Submarine Main Propulsion Diesels - Chapter 1

10/27/23, 2:22 PM Submarine Main Propulsion Diesels - Chapter 1
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1
DIESEL ENGINE PRINCIPLES
A. DEVELOPMENT
1A1. General. In order that the The next notable achievement in

function and operation of submarine improving the efficiency of the internal
diesel engines may be thoroughly combustion engine was the Hornsby-
understood, it is necessary to describe Ackroyd engine produced in England a
briefly the history and development short while later. It was among the first
leading to modern design. early designed engines that used a liquid
fuel derived from crude oil. This engine
It is significant that the diesel engine is employed the Brayton principle of
an outgrowth of the early struggle to controlled fuel injection and compressed
improve the efficiency of existing types the air in the cylinder prior to ignition.
of other internal combustion engines. The compression heat thus generated,
Today's fleet type submarine diesel plus the use of a hot surface, induced
engines are indirectly the result of ignition. Since this engine employed
widespread experimentation in both the hydraulic force to inject the fuel, it is
Otto (gasoline) engine field and the now considered the first example of an
more recently developed diesel engine engine using mechanical or solid
field. Basically, however, the principles injection.
of operation have not changed
materially since the first practical In 1893, Dr. Rudolf Diesel, a Bavarian
models of the early designs. scientist, patented a design for an internal
combustion engine which was termed a
Among the contributors to progress in Diesel engine. He considered previous
the development of diesel engines has failures and applied himself to designing
been the Submarine Service of the an engine to operate on an entirely
United States Navy. Keen interest and different thermodynamic principle.
untiring effort, not to mention risk in
experimentation, testing, and correcting Using the mechanics of the 4-stroke
design, have given unparalleled cycle, Dr. Diesel proposed that only air
impetus toward improved design. be drawn into the cylinder during the
suction or intake stroke. The compression
1A2. History of diesel engine stroke was to compress the air in the
development. The reciprocating cylinder to a sufficiently high
internal combustion engine was temperature to induce ignition and
introduced in theory as far back as 1862 combustion without the use of added
by Beau de Roches in France. A few heat. Like Brayton's engine, this engine
years later, Otto, of Germany, made the was to inject fuel at a controlled rate. It
first practical application of Beau de was Dr. Diesel's theory that if the rate of
Roches's theory in an actual working injection were properly controlled during
model. Otto's engine was practicable the combustion phase, combustion could
and fairly reliable compared to other be made to occur at a constant
earlier attempts. It employed a 4-stroke temperature. Since fuel would have to be
cycle of operation using gas as a fuel. injected against high compression
Thus, the 4-stroke cycle of a gas engine pressures in the cylinder, Dr. Diesel's
https://maritime.org/doc/fleetsub/diesel/chap1.php 1/23
became popularly known as an Otto design called for fuel injection to be

cycle. accomplished by a blast of highly
compressed air. Essentially, this was air
George Brayton, an American, injection. Dr. Diesel further theorized
introduced a new principle of fuel that the temperature drop during the
injection in 1872. Brayton used an expansion phase of the cycle would be
internal combustion gas engine in his efficient to make external cooling of the
experiments. He demonstrated that combustion chamber unnecessary.
prolonging the combustion phase of the
cycle, by injecting fuel at a controlled A single-cylinder working model was
rate, produced more power per unit of constructed and first experiments were
fuel consumed. However, much of the conducted using coal dust as a fuel. All
efficiency gained by this method was efforts to operate
lost due to the lack of an adequate
method of compressing the fuel mixture
prior to ignition.
a working model on the cycle proposed and, in addition, many of these engines
by Dr. Diesel resulted in explosions and gave off considerable carbon monoxide
failure. Further attempts to experiment fumes, creating a menace to personnel.
along this same line were abandoned.
Consequently, an engine operating In the meantime, MAN built and
entirely on the theoretical cycle experimented with 2-stroke cycle diesel
proposed by Dr. Diesel was never engines for submarine propulsion.
produced. This cycle subsequently However, insufficient progress had been
became known as the diesel cycle. made in metallurgy to provide metals
capable of withstanding the greater heat
Many designers realized the value of and stress inherent in engines of this
the practical elements in the cycle of type. MAN then turned its efforts toward
operation outlined by Dr. Diesel. production of a 4-stroke cycle diesel
Subsequently, experimenters began to engine capable of developing 1000 hp.
achieve favorable results by eliminating While fairly successful, these engines
the impractical elements and by altering eventually developed structural
the cycle of operation. Successful weaknesses at the crankcase.
experiments were conducted by the
Machinen-fabrik-Augsburg-Nurnberg By 1914 the MAN 4-stroke cycle diesel
(commonly called MAN) concern in had been partially redesigned and
Germany. strengthened, producing the SV45/42,
1200-hp engine used in the majority of
By this time the more volatile German submarines during World War I.
petroleum fuels were in common use Following World War I, the United States
and diesel engines utilizing liquid fuel Navy acquired a number of these engines
were designed. These engines operated for use in the earlier S-class boats. A
on a cycle in which the combustion copy of this engine was produced by the
phase occurred at constant pressure New York Navy Yard and used in other
rather than at constant temperature. early S-class submarines.
Experience also disclosed that it was
essential to cool the combustion The Electric Boat Company, which was
chamber externally. Early diesel formerly the Holland Torpedo Boat
engines operating on the constant Company, became licensee in the United
States for the MAN Company of
Germany. Later, the Electric Boat
pressure cycle, were efficient enough to Company consolidated with the New
make commercial production feasible. London Ship and Engine Company.
Shortly before World War I, the Electric
Progress in diesel engine design has Boat Company developed the well-
been rapid since the early models were known NELSECO engine. During, and
introduced. The impetus of war subsequent to World War I, a number of
demands, progress in metallurgy, United States submarines of the O, R,
fabrication, and engineering, and and S classes were equipped with these
refinements in fuels and lubricants have NELSECO engines. In fact, the principal
all served to produce modern, high- installations in United States submarines
speed diesel engines of exceptional were 6- and 8-cylinder NELSECO's until
efficiency. about 1934.
1A3. History of submarine engine Prior to 1930 the engines used in most
development. The first United States submarines of all the larger naval
submarines utilizing internal powers, with the exception of Great
combustion engines for propulsion Britain, were 4-stroke cycle diesel
were powered by 45-horsepower, 2- engines. The United States Navy,
cylinder, 4-stroke cycle gasoline however, experimented with a 2-stroke
engines produced by the Otto Company cycle Busch-Sulzer engine and equipped
of Philadelphia. Meanwhile, the a number of boats with this type of
English Submarine Service made use of engine. Since then, the majority of
12- and 16-cylinder gasoline engines in engines designed for United States
their earlier submarines. submarine use have been of the 2-stroke
cycle type.
The inherent hazards accompanying the
use of such a highly volatile fuel as
gasoline were quickly realized.
Stowage was a constant problem and
handling of the fuel was extremely
dangerous. Internal explosions were
frequent
Prior to 1929, all engines in the United 1A4. How submarine requirements
States Submarine Service were of the affect engine design. The fact that
air injection type. Shortly after 1929, submarines are both subsurface and
mechanical or solid type injection was surface vessels places definite restrictions
employed on MAN engines. The upon size, hull design, and shape. Total
advantages to be obtained with this weight, too, is a factor having
type of injection were immediately considerable bearing on underwater
apparent. By using solid type injection, operations. Hull characteristics restrict
the weight of the engines could be engine size and location of the engine
considerably reduced. The elimination compartments. Engine weight must bear
of the air compressor alone accounted a proportionate relationship to the weight
for a saving in weight of approximately and displacement of the vessel as well as
14 percent. to power requirements.
The advantages derived from the use of In the first engine-powered submarines,
mechanical injection were numerous the engines were mechanically connected
and included: directly to the propeller shafting. This
design, known as direct drive, developed
immediate operational problems. The
1. simplification of design hull characteristics definitely fixed the

2. reduction in length of the engine angle of the propeller shafting. This
3. greatly reduced weight per restriction also determined engine
horsepower position and location. Also, the most
4. reduced fuel consumption efficient propeller speeds did not
5. improved load balance in the correspond with the most efficient engine
engine speeds. In direct drive installations,
6. far greater reliability critical speeds (or synchronous torsional
7. less maintenance vibrations) which were inherent in the
early model engines, were transferred
The need for more powerful engines through the direct drive into shafting and
became apparent with the development propellers. At times, the exact cruising
of the fleet type submarine. The three speed desired could not be obtained, as it
engines that seemed to fulfill submarine was necessary to pass the engines
requirements were the Winton V-type, through critical speeds in the desired
now known as the General Motors operating range as rapidly as possible.
engine; the Fairbanks-Morse opposed Two major problems were brought to the
piston type; and the Hooven-Owen- foreground by these early models:
Rentschler double-acting type engine.
Of these, the HOR was later removed 1. How to power the propellers and yet
from submarines in favor of the separate engines and propeller shafting
General Motors and Fairbanks-Morse so that no mechanical unity existed.
engines which are now the two standard
submarine engines. 2. How to design a drive in which
different and varied rotative speeds could
At the present time, the General Motors be selected for both engines and
Corporation manufactures 16-cylinder, propellers.
single-acting engines rated at 1600
Various types and combinations of drives
brake horsepower (bhp) for main
engine installations, and 8-cylinder were designed and tested. Over a period
engines for auxiliary installations. of time it became apparent that the
Fairbanks Morse and Company electric drive installations (commonly
manufactures 9- and 10-cylinder, referred to as diesel-electric drive) were
the practical solution. This type of design
opposed piston engines rated at 1600
bhp for main engine installations, and solved both of the major problems. The
7-cylinder, opposed piston engines for engines were coupled only to the
auxiliary installations. These engines generators that supplied power to the
have proved most efficient. They weigh electric motors. The propeller shafting
as little as 15 to 20 pounds per bhp was driven by the motors through
including auxiliary equipment. reduction gears or directly
Standardizing on only two designs has
also made it possible to mass produce
engines with a minimum amount of
delay and difficulty.
by slow-speed electric motors. The only 1. The engine should furnish maximum
connections between engine power and amount of power with minimum weight
propeller shafting were electrical. and space requirement.
Hence, vibrations developed by the
engines could not be conducted to the 2. The engine should possess the ability
propeller shafting and propellers, and to develop occasionally more than full
the various stresses encountered by the load rating.

propellers could not be transmitted
directly to the engines as was the case 3. The engine should have the ability to
with mechanical couplings. run continuously at slightly less than full
load rating.
In addition, the rotative speed of the
engine was no longer limited by the 4. The engine should operate with small
rpm of the propellers. Consequently, fuel consumption per unit of horsepower.
the engines could be designed for any
desired speed within a selected range. 5. The engine should have a small
Likewise, the propellers could be lubricating oil consumption.
operated independently of engine speed
within the speed limits of their design. 6. All wearing parts should be readily
The diesel-electric drive gave greater accessible for quick replacement.
latitude to designers with respect to
7. There should be perfect balance with
operating speed, size, and location of
engines. It also gave the boat designers respect to primary and secondary forces
greater freedom in placement of engine and couples.
compartments. 8. Major critical speeds within the
operating ranges of the engine should be
There are eight major requirements that
a submarine diesel engine should eliminated.
fulfill:
B. PRINCIPLES Of DESIGN AND OPERATION
1B1. Reciprocating internal charge of fuel and air is admitted, and the
combustion engines. An engine that process is repeated. The above sequence
converts heat energy into work by of events is called a cycle of operation.
burning fuel in a confined chamber is
called an internal combustion engine. 1B2. Cycles of operation. The word
Such an engine employing back-and- cycle enters into the description of the
forth motion of the pistons is called a operation of any internal combustion
reciprocating type internal combustion engine. As applied to internal combustion
engine. The diesel engine and the engines, it may be defined as the
gasoline engine are the most familiar complete sequence of events that occur in
examples of reciprocating internal the cylinder of an engine for each power
combustion engines. stroke or impulse delivered to the
crankshaft. Those events always occur in
The basic principle of operation of an the same order each time the cycle is
internal combustion engine is relatively repeated.
simple. The space in the cylinder in
which the fuel is burned is called the Each cycle of operation is closely related
combustion chamber. Fuel and air are to piston position and movement in the
admitted to the combustion chamber cylinder. Regardless of the number of
and ignited. The resulting combustion piston strokes involved in a cycle, there
increases the temperature within the are four definite events or phases that
combustion chamber. Gases, released must occur in the cylinders.
by combustion, plus the increase in
temperature, raise the pressure which 1. Either air or a mixture of air and fuel
acts on the piston crown, forcing the must be taken into the cylinder and
piston to move. Movement of the piston compressed.
is transmitted through other parts to the
crankshaft whose rotary motion is 2. The fuel and air mixture must be
utilized for work. The expended gases ignited, or fuel must be injected into the
are ejected from the cylinder, a new hot compressed air to cause ignition.
3. The heat and expansion of gases Matter is anything having weight and
resulting from combustion must occupying space. Solids, liquids, and
perform work on the piston to produce gases are matter.
motion.
A molecule is the smallest division of a
4. The residual or exhaust gases must given matter, which, when taken alone,
be discharged from the cylinder when still retains all the properties and
expansion work is completed. characteristics of the matter.
The cycles of operation in each type of Heat is a form of energy caused by the
internal combustion engine are molecular activity of a substance.
characterized both by the mechanics of Increasing the velocity of molecular
operation and the thermodynamic activity in a substance increases the
processes. The three most commonly amount of heat the substance contains.
known cycles are the Otto cycle, the Decreasing the velocity of molecular
diesel cycle, and the modified diesel activity in a substance decreases the
cycle. amount of heat the substance contains.
1B3 Thermodynamics. To explain Temperature is a measure of the intensity

thermodynamics as used in an of heat and is recorded in degrees by a
engineering sense, it is first necessary thermometer. The two temperature scales
to define the term and the related terms most commonly used are the Fahrenheit
used with it. and centigrade scales.
Thermodynamics is the science that Volume may be described as the amount

deals with the transformation of energy of space displaced by a quantity of
from one form to another. A basic law matter.
of thermodynamics is that energy can
neither be created nor destroyed but 1B4. The mechanical equivalent of
may be changed from one form to heat energy. The function of an internal
another. In diesel engineering, we are combustion engine is to transform heat
concerned primarily with the means by energy into mechanical energy. Recalling
which heat energy is transformed into the basic law of thermodynamics we
mechanical energy or work. know that energy cannot be destroyed. It
is possible to convert mechanical energy
Force is that push or pull which tends to heat completely, and by delicate
to give motion to a body at rest. A unit physical experiments it has been found
of force is the pound. that for every 778 foot-pounds of
mechanical energy so converted, one Btu
Pressure is force per unit area acting of heat will be obtained. Because of
against a body. It is generally expressed fundamental limitations, it is usually not
in pounds per square inch (psi). possible to convert heat completely to
work, but for every Btu that is converted,
Work is the movement of force through 778 foot-pounds will be realized. This
a certain distance. It is measured by important constant is known as the
multiplying force by distance. The mechanical equivalent of heat.
product is usually expressed in foot-
pounds.
Power is the rate of doing work, or the 1B5. Relationship of pressure,

amount of work done in unit time. The temperature, and volume. Figure 1-1A
unit of power used by engineers is the illustrates a simple cylinder with a
horse power (hp). One horsepower is reciprocating piston. A dial pressure gage
equivalent to 33,000 foot-pounds of at the top of the cylinder registers
work per minute or 33,000/60 = 550 pressure inside the cylinder. Temperature
foot-pounds per second. inside the cylinder is recorded by a
thermometer. The thermometer at the
Energy is the ability to perform work. side registers room temperature. The
Energy is of two types: kinetic, which is piston is at outer dead center in its stroke.
energy in motion, and potential, which At this stage, the pressure inside
is energy stored up.
Figure 1-1. Pressure, temperature, and volume relationship in a cylinder.

the cylinder is the same as atmospheric conditions found in the compression
pressure outside, and the dial of the stroke of a modern submarine diesel
pressure gage registers 0. Also, the engine. The temperature of the
temperature inside the cylinder is the compressed air within the cylinder has
same as room temperature, or been raised to a sufficient degree to cause
approximately 70 degrees F. automatic ignition on the injection of fuel
oil into the cylinder.
In Figure 1-1B, force has been applied
to the piston, moving it about a third of Thus, in summation, we see that during a
the distance of its compression stroke. cycle of operation, volume is constantly
Air trapped in the cylinder is changing due to piston travel. As the
compressed. As the volume of this air is piston travels toward the inner dead
decreased, the pressure is increased to center during the compression stroke, the
about 155 psi. The temperature rises air in the cylinder is reduced in volume.
from 70 degrees F to about 300 Physically, this amounts to reducing the
degrees, indicating that heat has been space occupied by the molecules of air.
added to the air in the cylinder. This Thus, the pressure of the air working
shows that mechanical energy, in the against the piston crown and walls of the
form of force supplied to the piston, has cylinder is increased and the temperature
rises as a result of the increased
been transformed into heat energy in molecular activity. As the piston nears
the compressed air. inner dead center, the volume is reduced
rapidly and the temperature increases to a
In Figure 1-1C, more force has been point sufficient to support the automatic
applied to the piston, raising the ignition of any fuel injected.
pressure in the cylinder to about 300
psi, and the temperature to nearly 700 Combustion changes the injected fuel to
degrees F. gases. After combustion, the liberation of
the gases with a very slight increase in
Figure 1-1D shows the final stage of volume causes a sharp increase in
the compression stroke as the piston pressure and
arrives at inner dead center. Pressure is
in the neighborhood of 470 psi and the
temperature is about 1000 degrees F.
This illustration closely approximates
the
Figure 1-1. Pressure, temperature, and volume relationship in a cylinder.

temperature. During the power stroke, 1B7. Pressure-volume diagrams for the
volume increases rapidly, and toward Otto cycle, diesel cycle, and modified
the end of the stroke, pressure and diesel cycle. Figure 1-2 shows typical
temperature decrease rapidly. pressure-volume diagrams for the three
types of engine cycles. Each pressure-
1B6. Pressure-volume diagrams. volume diagram is a graphic
Various methods and devices are used representation of cylinder pressure as
for measuring and recording the related to cylinder volume. In the
pressures at various piston positions diagrams the ordinate represents pressure
during a cycle of operation in an engine and the abscissa represents volume. In
cylinder. The result may be graphically actual practice, when an indicator card is
illustrated by a diagram such as that taken on an engine, the vertical plane is
shown in Figure 1-2. Such diagrams are calibrated in pressure units and the
known as pressure-volume diagrams. In volume plane is calibrated in inches. The
practice, they are referred to as volume ordinate of the diagram then
indicator cards. shows the length of stroke of the piston
which is proportional to the volume.
Pressure-volume diagrams give the Letters are located on each of the figures
relationship between pressures and in the diagrams. The distance between
piston positions, and may be used to two adjacent letters on the figures is
measure the work done in the cylinder. representative of a phase of the cycle.
Also, if the speed of the engine and the Comparing the diagrams provides a
time involved in completing one cycle visible means of comparing the variation
are known, the indicated horsepower in the phases between the three cycles.
may be computed by taking pressure-
volume diagrams on each cylinder and 1B8. The Otto cycle. The Otto cycle
converting the foot-pounds per unit of (Figure 1-2) is more commonly known as
time into horsepower. This method of the constant volume cycle and its
determining horsepower, however, is principles form
not practicable on modern fleet type
submarine engines.
Figure 1-2. Pressure-volume diagrams.

the basis for all modern automobile oils will ignite automatically with
gasoline engine designs. In this cycle, sufficient air at a temperature of about
combustion is timed to occur 480 degrees F, ignition occurs as soon as
theoretically just as the piston arrives at the fuel oil spray reaches the hot air. This
top dead center. Ignition is is called compression ignition.
accomplished by a spark, and, due to
the volatility of the fuel-air mixture, This combustion process (or burning of
combustion practically amounts to an the fuel and compressed air) is a
explosion. Combustion is completed relatively slow process compared with
with virtually no piston travel and the quick, explosion type combustion
hence, little, if any, change in volume process of the Otto cycle. The fuel spray
of the gas in the combustion chamber. penetrates the compressed air, some of
This gives rise to the description the fuel ignites, then the rest of the fuel
constant-volume cycle. During charge burns. In the true diesel cycle, the
combustion there is a quick rise of the expansion of gases keeps pace with the
temperature in the cylinder, change in volume occasioned by piston
immediately followed by a pressure rise travel during the combustion phase. Thus
which performs the work during the combustion is said to occur at constant
power stroke. pressure.
The Otto cycle may be defined as a The diesel cycle may be defined as a
cycle in which combustion induced by cycle in which combustion induced by
spark ignition theoretically occurs at compression ignition theoretically occurs

constant volume. at a constant pressure.
1B9. The diesel cycle. In the true diesel 1B10. Modified diesel cycle. We have
cycle, only air is compressed in the previously described the Otto cycle as
cylinder prior to ignition. This normally one in which combustion occurs
produces a final compression pressure theoretically at constant volume, and the
of about 500 psi. At such a pressure the diesel cycle as one in which
temperature of the compressed air may
range from 900 degrees to 1050 degrees
F. Since most fuel
combustion occurs theoretically at After the fuel is injected into the

constant pressure. In actual operation, a cylinder, combustion converts it into
gasoline engine does not follow the true gases. This conversion is a
Otto cycle, nor does the diesel engine thermodynamic change. A
follow the true diesel cycle. In fact, the thermodynamic change during which the
operation of a medium- or high-speed temperature remains constant is called an
diesel engine follows the modified isothermal process. A thermodynamic
diesel cycle (Figure 1-2). This cycle change during which the temperature
involves phases of both the Otto cycle may vary but during which heat is neither
and the diesel cycle in that the received nor rejected is called an
combustion phase takes place at both adiabatic process.
constant volume and constant pressure.
In a strict sense the thermodynamic
The modified diesel cycle, as applied to cycles outlined below are not true
diesel engines, may be defined as a thermodynamic cycles. In a true cycle the
cycle of operation in which the process is reversible. The working
combustion phase, induced by substance is heated, does work, is cooled,
compression ignition, begins on a and is heated again. In the cycle of an
constant-volume basis and ends on a actual engine, the residue of the
constant pressure basis. combustion process is exhausted at the
end of the expansion stroke and a new
All submarine main and auxiliary charge is taken into the cylinder for the
engines used today employ the next cycle of events. However, the true
modified diesel cycle. The fundamental thermodynamic cycle is useful for
differences between the Otto and the studying the thermodynamic processes in
modified diesel cycles are: actual engine operation.
1. The methods of mixing fuel and air. a. The Otto cycle. This is the
This is accomplished before and during thermodynamic cycle used as a basis for
compression in the Otto cycle and the operation of all modern gasoline
usually near the end of the compression engines. The cycle (Figure 1-2) consists
phase in the modified diesel cycle. of the adiabatic compression of the
charge in the cylinder along the line AB,
2. The methods of ignition. Spark the constant-volume combustion and
ignition is used in the Otto cycle and heating of the charge from B to C, the
compression ignition is used in the adiabatic expansion of the gases from C
modified diesel cycle. to D, and the constant-volume rejection
of gases from the cylinder along DA.
The term diesel cycle has become
popularly associated with all
compression-ignition or diesel engines. b. The diesel cycle. In the original diesel

In actual practice, this is a misnomer cycle proposed by Dr. Diesel, the
when applied to modern, medium- combustion phase of the thermodynamic
speed or high-speed diesel engines, cycle was to be a constant-temperature or
because practically all diesel or isothermal process. However, no engine
compression-ignition engines in this was ever operated on this cycle. As a
category operate on the modified diesel result of his experimentation, however, a
cycle. constant-pressure thermodynamic cycle
was developed. All early type, slow-
1B11. Thermodynamics of the Otto speed diesel engines approximated this
cycle, every diesel cycle, and cycle, although it is in little use today.
modified diesel cycle. In every
thermodynamic cycle there must be a In this cycle (Figure 1-2), adiabatic
working substance. With internal compression occurred along AB, to
combustion engines, some form of provide the temperature necessary for the
substance must undergo a change in the ignition of the fuel. Fuel injection and
cylinder in order to convert heat energy combustion were so controlled as to give
into mechanical energy. The working constant-pressure combustion
substance in the cylinder of a
compression-ignition engine is fuel oil.
along BC. This was followed by 2. With the intake valve closed, the
adiabatic expansion from C to D. piston makes an upward stroke,
Rejection of the gases from the cylinder compressing the air. Pressure is generally
was constant volume from D to A. around 500 psi with resultant
temperatures as high as 900 degrees to
c. The modified diesel cycle. This is the 1050 degrees F, depending on the design
cycle (Figure 1-2) used in all fleet type of the engine. At about the end of this
submarine diesel engines and in stroke, the fuel is injected into the hot
practically all modern diesel engines. In compressed air, and ignition and
this thermodynamic cycle, compression combustion occur over a relatively short
is adiabatic from A to B. Combustion is period of piston travel.
partly constant volume from B to C and
partly constant pressure from C to D. 3. The expansion of combustion gases
Expansion is adiabatic from D to E. forces the piston downward through one
Rejection of gases from the cylinder is stroke. This is called the power stroke.
constant volume along EA. As the piston nears the end of this stroke,
the exhaust valve opens, permitting some
1B12. Thermal efficiency. The thermal of the burned gases to escape.
efficiency of an internal combustion
engine may be considered the 4. The piston makes another upward
percentage of efficiency, in converting stroke in which the remaining exhaust
the total potential heat energy available gases are forced out of the cylinder. This
in the fuel into mechanical energy. We completes the cycle.
have already stated that the mechanical
equivalent of heat energy is 778 foot- 1B14. The 2-stroke diesel cycle. In this
pounds for one Btu of heat. By this cycle (Figure 1-4) the piston makes two
equation, it is a simple matter to figure strokes to complete the cycle. There is
how much work should be delivered on one power stroke for every two piston
an ideal basis from a given quantity of strokes or for each revolution of the
fuel. An engine operating on this- basis crankshaft. An engine employing this
cycle requires a scavenging air blower to
would be 100 percent efficient. No assist in clearing the exhaust gases from
internal combustion engine, however, is the cylinder, to replenish the cylinder
100 percent efficient, because heat with the necessary volume of fresh air,
losses, conducted through the cooling and to make possible a slight
and exhaust systems, and friction losses supercharging effect.
make the thermal efficiency of any
internal combustion engine relatively Figure, 1-4 shows the two strokes and the
low. sequence of events that occur in the 2-
stroke diesel cycle as follows:
1B13. The 4-stroke diesel cycle. In the
4-stroke diesel cycle, the piston makes 1. Start of compression. The piston has
four strokes to complete the cycle. just passed bottom dead center, the
There is one power stroke or power cylinder is charged with fresh air, and
impulse for every four piston strokes, both the intake ports and the exhaust
or two complete revolutions of the valve are closed. The fresh air is trapped
crankshaft. and compressed in the cylinder.
Figure 1-3 shows the four strokes and 2. Injection. At about the end of the
the sequence of events that occur in the compression stroke, the fuel is injected
4-stroke diesel cycle. and combustion occurs.
1. The intake valve opens and a supply 3. Expansion. Expansion of gases from
of fresh air is drawn into the cylinder combustion forces the piston downward
while the piston makes a downward through one stroke. As the piston nears
stroke. the end of this stroke, the exhaust valve
is opened slightly in
10
advance of the uncovering of the intake uncovered, the scavenging air which is
ports. This permits some of the burned under pressure, rushes into the cylinder.
gases to escape. This drives out the remaining exhaust
gases and completes the cycle.
4. Exhaust. As the intake ports are
C. DIESEL ENGINE TYPES
1C1. Single-acting diesel engine. Both end of the piston. The piston rod extends
the 4-stroke and the 2-stroke cycle through the cylinder head of the lower
diesel engines illustrated and described combustion chamber and passes through
in the previous section were of the a stuffing box to prevent leakage of
single-acting type (Figure 1-5). In all pressure. The piston rod is attached to a
single-acting engines the pistons used crosshead, and the connecting rod is
are usually of the trunk type, that is, attached to the crosshead so that it may
pistons whose length is greater than turn freely on the crosshead pin. The
their diameter. One end of the trunk crosshead has a flat bearing surface that
type piston is closed; this end is called moves up and down on a crosshead guide
the crown. The opposite or skirt end of to steady the piston rod and piston and
the piston is open. The connecting rod prevent uneven wear.
extends through the open end of the
piston and is attached to the piston by Combustion occurs in the upper
means of the piston pin. combustion chamber, and the pressure of
the gases of combustion is applied to the
The term single-acting is used to top end of the piston during the
describe these engines because the downward stroke. At the completion of
pressure of the gases of combustion this stroke, combustion occurs in the
acts only on one side (the crown) of the bottom combustion chamber and
pistons. In the 4-stroke cycle, single- expansion pressure is applied to the
acting engines, the power stroke occurs bottom end of the piston during the
only once in every two revolutions of upward stroke. The downward power
the crankshaft. In the 2-stroke cycle, stroke serves as the compression stroke
single-acting engines, the power stroke for the lower combustion chamber and
occurs once in every revolution of the the upward power stroke serves as the
crankshaft. All of the main and compression stroke for the top
auxiliary diesel engines currently combustion chamber. Thus the power
installed in fleet type submarines are of strokes are double that of a single acting
the single-acting type. engine and the engine is referred to as a
double-acting type.
1C2. Double-acting diesel engine. A
considerable number of double-acting The 2-stroke cycle, double-acting engine
diesel engines (Figure 1-6), namely the has a distinct advantage in power output
HOR and MAN engines, were used in compared with the single-acting type.
installations for fleet type submarines With twice as many power strokes as a
until recent years. Lately, however, comparable single acting engine and,
most of these double-acting engines with other conditions being equal, it
have been removed and replaced with develops practically twice as much
2-stroke cycle, single-acting engines. power per cylinder. In addition, the
While double-acting engines have no operation is smoother due to the fact that
place in current installations, it is well the expansion stroke in one combustion
for the student to be familiar with their chamber of the cylinder is balanced or
general design and operation. cushioned by the compression stroke in
the opposite combustion chamber.
In double-acting diesel engines, the
piston proper is usually shorter and is There are two principal difficulties
described as the crosshead type. The encountered in adapting double-acting
piston is closed at both ends and has a engines to submarine use. First, the
rigid piston rod extending from the crosshead type of piston construction
lower end. Both ends of the cylinder are requires considerably more length than
closed to form a combustion chamber at that of single-acting engine types. As a
each
11
Figure 1-3. The 4-stroke diesel cycle.
12
Figure 1-4. The 2-stroke diesel cycle.
13
Figure 1-5. Single-acting diesel principle.

consequence, the engines must be built As the pistons travel together they
too high and bulky for practical use in compress air between them. The space
the confined spaces available aboard between the two pistons thus becomes
submarines. Secondly, many difficulties the combustion chamber. The point at
are encountered in effecting a tight seal which the two pistons come into closest
where the piston rod passes through the proximity is called combustion dead
stuffing box. center. Just prior to combustion dead
center, fuel is injected and the resultant
1C3. Opposed piston engine. The expansion caused by combustion drives
opposed piston engine (Figure 1-7) is the pistons apart.
designed with two pistons in each
cylinder. The pistons are arranged in The scavenging air ports are located in
opposed positions in the cylinder. the cylinder walls at the top of the
Piston action is so timed that at one cylinder and are opened and closed by
point of travel the two pistons come the movement of the upper piston. The
into close proximity to each other near exhaust ports are located near the bottom
the, center of the cylinder. of the cylinder and are opened and closed
by the movement of the lower piston.
14
Figure 1-6. Double-acting diesel principle.
15
1. Both pistons are on the return travel

from outer dead center, the upper piston
has covered the scavenging air ports, the
lower piston has covered the exhaust
ports, and compression has begun.
2. Just as both pistons approach

combustion dead center, fuel is injected.
3. Injection has been completed,

expansion has begun, and both pistons
are moving toward outer dead center.
4. Expansion of gases from combustion

drives the pistons apart, causing the
crankshafts to turn. This is the power
stroke of the cycle.
5. As the pistons approach outer dead

center, the lower piston uncovers the
exhaust ports and most of the expanded
gases escape. Just before reaching outer
dead center, the upper piston uncovers
Figure 1-7. Opposed piston principle. the scavenging air ports and scavenging
air rushes into the cylinder, cleaning out
All the upper pistons are connected by the remaining exhaust gases.
connecting rods to the upper crankshaft.
All the lower pistons are connected by
connecting rods to the lower crankshaft.
In Fairbanks Morse, opposed piston,
submarine engines, the upper and lower
crankshafts are connected by a vertical
gear drive. The power from the upper
crankshaft not used to drive auxiliaries
is transmitted through this drive to the
lower crankshaft and ultimately to the
engine final drive.
Figure 1-8 shows the various phases in

a 2-stroke cycle of operation in an
opposed piston engine.
Figure 1-8. Opposed piston cycle.
16
6. The lower piston has covered the With the 12-degree lower crankshaft
exhaust ports and scavenging air lead, the lower piston has advanced the
supercharges the cylinder until the crankshaft through a 12-degree arc of
travel in the expansion phase of the cycle
upper piston covers the scavenging air by the time the upper piston has reached
ports. inner dead center. This causes the lower
piston to receive, at full engine load, the
Figure 1-13 shows how the lower greater part of the expansion work, with
crankshaft leads the upper crankshaft the result that about 70 percent of the
by 12 degrees in the Fairbanks-Morse total power is delivered by the lower
submarine diesel engine. This lower crankshaft.
crankshaft lead has a definite effect
both upon scavenging and power For submarine use, the opposed piston
output. engine has three distinct advantages.
Since the lower crankshaft leads the 1. It has higher thermal efficiency than
upper, the exhaust ports at the lower engines of comparable ratings.
end of the cylinder are covered slightly
before upper piston travel covers the 2. It eliminates the necessity of cylinder
intake ports. Thus, for a brief interval, heads and intricate valve mechanisms
the exhaust ports are closed while the with their cooling and lubricating
intake parts are open. By the time the problems.
intake port is covered, the cylinder has
been charged with fresh air well above 3. There are fewer moving parts.
atmospheric pressure. Thus, through the
lower crankshaft lead and scavenging
action, a supercharging effect is
achieved in this engine.
Figure 1-8. Opposed piston cycle.
17
Figure 1-9. GM 16-278A, outboard side, control end, right-hand engine.
Figure 1-10. GM 16-278A, inboard side, blower end, right-hand engine.
18
Figure 1-11. F-M 10-cylinder 38D 8 1/8, outboard side, blower end, left-hand engine.
Figure 1-12. F-M 10-cylinder 38D 8 1/8, Inboard side, control end, right-hand engine.
19
in fleet type submarine installations vary

in design but all are of the 2-stroke cycle
type. Following is a list of engines
normally found on fleet type submarines:
a. Main engines.
1. General Motors V-16 type. There are

two engine designs in this category, the
16-278A and 16-248. Each engine has
two banks of 8 cylinders, each arranged
in a V-design with 40 degrees between
banks. Each engine is rated at 1600 bhp
at 750 rpm. Both engines are equipped
with mechanical or solid type injection
and have a uniflow valve and port system
of scavenging.
2. Fairbanks-Morse opposed piston type,

Model 38D 8 1/8. This model number
includes two engines, one a 10-cylinder
and the other a 9-cylinder engine. Both
engines are rated at 1600 bhp at 720 rpm.
Figure 1-13. Lower crank lead. Both engines are equipped with
mechanical or solid type injection and
1C4. Modern fleet type submarine have a uniflow port system of
diesel engines. Modern diesel engines scavenging.
currently used
b. Auxiliary engines.
1. General Motors, Model 8-268. This

engine is an 8-cylinder, in-line type.
When operated in a generator set at 1200
rpm, it has a power output of 300
kilowatts. This engine is equipped with
mechanical or solid type injection and
has a uniflow valve and port system of
scavenging.
2. Fairbanks-Morse opposed piston type,

Model 38E 5 1/4. This is a 7-cylinder,
opposed piston type engine. When
operated in a generator set at 1200 rpm, it
has a power output of 300 kilowatts. This
engine is equipped with mechanical or
solid type injection and has a uniflow
port system of scavenging.
D. SUBMARINE DIESEL ENGINE INSTALLATIONS
1D1. Submarine diesel engine directed to charging the batteries or

installations. Figure 1-14 shows a powering the main motors. The auxiliary
typical main and auxiliary engine generator set may be used directly either
installation aboard a modern, diesel- to charge the batteries or to power the
electric drive, fleet type submarine. auxiliary equipment. It may also be used
Each engine is coupled with a generator indirectly for powering the main motors.
to form a generator set. Through the Main motors are used for propulsion and
main control cubicle, the current may be powered either by the batteries or
supplied by main generator sets may be by the main generator sets.
20
Figure 1-14. CUTAWAY OF FLEET TYPE SUBMARINE SHOWING ENGINE

INSTALLATIONS.
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10/27/23, 2:22 PM Submarine Main Propulsion Diesels - Chapter 1

About Education Events USS Pampanito Support Visit

1A1. General. In order that the The next notable achievement in

became popularly known as an Otto design called for fuel injection to be

1. simplification of design hull characteristics definitely fixed the

the various stresses encountered by the load rating.

B. PRINCIPLES Of DESIGN AND OPERATION

1B3 Thermodynamics. To explain Temperature is a measure of the intensity

Thermodynamics is the science that Volume may be described as the amount

Power is the rate of doing work, or the 1B5. Relationship of pressure,

Figure 1-1. Pressure, temperature, and volume relationship in a cylinder.

Figure 1-1. Pressure, temperature, and volume relationship in a cylinder.

Figure 1-2. Pressure-volume diagrams.

spark ignition theoretically occurs at compression ignition theoretically occurs

combustion occurs theoretically at After the fuel is injected into the

compression-ignition or diesel engines. b. The diesel cycle. In the original diesel

C. DIESEL ENGINE TYPES

Figure 1-3. The 4-stroke diesel cycle.

Figure 1-4. The 2-stroke diesel cycle.

Figure 1-5. Single-acting diesel principle.

Figure 1-6. Double-acting diesel principle.

1. Both pistons are on the return travel

2. Just as both pistons approach

3. Injection has been completed,

4. Expansion of gases from combustion

5. As the pistons approach outer dead

Figure 1-8 shows the various phases in

Figure 1-8. Opposed piston cycle.

Figure 1-8. Opposed piston cycle.

Figure 1-9. GM 16-278A, outboard side, control end, right-hand engine.

Figure 1-10. GM 16-278A, inboard side, blower end, right-hand engine.

in fleet type submarine installations vary

1. General Motors V-16 type. There are

2. Fairbanks-Morse opposed piston type,

1. General Motors, Model 8-268. This

2. Fairbanks-Morse opposed piston type,

D. SUBMARINE DIESEL ENGINE INSTALLATIONS

1D1. Submarine diesel engine directed to charging the batteries or

Figure 1-14. CUTAWAY OF FLEET TYPE SUBMARINE SHOWING ENGINE

Sub Diesel Next chapter

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