivity and therefore is attracted to areas of strong electrical
field [11]. As the transformer warms up, moisture migrates from the solid insu-
lation into the fluid. The rate of migration depends on the conductor tempera-
ture and the rate-of-change of conductor temperature. The moisture moving
between the cellulose and oil are different for each direction as the moisture in
the cellulose is not evenly distributed. The migration of small amounts of mois-
ture from paper to oil has been associated with the phenomenon of static electri-
fication appearing when there is a charge accumulation on the interfaces be-
tween dry and humid zones [12] [13]. Moisture transfer can be activated by
moisture concentration gradient, temperature gradient and pressure gradient
[13]. In addition dissolved moisture in oil can precipitate out during rapid cool
down periods and become free water which may or may not re-dissolve [14].
Excessive amounts of moisture can accelerate the degradation process of the
cellulose and prematurely aged the transformers insulation system [14].
The moisture in cellulosic insulation may be determined from moisture in oil
samples using oil/paper moisture equilibrium curves such as Fabre-Pichon
curves, Oommen curves, Griffin curves, MIT curves [11] [16] Infra red tech-
niques (IR) and Interfacial polarization (IP) [17] [18] [19].

5. Breakdown Voltage (BDV)

The breakdown voltage (BDV) is an important parameter to gauge the condition
of oil. The BDV of oil is high when it is dry and clean, it goes down slowly as the
moisture contents and conducting impurities increase as a result of oxidation of
oil [20]. The BDV decreases consistently with aging because of release of mois-
ture in the oil, due to increase in the size and number density of free particles
generated due to dissolved gases and polar compounds, etc. [21]. The BDV bears
a non-linear relationship with aging [20]. The breakdown characteristics depend
on initial moisture of the insulation, initial temperature and temperature gra-
dient.

220
 J. Singh et al.

6. Results and Discussions

A. MOISTURE CONTENTS
The moisture of oil sample has been measured by automatic coulometric karl
fischer titration equipment. As per IS 335:2005 and IS 13567:1992, moisture
content in virgin oil should not be more than 50 ppm. Figure 2 indicates the
variation of moisture content with aging at 190˚C, 200˚C and 210˚C. The insula-
tion was aged at 0, 150, 300, 450, 600 and 750 hours. The moisture content of
virgin oil sample was 32.8 ppm. It increased to maximum value of 67.6 ppm at
210˚C after 750 hours of aging. Figure 3 indicates the graphical representation
of moisture with ATAF. The most affective prediction model is with R2 = 93.3%.
The mathematical correlation between moisture and ATAF is shown in Equa-
tion (1):

Figure 2. Variation of moisture with aging at 190˚C, 200˚C and 210˚C.

Figure 3. Correlation between moisture and ATAF.

221
J. Singh et al.

( )
Moisture = −8 × 10−10 ATAF2 + 0.0003ATAF + 33.33 (1)

In Figure 4, the variation of moisture with aging and electrical stresses of 2

kV/mm, 4 kV/mm and 6 kV/mm have been presented. The insulation was aged
at 0, 150, 300, 450, 600 and 750 hours. The maximum increase of moisture con-
tent is 61.7 ppm at 6 kV/mm after 750 hours of aging. It indicates that the mois-
ture content increases during thermal and electrical stress with aging.
Figure 5 shows the correlation between moisture and AEAF. The most effec-
tive prediction model is found with R2 = 94.5%. The mathematical correlation
generated between moisture and AEAF is shown in Equation (2):
Moisture =−2 × 10−6 AEAF2 + 0.013AEAF + 35.10 (2)

Figure 4. Variation of moisture with aging at 2 kV/mm, 4 kV/mm and 6 kV/mm.

Figure 5. Correlation between moisture and AEAF.

222
 J. Singh et al.

According to Fofana [22], due to aging process, the decomposition of hydro-

carbon molecules takes place by thermal and electric stresses. The energy re-
quired for the decomposition of weakly bonded hydrocarbons is supplied by the
high voltage stress. The absorption of large amount of energy causes excitation
of molecules, which in certain cases leads to the hemolytic breakdown of weak
chemical bonds generating “gases” (along with low molecular weight hydrocar-
bons)”. When this process takes place, the evolved gases leave the broken mole-
cules in the liquid phase, which act as free radical, and there is high probability
that it will react with other similar free radical which is no longer soluble in the
blend of hydrocarbons. Due to the decomposition of long hydrocarbon chains
that leave molecules with a broken covalent bond in the oil, it increases the
conductivity which further affects the moisture and breakdown.
B. BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE (BDV)
The BDV of oil sample have been measured by oil breakdown test set [23]. As
per IS 335:2005 and 6792:1972, BDV of new oil should be 30 kV (rms) mini-
mum.
Figure 6 indicates the variation of BDV with aging for 190˚C, 200˚C and
210˚C. The BDV of virgin oil sample was 45.2 kV. After 750 hours of aging, the
BDV decreases to 13.1 kV at 210˚C. The scattered results in Figure 7 indicate
that the BDV decreases with increase in ATAF. The most effective prediction
model is found with R2=92.9%. The Equation (3) represents the mathematical
correlation between BDV and ATAF.
( )
1 × 10−09 ATAF2 − 0.0004ATAF + 44.13
BDV = (3)

Figure 8 indicates that the variation of the BDV with aging for 2, 4 and 6
kV/mm. After 750 hours of electrical stress, the maximum decrease of BDV is
29.4 kV at 6 kV/mm. Figure 9 exhibits a decreasing pattern of AEAF wih BDV
[24]. The most effective prediction model is found with R2=91.9%. The Equa-

Figure 6. Variation of BDV with aging at 190˚C, 200˚C and 210˚C.

223
J. Singh et al.

Figure 7. Correlation between BDV and ATAF.

Figure 8. Variation of BDV with aging at 2 kV/mm, 4 kV/mm and 6 kV/mm.

Figure 9. Correlation between BDV and AEAF.

224
 J. Singh et al.

tion (4) represents the mathematical correlation between BDV and AEAF.
( )
1 × 10−06 AEAF2 − 0.009AEAF + 51.81
BDV = (4)

7. Dielectric Dissipation Factor or Tan Delta

The tan δ is very important parameter to measure the quality of the insulation.
The variation of tan δ with applied voltage provides useful information about
the source of any imperfection in the insulation. It increases with insulation de-
terioration and serves as an early indicator of failure hazards. A low value of tan
δ is generally desirable. The high value of tan δ gives an early indication of the
contamination and presence of moisture content, conductive contamination,
soluble varnishes, resins etc. [25].

8. Resistivity
Resistivity is the most sensitive property of oil, it varies with temperature. It is
desirable to have resistivity of oil as high as possible. It reduces considerably due
to presence of moisture, acidity and solid contaminants [17] [26]. High resistivi-
ty reflects low content of free ions and ion-forming particles, and indicates a low
concentration of conductive contaminants [27]. Contamination of oil, which
would not otherwise be detected by acidity test, will immediately be detected by
the changes in the value of resistivity.

9. Results and Discussions

A. Resistivity
The resistivity of oil sample has been measured by Automatic dielectric con-
stant, tan delta and resistivity (ADTR-2K) equipment. As per IS 335:2005 and IS
6103:1971, the resistivity of fresh oil is 35 TOhm-cm (35 × 1012 Ohm-cm) at
90˚C, minimum.
Figure 10 indicates the variation of resistivity with aging for 190˚C, 200˚C and
210˚C respectively. The resistivity of fresh oil sample at 90˚C was very high,

Figure 10. Variation of resistivity with aging at 190˚C, 200˚C and 210˚C.

225
J. Singh et al.

so it should be neglected in the graphical representation. After 750 hours of ag-

ing, maximum decrease of resistivity was 1.374 TOhm-cm at 210˚C. The results
of Figure 11 indicate that resistivity decreases with ATAF. The most effective
prediction model is found with R2=94.4%. The mathematical correlation gener-
ated between resistivity and ATAF is given in Equation (5):

( )
1 × 10−09 ATAF2 − 0.0004ATAF + 29.67
Resisivity = (5)

Figure 12 indicates the variation of resistivity with aging for 2, 4 and 6

kV/mm. After 750 hours of aging under electrical stresses, maximum decrease in
resistivity was 2.087 TOhm-cm at 6 kV/mm. The non-linear relation of resistivi-
ty with AEAF is shown in Figure 13. The most effective prediction model is

Figure 11. Correlation between resistivity with ATAF.

Figure 12. Variation of resistivity with aging at 2 kV/mm, 4 kV/mm and 6 kV/mm.

226
 J. Singh et al.

Figure 13. Correlation between resistivity and AEAF.

found with R2 = 94.9%. The mathematical correlation generated between resis-

tivity and AEAF is given in Equation (6):
(5 × 10−06 )AEAF2 − 0.037AEAF + 72.23
Resisivity = (6)

B. Dielectric Dissipation Factor (DDF) or Tan Delta

Figure 14 shows the variation of tan δ with aging for thermal stresses at
190˚C, 200˚C and 210˚C. The tan δ of oil sample has been measured by Auto-
matic dielectric constant, tan delta and resistivity (ADTR-2K) equipment. As per
IS 6262:1971 and IS 335:2005, good oil should have tan δ of 0.002 (maximum) at
90˚C. In our finding, tan δ of fresh oil sample at 90˚C was 0.00216. After 750
hours of aging, the maximum increase of tan δ was 0.1067 at 210˚C.
The scattered results of Figure 15 indicate that tan δ increases with ATAF.
There is generally a relationship between tan δ and resistivity, both being af-
fected by same contaminants. A decrease in resistivity is coupled with an in-
crease in tan δ. The most effective prediction model is found with R2=95.1%.
The mathematical correlation generated between tan δ and ATAF is shown in
Equation (7):
( ) ( )
tan δ = 8 × 10−12 ATAF2 − 6 × 10−07 ATAF + 0.013 (7)

Figure 16 indicates the variation of tan δ with aging for 2, 4 and 6 kV/mm.
After 750 hours of electrical stress, maximum increase of tan δ was 0.031 at 6
kV/mm. It indicates that tan δ is affected by aging, thermal stresses and electrical
stresses. In Figure 17, resistivity increases polynomial with accelerated electrical
stresses. The most effective prediction model is found with R2 = 94.3%. The ma-
thematical correlation generated between tan δ and AEAF is shown in Equation
8:
( ) ( )
tan δ = 1 × 10−09 AEAF2 + 1 × 10−06 AEAF + 0.001 (8)

227
J. Singh et al.

Figure 14. Variation of tan δ with aging at 190˚C, 200˚C and 210˚C.

Figure 15. Correlation between tan δ and ATAF.

Figure 16. Variation of tan δ with aging at 2, 4 and 6 kV/mm.

228
 J. Singh et al.

Figure 17. Correlation between tan δ and AEAF.

10. Conclusions
The effect of thermal and electrical stresses on the transformer oil has been ex-
perimentally investigated in this paper. The term accelerated thermal aging fac-
tor (ATAF) and accelerated electrical aging factor (AEAF) have been introduced
in order to quantify the thermal and electrical stresses. The graphically repre-
sentation between moisture, BDV, tan delta and resistivity with aging, ATAF
and AEAF has been presented. It is presented that as the moisture increases with
ATAF and AEAF, the BDV decreases in same pattern. Similarly as tan delta in-
creases with ATAF and AEAF, resistivity decreases with same pattern. It is due
to the fact that these properties are affected by the same contaminants.
This paper contributes that electrical stresses also play an important role in
the degradation of the insulation along with thermal stresses but the degradation
of insulation by thermal stresses is comparatively more as compared to electrical
stresses. Further, all the properties were correlated with ATAF and AEAF and
mathematical correlation has been generated.

Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to Punjab Technical University, Jalandhar & Technol-
ogy Information Forecasting and Assessment Council and Centers of Relevance
and Excellence (TIFAC-CORE) on Power Transformer Diagnostics and Dr. R.
K. Jarial, Associate Professor and Office-in-charge, HV Lab, NIT Hamirpur for
providing necessary infrastructural facilities for carrying out the research work.

References
[1] Emsley, A.M. and Stevens, G.C. (1992) A Reassessment of the Low Temperature
Thermal Degradation of Cellulose. International Conference on Dielectric Mate-

229
J. Singh et al.

rials, Measurements and Applications, Manchester, 7-10 September 1992, 229-232.

[2] Singh, J., Sood, Y.R. and Verma, P. (2011) Experimental Investigation Using Acce-
lerated Aging Factors on Dielectric Properties of Transformer Insulating Oil. Elec-
tric Power Components and Systems, 39, 1045-1059.
[3] Buerschaper, B., Kleboth-Lugova, O. and Leibfried, T. (2003) The Electrical
Strength of Transformer Oil in a Transformer Board-Oil System during Moisture
Non-Equilibrium. The Conference on Electrical Insulation and Dielectric Pheno-
mena, Albuquerque, 19-22 October 2003, 269-272.
[4] Singh, J., Sood, Y.R. and Verma, P. (2012) The Influence of Service Aging on
Transformer Insulating Oil Parameters. IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Elec-
trical Insulation, 19, 421-426.
[5] Akbari, A., Dehpahlevan, S. and Borsi, H. (2006) Analyzing Dynamic of Moisture
Equilibrium in Oil-Paper Insulation in Power Transformers for Efficient Drying.
The Conference on Electrical Insulation and Dielectric Phenomena, Kansas City,
15-18 October 2006, 545-548. https://doi.org/10.1109/ceidp.2006.311990
[6] Gupta, B.K. (1998) Direct Determination of Moisture in Solid Oil-Paper Insulation.
IEEE International Symposium on Electrical Insulation, Arlington, 7-10 June 1998,
583-586. https://doi.org/10.1109/elinsl.1998.694860
[7] Clark, F.M. (1942) Factors Affecting the Mechanical Deterioration of Cellulose In-
sulation. Transaction on Electrical Engineering, 61, 742-749.
[8] Moser, H.P. (1979) Transformer Board, Special Print of Scientia Electrica.
[9] Garcia, B., Burgos, J.C., Alonso, A.M. and Sanz, J. (2005) A Moisture-in-Oil Model
for Power Transformer Monitoring—Part I: Theoretical Foundation. IEEE Transac-
tions on Power Delivery, 20, 1417-1422.
[10] Fabre, J. and Pichon, A. (1969) Deteriorating Processes and Products of Paper in Oil
Application to Transformers. International Conference on Large High Voltage
Electric Systems, Paris, Paper 137.
[11] Pahlavanpour, M. and Eklund, M. (2003) Study of Moisture Equilibrium in Oil-
Paper System with Temperature Variation. International Conference on Properties
and Applications of Dielectric Materials, Vol. 3, Nagoya, 1-5 June 2003, 1124-1129.
[12] Morin, A.J., Zahn, M. and Melcher, J.R. (1991) Fluid Electrification Measurements
of Transformer Pressboard/Oil Insulation in a Couette Charge. IEEE Transactions
on Electrical Insulation, 26, 870-901.
[13] Washabaugh, A.P., von Guggenberg, P.A., Zahn, M. and Melcher, J. (1991) Tem-
perature and Moisture Transient Flow Electrification Measurements of Transformer
Pressboard/Oil Insulation Using a Couette Facility. International Conference on
Properties and Applications of Dielectric Materials, Vol. 2, Tokyo, 8-12 July 1991,
870-901.
[14] Ward, B.H. (2001) A Survey of New Techniques in Insulation Monitoring of Power
Transformers. IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, 17, 16-23.
[15] Chu, D. and Lux, A. (1999) On-Line Monitoring of Power Transformers and Com-
ponents: A Review of Key Parameters. Proceedings: Electrical Insulation Confe-
rence and Electrical Manufacturing and Coil Winding Conference, Cincinnati, 28
October 1999, 669-675. https://doi.org/10.1109/EEIC.1999.826290
[16] Du, Y., Zahn, M., Lesieutm, B.C., Mamishev, A.V. and Lindgren, S.R. (1999) Mois-
ture Equilibrium in Transformer Paper-Oil Systems. IEEE Electrical Insulation
Magazine, 15, 11-20.
[17] Darveniza, M., Saha, T.K., Hill, D.J.T. and Le, T.T. (1998) Investigations into Effec-
tive Methods for Assessing the Condition of Insulation in Aged Power Transfor-

230
 J. Singh et al.

mers. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, 13, 1214-1223.

[18] Griffin, P.J. (1996) Water in Transformers—So What! National Grid Cond.
[19] Oommen, T.V. (1983) Moisture Equilibrium in Paper-Oil Insulation Systems. Elec-
trical/Electronics Insulation Conference, Chicago, 3-6 October 1983, 162-166.
[20] Pradhan, M.K. and Ramu, T.S. (2004) Criteria for Estimation of End of Life of
Power and Station Transformers in Service. Electrical Insulation and Dielectric
Phenomena, Boulder, 17-20 October 2004, 220-223.
https://doi.org/10.1109/ceidp.2004.1364228
[21] Arakelian, V.G. and Fofana, I. (2007) Water in Oil-Filled High-Voltage Equipment
Part I: Water Content as Physicochemical Tools for Insulation Condition Diagnos-
tic. IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, 23, 15-24.
[22] Fofana, I., N’cho, J.S., Aka-Ngnui, T. and Beroual, A. (2010) Effect of Electrical
Discharge on Oil Decaying Process. International Conference on High Voltage En-
gineering and Application, New Orleans, 11-14 October 2010, 564-567.
[23] Myers, C. (1998) Transformer-Condition Monitoring by Oil Analysis Large or
Small Contentment or Catastrophe. 1st IEE/IMechE International Conference on
Power Station Maintenance-Profitability through Reliability, Edinburgh, 30 March-
1 April 1998, 53-58. https://doi.org/10.1049/cp:19980061
[24] Pradhan, M.K. (2006) Assessment of the Status of Insulation during Thermal Stress
Accelerated Experiments on Transformer Prototypes. IEEE Transactions on Dielec-
trics and Electrical Insulation, 13, 227-237.
[25] American Standard, ASTM D 924:04, “Standard Test Method for Dissipation Factor
(or Power Factor) and Relative Permittivity (Dielectric Constant) of Electrical Insu-
lating Liquids”.
[26] Verma, P., Roy, M., Verma, A., Bhanot, V. and Pandey, O.P. (2005) Changes in
Electrical and Chemical Properties of Transformer Oil under Accelerated Thermal
Stress and Its Service Life. Rhinology International Journal, 8, 42-48.
[27] Indian Standard, IS 6103:1971, “Method of Test for Specific Resistance (Resistivity)
of Electrical Insulating Liquids”.

Submit or recommend next manuscript to SCIRP and we will provide best

service for you:
Accepting pre-submission inquiries through Email, Facebook, LinkedIn, Twitter, etc.
A wide selection of journals (inclusive of 9 subjects, more than 200 journals)
Providing 24-hour high-quality service
User-friendly online submission system
Fair and swift peer-review system
Efficient typesetting and proofreading procedure
Display of the result of downloads and visits, as well as the number of cited articles
Maximum dissemination of your research work
Submit your manuscript at: http://papersubmission.scirp.org/
Or contact epe@scirp.org

231