Lecture notes: (Chapter 8: Propulsion system characteristics) Lecture notes: (Chapter 8: Propulsion system characteristics)

Chapter 8 Propulsion system characteristics c) Weight

d) Jet speed assuming exhaust pressure is equal to ambient pressure if Pe=Pa
Examples 8.1~8.15 e) Static temperature of exhaust Te
f) Exhaust Mach number Me
Example 8.1 Solution
Air flows through a turbojet engine at the rate of 50.0 kg/s and the fuel flow rate is At 35,000 m altitude, the properties of ambient conditions are
1.0 kg/s. The exhaust gases leave the jet nozzle with a relative velocity of 600 m/s. Temperature T  54.3 C , pressure P=23.84 kPa, and density 0.3798 kg/m3
Compute the velocity of the airplane, if the thrust power is 1.5 MW in the following two The mass flow rate is m  aVf Ai  0.3798  243  0.6  55.375kg / m 3
cases:
1. Pressure equilibrium exists over the exit plane 1. During cruise flight segment, the thrust and drag force (D) are equal. Thus for two
2. If the pressure thrust is 8 kN engines and (T) is the net thrust of each engine, then
Solution 2T  D  V 2AC D / 2
1. When the nozzle is unchoked, pressure equilibrium exists over the exit plane. Then, T  0.3798  (243)2  49.24  0.045 / 4  12, 423N  12.423kN
thrust force is expressed as 2. Gross thrust Net thrust + Ram drag
T  m a  m f  ue  m au Tgross  T  mV
 f  12, 423  55.3  243  25, 879N  25.879kN
Thrust power  T  u 3. Since Weight= Lift, thus L=W.
Thrust power  m a  m f  ueu  m au 2 Moreover, lift and drag are correlated by the relation:
C L  15C D  0.675
1.5  106  (51)(600)u  50u 2
L  W  15D  30T  37, 2690N  372.69kN
50u 2  30, 600u  1.5  106  0
4. Assuming negligible fuel flow ratio, and since Pe  Pa , then the net thrust is expressed
30, 600  103 936.36  300 by the relation:
u 
100 T  m Vj Vf 
Thus, either u=558.26 m/s or u=53.74 m/s
2. When the exit pressure is greater than the ambient pressure, a pressure thrust (Tp) is T 12, 423
V j  Vf   243   467.3m / s
generated. The thrust equation with pressure thrust is then m 55.375
T  m a  m f  ue  m au  Tp 5. Exhaust static temperature is expressed by the relation:
Vj2 (467)2
Thus, the thrust power is Te  T0e   1005   905.9K
2C p 2  1100
T  u  m a  m f  ueu  m au 2  Tp  u  m a  m f  ue  Tp   u  m au 2
  6. Sonic speed at exit
1.5  106  [51  600  8000]  u  50u 2  38, 600u  50u 2
ae   RT  1.3  287  905.7  581.3m / s
50u 2  38, 600u  1.5  106  0
Vj
38, 600  103 1490  300 38, 600  34, 495 Exhaust Mach number is M e   0.804
u  ae
100 100
Example 8.3
Thus either u=731 m/s or 41 m/s
It is required to calculate and plot the momentum drag as well as momentum, pressure,
Example 8.2
gross, and net thrusts versus the flight speed for a turbojet engine powering an aircraft
A fighter airplane is powered by two turbojet engines. It has the following characteristics
flying at 9 km (ambient temperature and pressure are 229.74 K and 30.8 kPa) and having
during cruise flight conditions:
the following characteristics, Ai=0.24m2, Ae=0.26m2, f=0.02, Ue=600m/s, Pe=87.50kPa.
 Wing area (S) 49.24 m2
The flight speed varies from 500 to 4000 km/h. Consider the following cases:
 Engine inlet area Ai=0.06 m2 The air mass flow rate is constant and equal to 40 kg/s irrespective of the variation of
 Cruise speed Vf=243 m/s flight speed.
 Flight altitude 35,000 ft a) Air mass flow rate varies with the flight speed
 Drag and lift coefficients are CD=0.045, CL=15 CD b) Repeat the above procedure for altitudes 3, 6, and 12 km considering a variable air
 Exhaust total temperature T0=1005 K mass flow rate and a constant exhaust pressure of Pe 87.50 kPa
 Specific heat ratio and specific heat at exit are γ=1.3, Cp=1100 J/(kgK) c) Repeat the above procedure for altitudes 3, 6, 9, and 12 km considering a variable
It is required to calculate: air mass and a variable exhaust pressure given by the relation: Pe/Palt=1.25
a) Net thrust Solution
b) Gross thrust A. The mass flow rate is constant and equal to 40 kg/s at altitude 9 km
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 Lecture notes
notes: (Chapter 88: Propulsion system characteristics
characteristics) Lecture notes
notes: (Chapter 88: Propulsion system characteristics
characteristics)
The momentum thrust (Tmomentum) is constant and given by the relation
Tmomentum  m a (1  f )U e  40  1.02  600  24, 480N
The pressure thrust (Tpressure) is also constant and calculated as
Tpressure  Ae  Pe  Pa   0.26  (87.5  30.8)  10 3  14, 742N
The gross thrust (Tgross) is constant and equal to the sum of momentum and pressure
thrusts
Tgross  Tmomentum  Tpressure  39, 222N
The momentum drag for flight speed varying from 500 to 4000 km/h is given by the
relation:
U (km / hr)
Dmomentum  m aU  40(kg / s)   11.11 U (N)
3.6
It is a linear relation in the flight speed U. Flight speed in momentum drag relation
and continuity equation will be substituted in km/h.
The net thrust is then (Fig. E8.3a)
Tnet  Tgross  Dmomentum  39, 222  11.11 U (N) Fig. E8.3b Thrust variations with constant mass flow rate
B. Variable air mass flow rate at altitude 9 km
The net thrust varies linearly with the flight speed. The results are plotted in Fig. The mass flow rate varies linearly with the flight speed according to the relation:
E8.3b. The net thrust must be greater than the total aircraft drag force during acceleration
Pa 30.8  10 3 U
and equal to the drag at steady cruise flight. Zero net thrust results from the intersection m a  eUAi  UAi    0.24(kg / s)
of the gross thrust and ram drag. The flight speed corresponding to zero net thrust RTa 287  229.74 3.6
represents the maximum possible aircraft’s speed. m a  0.031141 U (kg / s)
The momentum thrust varies linearly with the flight speed as per the relation
Tmerestem  m a (1  f )U e  0.031141 U  1.02  600  19.058 U (N)
The pressure thrust is constant and has the same value as in case (1)
Tpressure  Ae Pe  Pa   0.26(87.5  30.8)  10 3  14, 742N
The gross thrust is varying linearly with the flight speed
Tgross  Tmanertu n  Tpressure  19.058 U  14742 (N)
The momentum drag for flight speed varying from 500 to 4000 km/h is given by the
quadratic relation:
U (km / hr)
Dmomentum  m aU  0.031141 U (kg / s)   8.65  103 U 2(N)
3.6
The net thrust is then
Tnet  Tgress  Dmarrentum  19.058 U  14, 742  8.65  103 U 2(N)
The above relations are plotted in Fig. E8.3c.

Fig. E8.3a Thrust components and drag with variable flight speed

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 Lecture notes
notes: (Chapter 88: Propulsion system characteristics
characteristics) Lecture notes
notes: (Chapter 88: Propulsion system characteristics
characteristics)

Fig. E8.3c Variations of net thrust with variable mass flow rate
C. Variable mass flow rate at altitudes 3, 6, and 12 km and constant exhaust pressure of Fig. E8.3d Net thrust variations with variable mass flow rate at different altitudes
Pe  87.50kPa D. Variable mass flow rate at altitudes 3, 6, 9, and 12 km and variable exhaust pressure
Air mass flow rate varies linearly with the flight speed according to the relation: based on the relation Pe / Palt  1.25
Palt Palt U P The net thrust is expressed by the relation:
m a  eUAi  UAi  * * 0.24  2.32 * 104 alt U (kg / s)
RTalt 287 Talt 3.6 Talt Tnet  Tgross  Dmomentum
The momentum thrust varies linearly with the flight speed as per the relation Palt (Pa ) P (Pa )
 0.142  U  0.26  Pe  Palt   6.44  105  alt U 2(N)
4Palt P Talt (K ) Talt (K )
Tmomentum  m a (1  f )U e  2.32  10 U  1.02 * 600  0.142 alt U (N)
Talt Talt Palt (Pa ) P (Pa )
The pressure thrust is varying with altitude pressure (refer to Table E3.3): Tnet  0.142  U  0.26  0.25  Palt (Pa )  6.44  105  alt U 2(N)
Talt (K ) Talt (K )
Table E3.3 Values of pressures and temperatures at different altitudes
For the case of altitude 3 km and flight speed of 600 km/h, then
Altitude (km) Pressure (kPa) Temperature (K)
70  103 70  103
3 70.122 268.66 Tnet  0.142 600  0.26  0.25  70  10 3(Pa)  6.44  105 (600)2(N)
6 47.200 249.16 268 268
9 30.762 229.66 Tnet  22, 253  4550  6055  20, 748N  2.0748  10 4 N
12 19.344 216.66 Figure E8.3e illustrates the positive net thrust for different flight speeds and altitudes
Tpressure  Ae  Pe  Palt   0.26  87.5  Palt   10 3(N) of 3, 6, 9, and 12 km. It is clarified that the maximum possible flight speed for such an
The gross thrust is varying linearly with the flight speed aircraft is nearly 2300 km/h.
Palt
Tgross  Tmomentum  Tpressure  0.142  U  0.26  87.5  Palt 10 3(N)
Talt
The momentum drag for flight speed varying from 500 to 4000 km/h is given by the
quadratic relation:
Dmomentum  m aU
P U (km / hr) P
 2.32  104  alt U (kg / s)   6.44  105  alt U 2 (N)
Talt 3.6 Talt
The net thrust is then
Tnet  Tgross  Dmomentum
P P
 0.142  alt U  0.26  87.5  Palt  103  6.44  105  alt U 2(N)
Talt Talt
The above relation is plotted in Fig. E8.3d. Fig. E8.3e Thrust variations with variable mass flow rate at different altitudes with
pressure ratio at exit equals 1.25
It is interesting here to calculate the flight speed that provides a maximum thrust,
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 Lecture notes: (Chapter 8: Propulsion system characteristics) Lecture notes: (Chapter 8: Propulsion system characteristics)

Tnet Since the exhaust speed is given by the relation:

which is obtained from the relation: 0
U   1 

Since ue  2C pT0 max 1  Pa / P0 max   

 
Palt(Pa ) P (Pa )
Tnet  0.142 U  0.26  0.25  Palt(Pa )  6.44  105 alt U 2 (N) Then, from the above given data:
Talt(K ) Talt(K )
  1 
then ue  2C pT0 max 1  Pa / P0 max   
Tnet P (Pa ) P (Pa )  
 0.142  alt  2  6.44  105  alt U  0
U Talt (K ) Talt (K )  2  1148 T0 max 1  (0.125)0.25   30.5 T0 max
 
Thus net thrust attains a maximum value at all altitudes when the flight speed is Moreover, the thrust force is then expressed by the relation
0.142
U   1102.5km / hr T  m a (1  f )ue  u   100 (1.015)ue  250
2  6.44  105
The above value is also clear in Fig. E8.3e. Substituting for the different values of maximum temperature, we get the following
Example 8.4 tabulated results.
A high bypass ratio turbofan engine is powering a civil transport aircraft flying at an It is clear from Table E8.5 that keeping a constant ratio between the maximum and
altitude 11 km with a speed of 1100 km/h. The total air mass flow rate is 120 kg/s and the ambient pressures, then increasing the maximum total temperature will increase the
bypass ratio is 5.0. Exhaust speeds for the cold and hot streams are, respectively, 1460 generated thrust.
and 2000 km/h. Both cold and hot nozzles are unchoked. Calculate the thrust force Table E8.5: Values of exhaust velocity and net thrust at different maximum
(fuel-to-air ratio is 0.012). temperatures
Solution T0max (K) 1000 1200 1400 1600
From Eq. (8.4), the thrust force for unchoked nozzles is ue (m/s) 965 1957 1142 1220
T  m h (1  f )ueh  u   m c uec  u  Thrust T (kN) 72.9 82.2 90.8 98.8
Example 8.6
Since the bypass ratio   5.0 and the total air mass flow is 120.0 kg/s, then A turbojet engine is powering a fighter airplane. Its cruise altitude and Mach number are
 5 10 km and 0.85, respectively. The exhaust gases leave the nozzle at a speed of 600 m/s
m c  m   120  100kg / s
1  a 15 and a pressure of 0.75 bar. The outlet area of exhaust nozzle is Ae=0.24 m2. The air mass
and flow rate is 40 kg/s and fuel to air ratio is 0.02. It is required to calculate:
1 1 (a) The specific thrust T / m a 
m h  m   120  20kg / s
1  a 15 (b) The propulsive efficiency using the different expressions defined above
Then the thrust force is Solution
1000
 
(a) At altitude 10 km, the ambient temperature and pressure are Ta=223.3K and
T  20 1  0.012 2000  1100  100 1460  1100 
  3600 Pa=0.265bar
T  15,133N  15.133kN This ambient pressure is less than the exit pressure. Thus the nozzle is choked and the
Example 8.5 pressure thrust is not zero.
The thrust of a ramjet engine (single exhaust stream athodyd aero-engine) is expressed The flight speed u  M RTa  254.6m / s
by the relation: From Eq. (8.3), the specific thrust is
T  m a (1  f )ue  u  T A
 (1  f )ue  u   Pe  Pa  e
where the exhaust speed is expressed by the relation: m a m a
  1 
T 0.24
ue  2C pT0 max 1  Pa / P0 max     (1.02  600  254.6)  (0.75  0.265)  105 
  m a 40
It is required to examine the effect of maximum temperature T0 max on thrust force, by T
Then  648.4N.s / kg
considering the following case: m a
m a  100kg / s, u  250m / s, Pa / P0max  0.125 (b) The propulsive efficiency is calculated using the different expressions.
C p  1148J / (kg  K),   4 / 3, f  0.015, The first expression given by Eq. (8.10) can be rewritten as
2 T / m a  u
T0max  1000,1200,1400,1600K p 
2 T / m a  u  (1  f ) ue  u 
2
Solution
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 Lecture notes: (Chapter 8: Propulsion system characteristics) Lecture notes: (Chapter 8: Propulsion system characteristics)
Substitution will give Tu
p 
p 
2 * 648.4 * 254.6
2  648.4  254.6  1.02(600  254.6)2

330165.3
330165.3  121687.2

Tu  0.5 m e ue  u1 
2

p  0.73.07  73.07% 10, 888  (1100 / 3.6)
 2
 0.5439
Next, the second expression given by Eq. (8.11) can be rewritten as 10, 888  (1100 / 3.6)  0.5 2.04 * (3000  1100) / 3.6
2 T / m a  u  p  54.39%
p 
(1  f )ue2  u 2 (B) Turbofan engine
which by substitution gives Since the bypass ratio β=5.0 and the core air mass flow is 20.0 kg/s, then
2  648.4  254.6 m fan  m core  5  20  100kg / s
p   1.092  109.2%
1.02  (600)2  (254.6)2 The thrust force is calculated from Eq. (8.4)
This value assures that this expression must not be used if the nozzle is choked.   m core (1  f )ueh  u   m fan uec  u 
Finally using the third expression given by Eq. (8.12) gives   {20[(1  0.015)2000  1100]  100(1460  1100)}  (1000 / 3600)
2u   15,166N  15.166kN
p   0.5958  59.58%
ue  u Tu
p 
Though this expression is simple but gives a very rough estimate of the propulsive
efficiency. 
Tu  0.5 m eh ueh  u   m c uec  u 
2 2

Comment 1100 
15,166  
As depicted in example (8.6), the second expression for the propulsive efficiency  3.6 
provides efficiencies greater than unity. Such astonishing value of a propulsive efficiency p 
1100  
  2000  1100 
2 2
1460  1100  
 
greater than unity can be overcome if the effective jet velocity proposed in [1, 6, 11] is 15,166    0.5 
20.3    100   

employed. The proposed effective jet velocity is expressed as  3.6  
 
 3.6 
 
 3.6 
 


 

Ae
ue  ue  Pe  Pa   p  0.8033  80.33%
m e
(C) Turboprop engine
Such an effective jet velocity means that a full expansion of the gases to the ambient Total air mass flow rate
pressure is assumed. In such a case, the second expression for the propulsive efficiency
m 0    m c  25  20  500kg / s
will be exactly equal to the first expression. This effective velocity was also employed by
Rolls Royce [5]. The effective jet velocity is identified by aero engine manufacturers as The thrust force is calculated from Eq. (8.5):
the fully expanded jet velocity (in the exhaust plume).   m c (1  f )ue  u1   m 0 u1  u 0 
Example 8.7 1000
A comparison between turbojet, turbofan, and turboprop engines is considered here. The 
  20 1  0.015 1800  1200  500 1200  1100
  3600
 17, 372N 
three engines have the same gas generator (compressor, combustion chamber, and The Propulsive Efficiency
turbine). It is required to calculate both the thrust and propulsive efficiency of them
Tu
provided the following data: p 
Engine Core air Bypass Flight Fuel to Exhaust
mass flow ratio β speed air ratio speed for hot speed for
Exhaust 
Tu  0.5 m e ue  u1   m 0 u1  u 0 
2 2

1100 
rate (kg/s) (km/h) gases (km/h) cold stream 17, 372  
Turbojet 20 0 1100 0.02 3000 0  3.6 
p 
Turbofan 20 5 1100 0.015 2000 1460 1100  
 1800  1200 
2
1200  1100  
2

 
Turboprop 20 25 1100 0.015 1800 1200 17, 372    0.5 
20.3    500   
 3.6  
  3.6 
  3.6 
 
All nozzles are unchoked. 
 

Solution  p  0.9178  91.78%
(A) Turbojet engine Summary of results
The thrust force is given by Eq. (8.2) Engine Thrust force (kN) Propulsive efficiency ηp %
  m e (1  f )ue  u  Turbojet 10.888 54.39
  20  [(1  0.02)  3000  1000] / 3.6  10, 888N  10.888kN Turbofan 15.166 80.33
Turboprop 17.372 91.78
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 Lecture notes
notes: (Chapter 88: Propulsion system characteristics
characteristics) Lecture notes: (Chapter 8: Propulsion system characteristics)
It is clear from the above example that for the same gas generator, the turboprop (b) Specific thrust
engines furnishes the maximum thrust force and highest propulsive efficiency. The least (c) Propulsive efficiency
thrust force and minimum propulsive efficiency is attained by a turbojet engine. Turbofan (d) Thermal efficiency
engine delivers a large thrust force and a high propulsive efficiency. It is important to (e) Overall efficiency
mention here that the thrust of turbofan engine in many cases much greater than (Assume that the exit pressures of the cold and hot streams are equal to the ambient
turboprop engines as well be described in Chap. 4. pressure)
Example 8.8 Solution
Bell 206 LM helicopter is powered a single Rolls
Rolls-Royce
Royce 250 C30P turboshaft engine, Since the total air mass flow rate through the engine is m a  120kg / s and the
having a takeoff shaft power of 726 Hp. The engine has the following data: bypass ratio is 5.0, then the flow rates of the cold (fan) and hot (core) streams are
Rotor efficiency 0.8 calculated as follows:
Gearbox efficiency 0.995  5
Fuel heating value 45,000 kJ/kg m c  m fan  m   120  100.0kg / s
1   total 6
Fuel mass flow rate 102 kg/h
1 1
Calculate the thermal efficiency? m h  m core  m   120  20.0kg / s
1   total 6
(a) Subscripts (c) and (h) stands for the cold (or fan) and hot (or core) sections
respectively.
Fuel-to-air ratio
m fuel 0.5
f    0.025
m h 20.0
Tcore  Th  0.25T  6kN
Flight speed
U  M RTa  0.85 1.4  287  223.2  254.5m / s
Fig. E8.8 Turboshaft engine powering helicopter’s rotor Exit velocity from fan (cold air)
Solution since Tfan  m fan U e, fan U 
Since thermal efficiency is expressed by the relation:
Tfan 18000
P  U e, fan  U   254.5  180  254.5  434.5m / s
th  Total m fan 100.0
m fQR
Exhaust velocity from engine core (hot gases)
where PTotal  PRotor  rotor gbSP
Th  m h (1  f )U e U 
Then  h 
T / m  U 
PTotal  PRotor  rotor gbSP  0.8  0.995  726  577.9hp  431kW  h  1  6000  
 U eh     254.5  541.0m / s
h
 
PTotal 431 1 f 1.025  20.0  

th    0.338  33.8%
m fQR (102 / 3600)45, 000 (b) Specific thrust
T 24
Example 8.9    0.2kN  s / kg  200m / s
Boeing 747
747-400
400 aircraft is powered by four PW4062 turbofan engines manufactured by m a 120
Pratt & Whiney Aircraft Engine Company. Each engine has the following data: (c) The propulsive efficiency
Thrust force 24.0 kN Since both cold (fan) and hot (core) nozzles are unchoked, then the propulsive
Air mass flow rate 120 kg/s efficiency can be expressed as
Bypass ratio 5.0 T U
p 
Fuel mass flow rate 0.5 kg/s 1 1
m (1  f )U eh U 2   m c U ec2 U 2 
2
Operating Mach number 0.85 2 h   2  
Altitude 10 km 2  24, 000  254.5
Ambient temperature 223.2 K p 
20.0 1.025(541)2  (254.5)2   (100.0) (434.5)2  (254.5)2 
Fuel heating value 40,800 kJ/kg    
If the thrust generated from the fan is 75 % of the total thrust, determine: 12.216  106
p   0.714  71.4%
(a) Jet velocities of the cold air and hot gases 4.7045  106  12.402  106
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 Lecture notes: (Chapter 8: Propulsion system characteristics) Lecture notes
notes: (Chapter 88: Propulsion system characteristics
characteristics)
(d) The thermal efficiency ② The jet, pressure, and net thrusts
1 1 (B) Repeat the above requirements in the following six cases of under under-expanded
expanded flow in
m h (1  f )U eh2 U 2   m e U c2 U 2 
2   2   the nozzle, where the ratio between the total inlet and exit pressures P0i/Pe=2.0, 2.5, 3.0,
th 
m fuel QHV 3.5, 4.0 and 4.5.
17.1065  106
(C) Calculate:
th   0.4192  41.92% thrust   critical    , where τcritical is the thrust
① The incremental decrease in thru
2  0.5  40.8  106
(e) The overall efficiency at choked conditions
o  p th  0.3  30.0% ② Calculate the percentage of thrust decrease Δτ/τcritical%
Example 8.10 (D) Calculate the equivalent jet speed
A turbojet engine powering a fighter airplane has an unchoked nozzle. The following (E) Plot the below variables versus P0i/Pe (horizontal axis), while the vertical axis may
simplified expressions for thrust and propulsive efficiency may be used: be
① Jet thrust
T  m a ue  u 
② Pressure thrust
2u ③ Net thrust
p 
u  ue ④ Exact propulsive efficiency
Prove that the propulsive efficiency is expressed by the relation ⑤ Approximate propulsive efficiency
2u Solution
p  The nozzle flow characteristics are
2u  ( f / TSFC )
P01  100kPa, T01  600K, h  4 / 3, C p  1.148kJ / kgK, Pa  20kPa
Next, calculate the propulsive efficiency for the case of fuel-to-air ratio f=0.02 and h

TSFC=0.1 kg/N.h, at different flight speeds u=100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700 m/s. Figure E
E8.11a illustrates the flow behavior inside the nozzle on T
T-S
S diagram.
Solution
Since
T  m a ue  u 
 ue  T / m a  u
2u 2u
p  
u  T / m a  u 2u  T / m a
TSF C  m f / T
 T / m a  m f / TSFC / m a  f / TSFC
2u
Thus p 
2u  ( f / TSFC )
From the given data,
2u 2u 2u
p   
2u  ( f / TSFC ) 2u  (0.02 / 0.1)3600 2u  720
Substituting for the flight speed, the propulsive efficiency is calculated and tabulated
in Table E8.10.
Table E8.10 Propulsive efficiency versus flight speed
u (m/s) 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Fig. E
E8.11a
8.11a:: Nozzle behavior for full expansion, choking, and under under-expansion
expansion
ηp% 21.74 35.71 45.45 52.63 58.14 62.5 66.04
(A.1) Full expansion
Example 8.11
For the case of full expansion, the exhaust speed is the maximum in all cases, while
A turbojet engine is powering an aircraft flying with a speed of 250 m/s at an altitude
the ex
exhaust
haust pressure is the lowest in all cases. It is calculated as follows:
where the ambient pressure is 20 kPa. A convergent nozzle is used which has an outlet
Conditions
area of 0.5 m2. The air mass flow rate is 60 kg/s, fuel to air ratio is 0.02, and the nozzle
Exhaust pressure  Pa  20kPa
inlet total conditions are 600 K and 100 kPa:
(A) For the cases of full expansion and choked nozzle, calculate: P01  100kPa, T01  600K, h  4 / 3, C p  1.148kJ / kgK, Pa  20kPa
h

① The exhaust velocity and pressure

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 Lecture notes: (Chapter 8: Propulsion system characteristics) Lecture notes: (Chapter 8: Propulsion system characteristics)

 h 1  As noticed from Table E8.11a, the maximum thrust is achieved in the critical flow
  P  h  case (choked nozzle) and attains a value of 29.14 kN. The minimum thrust is noticed in
 
Vj max  2Cph T01  Ta   2CphT01 1    
a 

  P01   the full expansion flow case.

  (C.1) Incremental decrease in thrust t   critical  t
  20  
0.25 (C.2) Percentage of thrust decrease t /  critical %

 2  1148  600 1    
 100   Calculation of the incremental change in thrust and percentage of thrust decrease are
  calculated and tabulated in Table E8.11b, where τcritical is the thrust at choked
Jet speed  Vj max  675m / s condition.
The exit temperature is Table E8.11b: Incremental decrease in thrust (Δτ) and percentage of thrust

 P  01 0.25 decrease with variation of exit pressure (Δτ/τcritical %)
 20 
Ta  T01  a   600    401.2K P0i/Pe Critical 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 Full
 P01  100 
case expansion
(A.2) Choked nozzle: (5.0)
The exhaust pressure is the maximum, while the exhaust speed attains its minimum Δτ kN (1.8929) 0.49 1.64 2.24 2.34 2.74 2.82 2.8
value. t /  critical % 0 1.68 5.63 7.69 8.03 9.4 9.68 9.61
n 1
P01    1 n 2 1  4 / 3  1 4 (D) The equivalent jet speed is evaluated as follows:
  h      1.8526
  m a (1  f )Ve V   Ae Pe  Pa   m a Veff V 
Pc  2   2 
  
 Pc  53.98kPa Ae Pe  Pa 
Veff  (1  f )Ve 
T01    1  7 m a
  h 
Tc  2  6 0.5
Veff  1.02 Ve 
60 e
P  20  103
 Tc  514.3K
Veff  1.02 Ve  8.33  Pe  20
Jet speed  Vc  a  h RTc  443.6m / s
where the pressure is substituted in kPa.
(B) For in-between pressure ratios (E) The propulsive efficiency is expressed as
P01 P01 P01 The exact value of propulsive efficiency is calculated from the equation:
 
Pc Pe Pa  2V 

 h 1 
 
p exact
  f

Vf  Veff 
  P  h 
Jet speed  Ve  2Cph T01  Te   2CphT01 1    
  e 
The approximate value of propulsive efficiency is also calculated from the equation
  P01  
2Vf
   
p approx

Vf  Ve
P
Exhaust pressure  Pe  e  P01 Effective speed, exact, and approximate propulsive efficiencies are calculated and
P01
plotted in Table E8.11c.
The net thrust is   m a (1  f )Ve V   Ae Pe  Pa  Table E8.11c Effective jet speed and exact and approximate propulsive efficiency
The jet thrust is  j  m a (1  f )Ve V  P0i/Pe Critical 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 Full
case expansion
And the pressure thrust is  p  Ae Pe  Pa 
(1.8526) (5.0)
Computational results are summarized in Table E8.11a. Veff (m/s) 736 727 708 698 692 690 688.7 689
Table E8.11a: Exhaust speed and pressure and net, jet, and pressure thrusts  2V  50.7 51.2 52.2 52.8 53.1 53.21 53.26 53.25

P0i/Pe Critical case 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 Full expansion (5.0)  
p exact
 
f 
Vf  Veff 
(1.8526)
Ve (m/s) 444 468 531 575 608 635 657 676 2Vf 72.1 69.6 64 60.6 58.2 56.5 55.1 54
Pe (kPa) 54 50 40 33.3 28.6 25 22.2 20  
p approx

Vf  Ve
τJ (kN) 12.15 13.65 17.5 20.2 22.5 23.9 25.21 26.34
τP (kN) 16.99 15.0 10.0 6.7 4.3 2.5 1.11 0 Figure E8.11b illustrates jet, pressure, and net thrusts for different nozzle pressure
ratio. Figure E8.11c illustrates exact and approximate propulsive efficiency for
τ (kN) 29.14 28.65 27.5 26.9 26.8 26.4 26.32 26.34
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 Lecture notes
notes: (Chapter 88: Propulsion system characteristics
characteristics) Lecture notes
notes: (Chapter 88: Propulsion system characteristics
characteristics)
different nozzle pressure ratios.

Fig. E8.11c
E8.11c:: Exact and approximate propulsive efficiency for different nozzle pressure
ratio
Example 8.12
The range of an aircraft is given by Eq. (8.32)as
u 1  L   m 
S    ln  1 
g TSFC  D   m 
2

where u is the air relative speed including the effect of wind as shown in Fig. E8.12
for either head
head- or tail-wind
wind conditions. The shown military aircraft has the following
data:
L kg
Maximum range  3700km,  10, TSFC  0.08 ; m2  10, 300kg
D N.h
flight speed=280 m/s
1. Calculate the mass of fuel consumed during a trip in the following two cases:
a) Head wind 50 m/s
b) Tail wind 50 m/s
2. Calculate the time for such a trip in the above two cases.

Fig. E8.11b
E8.11b:: Jet, pressure and net thrusts for different nozzle pressure rati
ratioo

Fig. E8.12 Head and tail wind conditions

Solution
This example illustrates the effect of wind on both fuel consumption and the time of a
trip.
1. Fuel consumption
Consider first the case of:
Tail wind
u  V VTW  280  50  330m / s

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 Lecture notes: (Chapter 8: Propulsion system characteristics) Lecture notes
notes: (Chapter 88: Propulsion system characteristics
characteristics)
From Eq. (8.32), the range is calculated using the relative speed rather than the
airplane speed.
u 1  L   m 
S    ln  1 
g TSFC  D   m 
2

m1 (S )(g )(TSFC ) 3700  103  9.8  0.08

   0.24418
m2 L  330  10  3600
(u ) 
 D 
m1
 1.27657
m2 Fig. E8.13: Flight track with departure airport as an alternate
m  Solution
Fuel consumed  m1  m2  m2  1  1  10, 300(1.27657  1)  2848kg The ground speed from A to B is
 m2  VAB  V0 V1  550kts
For the case of tail wind (i.e., supporting wind)= 2848 kg
For a return to A, the ground speed is
Head wind
VBA  V0 V1  450kts
u  V VTW  280  50  230m / s
Maximum range cruise power will be used, giving a fuel flow (FF) of 800 l/h,, and
m1 this fuel flow will also be used for a fixed reserve and any holding. To establish the Flight
ln  0.35034
m2 Fuel Available for the PNR calculation, we must subtract from the useable fuel the fixed
m1 reserve (1400 l), the taxi fuel (100 l), and the climb allowance (500
(50 l). The forecast for a
  1.4195 possible return to A does not indicate the need for any holding fuel. Therefore, the Flight
m2
Fuel Available (FFA) is
m  FFA  8000  (1400  100  500)  66000l
000l
Fuel consumed  m1  m2  m2  1
 1  10, 300(1.4195-1)  4321 kg
 m2  This figure is now divided by 1.15 to provide a Variable Reserve, giving a final FFA
For the case of head wind (i.e., opposing wind)= 4321 kg of 52
5217 l.
2. Trip time (t) Assume that L is the distance from airport A to PNR, and fuel consumption as:
S Q1 Fuel quantity consumed in the root from A to PNR
t Q2 Fuel quantity consumed in the root from PNR to A
u
Tail wind Total fuel consumed Q1  Q2  5217 l
3700 Q1  FF T1  800T1, Q 2  FF T2  800T2
Time   3.114h
330  3.6 L L
Head wind T1  , T2 
V0  V1 V0 V1
3700
Time   4.469h  L L 
230  3.6 Q  Q1  Q2  FF T1  T2   FF   
From the above calculation tail wind shortens the trip time and saves fuel, while head V0 V1 V0  V1 
wind increases the trip time and fuel consumption. What are the corresponding values for  
22VV0
zero wind speed? Q  FF * L  

Example 8.13  V0 V1 V0  V1  
Consider a flight from airport A to airport B, with A as the alternate field (Fig.
E8.13). The distance A to B is 2700 nms. Maximum range cruise power will be used,
V V1 V0  V1   5217 450  550  1614nms
L Q 0
giving a fuel flow (FF) of 800 l/h. The aircraft can carry 8000 l of useable fuel without 2V0 * FF 2  500  800
exceeding the Maximum AUW (All Up Weight (Gross)). The fixed reserve is 1400 l. The The PNR is 1614 nms apart from departure airport and 1086 nms apart from arrival
used fuel for taxi and the climb are 100 and 500 l, respectively. A 15 % of fuel is next airport.
maintained to provide a variable reserve. At this power setting, the planned TAS (true Example 8.14
airspeed) is 500 kts and a 50 kts tailwind is forecast A to B. We will use the previous example of a flight
ight from A to B over a distance of 2700 nms,
Calculate the distance of point of no return (PNR) from the departure airport A. but with the possible alternate (C) located at 700 nms along track towards A, i.e., the
distance from C to B is 2000 nms. The other planning data remains the same as in the
previous example, i.e.:
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 Lecture notes
notes: (Chapter 88: Propulsion system characteristics
characteristics) Lecture notes: (Chapter 8: Propulsion system characteristics)
a) Flight fuel available at A 5217 l (after allowing for a variable reserve) L1 L2
b) Cruise fuel flow 800 l/h T1  , T2 
V0 V1 V0  V1
c) Ground speed away from home 550 kts
d) Ground speed back to home 450 kts L1 L
Since T1  T2 then  2
Calculate the distance between departure airport (A) and PNR. 450 550
L2 550 11
 
L1 450 9
L1  L2  2700
L1=1215 kts and L2=1485 kts
From this critical point, the time on to B is 2.7 h (1485/550), and the time back to A
is also 2.7 h (1215/450).

Fig. E8.14: Flight track with alter

alternate
nate on track
Solution
We first determine how much fuel is required to fly from A to overhead C. This is
equal to the distance A to C (700 nms) divided by the speed (550 kts) and multiplied by
the cruise fuel consumption (800 l/h).
Q=Fuel quantity consumed in the root from A to C
700
Q  FF T  800T  800  1, 018 l
550
Fuel available to the trip from C to PNR and PNR to C is then
Q   5217  1, 018  4199
The distance to PNR is L, given by the relation:

L  Q 
V0
V1 V0  V1 
 4199 *
450  550
 1299nms
2V0  FF 2  500  800
The distance of the PNR from C is therefore 1299 nms. This is 701 nms short of B
and 1999 nms away from A. If the aircraft flies beyond this point, there will not be
sufficient fuel to return to C with the fixed reserve intact (as shown in Fig. E8.14
E8.14).
Example 8.15
Consider a flight from airport A to airport B. The distance A to B is 2700 nms. At this
power setting, the planned TAS (true airspeed) is 500 kts and a 50 kts tailwind is forecast
A to B. Calculate the critical point (CP) from the departure ai
airport
rport A ((Fig.
Fig. E8.15).
E8.15

Fig. E8.15 Critical point

Solution
The ground speed from CP to B is VAB  V0  V1  550kts , while the ground speed
for a return to A is VBA  V0 V1  450kts .
T1=Flight time from critical point to departure airport A
T2=Flight time from critical point to arrival airport B

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