BASIC REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

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Introduction

Scope and course outline

This module is designed to provide an insight into the basic principles of

refrigeration and air conditioning with special emphasis being placed on
repair and maintenance of equipment that are found in the industry. This
module aims to bridge the gap that exists between electrical engineering and
refrigeration as far as repairing and maintenance of equipment is concerned.
It is the hope of DTI that this module addresses intended gap.
Duration
5 days
Course Objectives

By the end of the course the participants should be able to:

Explain the principle of operation for the components covered
Brainstorm on the probable causes for the reported faults.
Choose the most probable cause.
Carry out maintenance on the refrigeration and air conditioning equipment
in the plants.
Document the faults and the corrective measures taken to solve the
problems.

Course Content
The following are to be discussed:
(a) Refrigeration Cycle
(b)Types of compressors
(©) Joining methods-brazing techniques
(d) Use of tools-vacuum pump
-flaring kit
-pipe benders
(e) Fault finding techniques
(f) Basic refrigeration control circuit.
(g)Low pressure switch setting
(h)Air conditioning Installation procedures and maintenance.
(i) leak testing methods
(j)Types of refrigerants
(k)Fridge repair and maintenance.

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BACKGROUND

The purpose of a refrigeration or air conditioning plant is to cool articles or

space or substances down to, and maintain them at a temperature lower than
that of the surroundings.

Refrigeration is the process of removing heat from an enclosed space, or

from a substance, and moving it to a place where it is unobjectionable or
where it has little or no effect at all using a refrigerant. The primary purpose
of refrigeration is lowering the temperature of the enclosed space or
substance and then maintaining that lower temperature. The term cooling
refers generally to any natural or artificial process by which heat is
dissipated. The process of artificially producing extreme cold temperatures
is referred to as cryogenics.

N/B Cold is the absence of heat, hence in order to decrease a temperature,

one "removes heat", rather than "adding cold." In order to satisfy the Second
Law of Thermodynamics, some form of work must be performed to
accomplish this. This work is traditionally done by mechanical work but can
also be done by magnetism, laser or other means

In the beginning, the sole purpose was to conserve food but over the years it
has been used for many more different processes. The Chinese were the first
to find out that ice increased the life and improved the taste of drinks and for
centuries Eskimos have conserved food by freezing it. The oldest and most
well-known among refrigerants are ice, water, and air. Through the ages, the
seasonal harvesting of snow and ice was a regular practice of most of the
ancient cultures
At the beginning of the last century, terms like bacteria, yeast, mould,
enzymes etc. were known. It had been discovered that the growth of
microorganisms is temperature-dependent, that growth declines as
temperature falls, and that growth becomes very slow at temperatures below
+10°C. As a consequence of this knowledge, it was now possible to use
refrigeration to conserve foodstuffs.
The first mechanical refrigerators for the production of ice appeared around
the year 1860. In 1880 the first ammonia compressors and insulated cold
stores were put into use in the USA.

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Electricity began to play a part at the beginning of the 19th century and
mechanical refrigeration plants became common in some fields: e.g.
breweries, slaughter-houses, fishery, and ice production, for example.
After the Second World War the development of small hermetic
refrigeration compressors evolved and refrigerators and freezers began to
take their place in the home. Today, these appliances are regarded as normal
household necessities.

USES OF REFRIGERATION

There are countless applications for refrigeration plants Examples are:

 Foodstuff preservation
 Process refrigeration - oil refineries, chemical plants, and
petrochemical plants ; tempering steel and cutlery
 Air conditioning
 Drying plants
 Fresh water installations
 Heat pumps
 Ice production
 Freeze-drying
 Transport refrigeration sensitive foodstuffs and other materials by
trucks, trains, airplanes and sea-going vessels

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FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION

1) Heat is a form of energy which moves only in one direction- from a

region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration.
 Gain of heat results with an increase in temperature.
 Loss or removal of heat results with a drop in temperature.
Heat is usually transferred through conduction, convection and
radiation.
 Conduction is the transference of heat by direct contact of particles
from one atom to the other as they vibrate against one another and is
greater in solids.
 Convection is the transference of heat energy between a solid
surface and nearby fluid (liquid/gas).
 Natural convection means that air circulates due to natural
convection currents and uses the principle that cold air is denser than
warm air.
 Forced convection is achieved by forcing flow of heat using an
external source such as a fan or pump.
 Radiation is the method through which heat energy is transmitted
through space or any body which separates the two. Black bodies
absorb heat and emit the heat yet shiny surfaces do not absorb any
heat but reflects all the heat. Heat exchange in refrigeration is usually
the inter-transference of heat between the cold suction gas and the hot
liquid in the liquid line which helps in pre-heating the suction gas
before it gets to the compressor and helping in the condensation of the
liquid before it gets to the metering device.
 Sensible Heat is the heat that changes the temperature of a substance.
 Latent heat is the heat that changes the state of a substance without a
temperature change.

2) Substances and phase change

All substances can exist in three different phases: solid, liquid, and vapour.
Water is the most natural example of a substance that we use almost
everyday in all three phases.

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3) Pressure is the force per unit area applied on a surface in the direction
perpendicular to that surface. P=F/A
Where: P is the pressure
F is the normal force
A is the area
The SI unit of pressure is the Pascal (Pa)
1Pa = 1N/m2
The other units are the pounds force per square inch (psi) and the bars.
4) Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a substance. It
measures the heat intensity of a substance. Temperature is a very central
property in refrigeration. Almost all refrigeration systems have the
purpose of reducing the temperature of an object like the air in a room or the
objects stored in that room. The SI-unit for temperature is the Kelvin (K)
which is an absolute temperature scale because its reference point (0 K). It is
the lowest temperature that in theory it would be able to obtain. OK = -
273°C
It is measured in degrees Celsius or degrees Fahrenheit.

5) Density is a substance's mass per unit of volume. It is expressed as kg/m3.

6) Energy is the capacity of a system to do work where system refers to any
physical system not just a refrigeration system.
7) Boyles Law states that for a true gas the product of pressure and volume
at a constant temperature has a fixed value.
P1V1=P2V2
8) Charles law at constant pressure states that the volume is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature.
V1T1=V2T2
9) Charles Law at constant volume states that the pressure of a confined gas
varies directly as the absolute temperature.
P1T2=P2T1

REFRIGERATION OILS

Oil is used in refrigeration and air conditioning and it’s mainly needed in the
compressor though it mixes with refrigerant and travels throughout the
refrigeration circuit. Once it enters the evaporator, it is very difficult to
remove and it becomes an insulator which prohibits heat transference.
Oil in refrigeration serves the following purposes:
 As a lubricant.
 As a coolant.

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  As a sealant.
 It absorbs/dampens noise.
Desired properties of oils:
 Low wax content- Separation of wax from the refrigeration oil
mixture may plug/ block refrigerant control orifices (openings).
 Good thermal stability- It should not form hard carbon deposits at hot
spots in the compressor (such as valves or discharge ports) and in very
cold areas such as evaporator.
 Good chemical stability- There should be little or no chemical
reaction with the refrigerant or materials normally found in the
systems.
 Low pour point- Ability of the oil to remain in fluid state at the lowest
temperature in the system.
 Low viscosity- This is the ability of the lubricant to maintain good
oiling properties at high temperatures and good fluidity at low
temperatures; to provide a good lubricating film at all times.
 Non-toxic
 Non poisonous
 Odorless
 Miscibility (solubility) with refrigerants- ability to mix freely with
the refrigerant.

Types of oil
 Mineral oil
 Polyester oil
 Alkyl Benzene
 Polyalkylene Glycol

Hygroscopy- polyol ester lubricants are more hygroscopic than mineral

oils. This therefore means that they have a high affinity for moisture and
thus they should be handled very carefully.

Safe Handling of oils

 Sealed storage always
 Short contact with air.
 No contact with moisture and excessive heat.
 Avoid skin contact
 Drain oil in recycling containers only.
 Do not mix with engine and gear box oils etc

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 REFRIGERANTS

A refrigerant is a heat carrying fluid (liquid or gas) which removes heat

from the refrigerated space and disposes it where it has little or no effect ie
atmospheric air or water.
Primary refrigerant is a volatile fluid which readily changes state from
liquid to gas (vaporization) as it gains heat in the evaporator and from gas to
liquid (condensation) as it looses the gained heat in the condenser.

N/B Refrigerants are identified by colour for easy identification and by

number.

Recovery of Refrigerants;
Recovery is the removal of refrigerant from a system into an external
container for either re-use or disposal through recommended methods.
N/B Refrigerants should never be vented into the atmosphere as some are
harmful to the Ozone layer and some contribute to Global warming.

Recycle of Refrigerants;
Recycle is the cleaning of recovered refrigerant using a Recycling machine
to remove oil, moisture as well as air (impurities) for re-use.

Reclaim of Refrigerants;
Reclaim is the purification of recovered refrigerant in a laboratory by
fractional distillation and chemical analysis to restore it to almost its original
state (virgin quality).

 Retrofit of Refrigerants;
Retrofit is the updating of a system using Ozone depleting refrigerants
to refrigerants which are friendly to the environment for example
changing over from R12 (CFC) to R134a (HFC).
- This involves changing oils from Mineral Oil (MO) to Polyol Ester -
Oil (POE).
- Changing metering/ expansion devices.
- Changing liquid line filter driers.
- Changing labels to show the new refrigerant which is now in use.

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Desirable properties

 Non toxic

 Non corrosive

 Low boiling point

 High latent heat value

 Non poisonous

 Non flammable

 less cost

 Low condensing pressure

 Inoffensive odour

N/B No single refrigerant possess all the desirable properties so

common refrigerants are in common use for different applications.

Classification of common refrigerants:

1) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC)

These are refrigerants that consist of three elements chlorine, fluorine

and carbon in varying ratios to come up with different physical and
chemical characteristics. They are non toxic, non poisonous, non
flammable and non corrosive. These refrigerants are fully
halogenated. They are also greenhouse gases. They have been phased
out due to high ozone depletion potential. The most common
refrigerants are

R11 (Trichlorofluoromethane) was widely used as a solvent in

refrigeration.
Colour code - Orange
R12 (dichlorodifluoromethane) was widely used in domestic
refrigeration and automobile air conditioning.

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 Colour code - White
2) Hydro chlorofluorocarbons (HCFC)

These are partially halogenated refrigerants. They are similar to CFCs

but possess an extra hydrogen element. This makes them less stable
than CFCs and they have a reduced potential for ozone depletion.
The most commonly used refrigerant is R22 (Chlorodifluoromethane).
It is widely used in low temperature applications.
Colour code - Green
3) Hydro fluorocarbons (HFC)

These refrigerants contain hydrogen, fluorine and carbon. They

possess more or less the same physical properties as CFCs but they
have a zero ozone depleting potential. The most common refrigerant
is R134 which is a replacement for R12.

R134a – Light blue

4) Hydrocarbons (HC)

These are hydrocarbon chains which are used as refrigerants. They

consist of hydrogen and carbon elements. They are highly flammable
and explosive. They must be used with caution.

Examples are R290 Propane, R170 Ethane and R600 Butane.

5) Natural Refrigerants

These refrigerants are found naturally and are not synthesised in the
laboratory. The most common refrigerants are R717 (Ammonia) and
R718 (Water)

Ammonia is toxic, flammable, corrosive to non ferrous metals,

poisonous and has an offensive odour.

Colour code for R717 - Silver

6) Blends – these are a mixture of two or more refrigerants.

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 - Zeotropic (Near Azeotropic Mixtures)

These are a mixture of two or more refrigerants. Their actual

composition is in the liquid phase. They have different behaviours in
vapour phase. They must be charged only in liquid phase.

e.g R406

- Azeotropic
The mixture behaves as a single component either in the liquid or
vapour phase.
The most common refrigerant is R502 which is a mixture of 48, 8%
R22 and 51, 2%R115
Colour code - Orchid
EFFECTS OF REFRIGERANTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT

1) Ozone Depletion
The ozone layer is a band of relatively high concentrated Ozone (O3). The
thin layer of ozone high in the Earth’s atmosphere plays a crucial role in
protecting life on the earth’s surface from harmful ultraviolet B radiation
emanating from the sun.
In the 1980s it was discovered that this ozone layer was vulnerable to
damage from chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other industrial chemicals.
Chlorine and bromine compounds which are stable, insoluble in water and
exist in the atmosphere for a long time are referred to as Ozone Depleting
Substances (ODSs)
Uses of ODSs
 CFCs were used as aerosol propellants in perfumes and insecticides
 CFCs were used in refrigeration and air conditioning
 Cleaning solvents
 CFCs were used as blowing agents in foam production.
 CFCs were used as sterilants in medical applications
 Halons containing bromine have been used as fire fighting agents in
fire extinguishers
 Methyl Bromide was used as a pesticide for soil and structural
fumigation.

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Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion
 Damages the DNA which suppresses immune system in humans
resulting in increase in opportunistic infections.
 skin cancer
 eye cataracts and blindness
 photo aging of the skin
 reduced quality and crop yields – susceptibility of plants to attach by
insects
 inhibition of photosynthesis
 damage to aquatic plants
 photo degradation of synthetic polymers e.g. plastics
 Affect mechanical properties of building materials
 Air pollution
 Acidification of rain, rivers, lakes and oceans.

The Ozone depleting Potential (ODP) is measured relative to R11 with an

ODP of 1. They rise in the stratosphere and breakdown in the presence of
solar radiation. Two reactions then take place.
 Chlorine combines with a molecule of Ozone to form chlorine
monoxide and oxygen.
Cl + O3 = ClO + O2
 The molecules of chlorine monoxide then combine with oxygen to
form oxygen molecules and chlorine molecules
2ClO + O2 = 2Cl + 2O2.
The chlorine molecules are once again free to combine with Ozone and the
process repeats for about 10000 times. This gives rise to the imbalance
between the natural formation and destruction of ozone.

2) Global Warming
This refers to the increased warming up of the globe which affects climate
change.
Solar radiation is converted to heat energy by contact with the atmosphere
and surface of the earth. A substantial amount of that heat is radiated back
towards space but some is trapped in the atmosphere by various gases. These
gases are called greenhouse gases. By raising the temperature of the earth's
surface these gases cause the effect called Global Warming. Carbon dioxide
is the most significant greenhouse gas together with refrigerants and other
gases. Greenhouse gases have a Global Warming Potential. (GWP)

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Global warming would give rise to climate change and climate change
would affect crop yields and possible melting of the polar ice caps. This
would lead to flooding of the low lying coastal areas.

The Montreal Protocol

The United Nations, through the United Nations environmental programme
(UNEP) , was instrumental in negotiating the 1985 Vienna Convention for
the Protection of the Ozone Layer, and the subsequent 1987 Montreal
Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone
Layer. These international treaties, which have now achieved almost
universal adherence, applied quantitative controls to the production
and consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS).In the
industrialized world, total phase out of most categories of ODS was
achieved by the end of 1995. Other ODS, including the CFC substitutes
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are due to be phased out at future dates.
Developing countries enjoy rather longer control schedules, with most ODS
having been phased out by 1January by 2010. The Montreal Protocol
contains a mechanism (the Multilateral Fund) for providing financial support
to developing countries to assist them in drawing up and implementing
ODS phase-out programmes. In Zimbabwe the Ministry of Environment
and Natural resources is the custodian of these programmes.

SYSTEM COMPONENTS

COMPRESSORS
A compressor is a motor driven device which is commonly referred to as the
heart of the system. The compressor is basically a pump which has an intake
side and a discharge side. The purpose of the compressor is to draw the low-
temperature, low-pressure vapour from the evaporator via the suction line.
Once drawn, the vapour is compressed and it temperature rises. The
compressor therefore transforms the vapour from a low-temperature vapour
to a high-temperature vapour, in turn increasing the pressure. The vapour is
then released from the compressor in to the discharge line.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPRESSORS
COMPRESSOR MODELS
a) Hermetic/Welded Compressors

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The motor is sealed inside a dome or housing with the compressor. It
is directly connected to the compressor. The motor rotor is press fit
onto the compressor crankshaft. The unit is usually spring mounted
inside the dome to prevent vibration. The exhaust and suction lines
are made flexible inside the dome. The electrical connections to the
seal pass through the dome by means of an insulated leak proof seal.
It has an internal and an external steel shell combined into a single
housing. The suction gas cools the motor area and an internal
accumulator prevents liquid from returning to the cylinder area. The
discharge line coiled to the dome keeps the oil warm enough to
evaporate liquid refrigerant that hay have returned. An internal
discharge muffler prevents excessive vapour pulsation and vibration.
An internal overload is mounted that senses temperature and
amperage.

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b) Accessible /Semi Hermetic

The reciprocating compressor component and stator /rotor are

mounted on one driveshaft, totally sealed from the atmosphere. A cast
iron crankcase with bolt on cylinder heads and end plates is used.
High and low pressure controls are fitted. Oil pressure switches are
also fitted to prevent seize ups when the lubricating system fails. In
large systems oil pumps driven by the shaft are used. To prevent
circulation of metallic swaff , a magnet is mounted in the crankcase

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c) Open Type Compressor

The compressor components are enclosed in the cast iron crankcase

assemblies. The drive shaft projects through an end cover and a shaft
seal prevents the escape of refrigerant and oil to the outside. The
protruding end of crankshaft is connected directly or through a belt
pulley kit to the driving motor. This model has one major advantage
that refrigerants e.g. R717 which are not compatible with motor
windings can be used. The compressor is serviceable and speeds can
be varied due to the use of an external drive kit by changing the motor
pulley.

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 TYPES OF COMPRESSORS

A. Positive Displacement Compressors

These are compressors that increase pressure by reducing volume of the

refrigerant.

1) Reciprocating Compressors

 The energy source is usually an electric motor. Its rotary motion must
be changed to reciprocating motion by a crank and rod mechanism.
The rod connects the crankshaft to the piston. The crankcase houses
the complete mechanism.
When the piston is at its highest level ,i.e. Top Dead Centre (TDC)
,there is a very small clearance as it is designed to come as close as
possible to the cylinder head but without touching it. The space
created is called the clearance space to prevent impact due to thermal
expansion and the trapped volume is called the clearance volume.
Both valves will be closed by spring action.
 The piston moves downwards thereby expanding the refrigerant and
lowering the pressure in the cylinder. The weakly tensioned spring
opens the suction valve due to differences in pressure. Low pressure

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 vapour is drawn into the cylinder until the Bottom Dead Centre
(BDC).
 During its upstroke both valves will be closed and the refrigerant is
compressed.
 As the piston approaches TDC pressure causes the discharge valve to
open as the condensing pressure plus the spring pressure is overcome.
The high pressure gas is discharged. The valve spring then closes the
discharge valve due to pressure equalisation in the discharge line and
cylinder.
2) Compressors With A Rotating Piston

a) Rotary compressors

This type has a rotating piston and has a suction accumulator. Lubrication is
released by means of a small propeller.
b) Screw compressors
This type of compressor comprises of a pair of inter meshing screws/rotors.
The meshing screw-rotors rotate in opposite directions, trapping refrigerant
vapor, and reducing the volume of the refrigerant along the rotors to the
discharge point. The pressure is thus reduced.
c) Scroll compressors

The refrigerant is compressed when one spiral orbits around a second

stationary spiral, creating smaller and smaller pockets and higher pressures.
By the time the refrigerant is discharged, it is fully pressurized.

B) Fluid Flow Engines

Centrifugal compressors are dynamic compressors. These compressors raise

the pressure of the refrigerant by imparting velocity or dynamic energy,
using a rotating impeller, and converting it to pressure energy. The vapour is
fed into housing near the centre of the compressor. A disc with radical
blades/impellers spins rapidly in this housing forcing vapour against outer
diameter there by increasing pressure.

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 CONDENSERS

It is a cooling coil whose purpose is to extract heat from the refrigerant to

the outside air. The hot refrigerant vapour cools as heat transfer by
conduction occurs through the metal walls into the condensing medium
which might be air or water.
The temperature of the high-pressure vapour determines the temperature at
which the condensation begins. As heat has to flow from the condenser to
the air, the condensation temperature must be higher than that of the air. The
high-pressure vapour within the condenser is then cooled to the point where
it becomes a liquid refrigerant once more, whilst retaining some heat. The
liquid refrigerant then flows from the condenser in to the liquid line.

They fall into three main groups

 Air cooled
 Water cooled
 Evaporative

1) AIR COOLED CONDENSERS

a) Natural Draught
They are used on domestic refrigerators and work by natural convection.
Condensers are sufficiently large to ensure that the liquid is sub-cooled to
below its condensing temperature.

They are of two types

 Plate condensers
 Finned condenser

b) Skin Wound
Copper or steel tubing is wound inside and spot welded or clamped in
contact with the outer skin of the cabinet. Heat is transferred to the ambient
air and removed by convection currents.

c) Finned/Forced Draught
Used where a considerable amount of heat must be removed. The
cooling coil is made up of a small surface area and with copper tubes
which are supplemented by aluminum fins spaced between 2 and 6 per
centimeter. A fan is used.

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 2) Water Cooled Condensers
The condensing medium is water which is continuously pumped away
and replaced by cool water.
They are of four types
 Shell and tube

 Shell and coil

 Tube in tube (Double Tube)
 Plate heat exchanger
An array of parallel, stainless steel plates is used. The hot gas condenses
on one side of the alternate plates with cooling water flowing on the other
side.

3) Evaporative Condensers
They use both air and water as condensing media.

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 THE EXPANSION OR METERING DEVICE

Within the refrigeration system, the expansion valve is located at the end of
the liquid line, before the evaporator. The high-pressure liquid reaches the
expansion valve, having come from the condenser. The valve then reduces
the pressure of the refrigerant as it passes through the orifice, which is
located inside the valve. On reducing the pressure, the temperature of the
refrigerant also decreases to a level below the surrounding air. This low-
pressure, low-temperature liquid is then pumped in to the evaporator.

The common expansion devices are

 The capillary tube
 The hand expansion valve
 The automatic expansion valve
 Thermostatic expansion valve
 Low side float valve
 High side float valve
 Electronic expansion valve
 Fixed orifice tube

EVAPORATORS

The evaporator is a heat exchanger surface that transfers the heat from the
substance to be cooled to the refrigerant, thus removing the heat from the
substance.
In the evaporator the refrigerant enters at very low pressure and temperature
after passing through the expansion valve. The level of this pressure is
determined by two factors
 The rate at which the heat is absorbed from the product to the liquid
refrigerant in the evaporator.
 The rate at which the low pressure vapor is removed from the
evaporator by the compressor.

This refrigerant absorbs the heat from the substance that is to be cooled so
the refrigerant gets heated while the substance gets cooled. Even after
cooling the substance the temperature of the refrigerant leaving the
evaporator is less than that of the substance. The refrigerant leaves the
evaporator in vapor state, mostly superheated and is absorbed by the
compressor.

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The evaporators are used for wide variety of diverse applications in
refrigeration and air conditioning processes and hence they are available in
wide variety of shapes, sizes and designs. They are also classified in
different manner depending on the method of feeding the refrigerant,
construction of the evaporator, direction of air circulation around the
evaporator, application and also the refrigerant control.

Classification of the Evaporators

In large refrigeration and air conditioning plants the shell and tube type of
heat exchangers are used as the evaporators. In such plants they are
classified as:

1) Dry expansion type

2) Flooded type

In domestic refrigerators and air conditioners, the evaporators used are

classified based on their construction as:

1) Bare tube evaporators

2) Roll Bond evaporators

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3) Finned evaporators

The finned evaporator is designed for forced air circulation over the
parallel evaporator coils. It is similar in construction to the finned
condenser.

THE MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION CYCLE

A refrigeration cycle describes the changes that take place in the refrigerant
as it alternately absorbs and rejects heat as it circulates through a
refrigerator. Heat naturally flows from hot to cold. Work is applied to cool a
living space or storage volume by pumping heat from a lower temperature
heat source into a higher temperature heat sink. Insulation is used to reduce
the work and energy required to achieve and maintain a lower temperature in
the cooled space.

The Mechanical Refrigeration cycle

The Refrigeration cycle is divided into two distinct zones, the High pressure
and the low pressure zone. The cycle begins with the low pressure /low
temperature liquid refrigerant in the evaporator. The refrigerant absorbs heat
from the refrigerated space or products and changes state to a gas. The low
pressure/low temperature suction or return gas is drawn by the compressor.
The compressor transforms the refrigerant vapor to a high pressure and high
temperature. The refrigerant is then discharged into the discharge line and
then into the condenser. In the condenser the refrigerant looses the heat that
was absorbed in the evaporator as it condenses into a liquid.

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By the end of the condenser all the refrigerant should be in the liquid state.
The refrigerant then goes to the expansion device via the liquid line. In the
expansion device the refrigerant pressure and temperature are reduced to
vaporizing temperatures before it is absorbed by the evaporator. The system
cycles on until desired temperatures are attained and then it will cycle off
using a cycling device e.g. a thermostat. There are some additions to this
basic cycle to suit different applications.

REFRIGERATION PIPING

The various materials used for piping in refrigeration and air

conditioning systems. The choice of piping to be used depends on the
nature of the refrigeration system, the refrigerant and type of lubricant
used in the system. The pipes must be free from moisture and dirt e.g
acids and metallic swarf. The most common ones are:
 Hard drawn soft tubing
 Soft drawn copper tubing
 Steel
 Aluminium
 Flexible hoses
 Brass

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 BRAZING

Brazing of Copper and Copper Alloys:

The principle of brazing is to join two metals by fusing with a filler metal.
The filler metal must have a lower melting point than the base metals but
greater than 450°C (use of a filler metal with a melting point less than 450°C
is soldering). The filler metal is usually required to flow into a narrow gap
between the parts by capillary action.
Brazing is used widely for the joining of copper and copper alloys, with the
exception of Aluminum bronzes containing greater than 10 percent
aluminium.
To achieve an adequate bond during brazing, the following points should be
considered:
1. The joint surfaces must be clean and free of oxides etc.
2. The correct joint gap for the particular brazing filler metal must be
provided.
3. The establishment of the correct heating pattern so that the filler metal
flows up the thermal gradient into the joint.

LEAK DETECTION

Pressure test the system to be evacuated with dry nitrogen and a trace charge
of refrigerant. Be sure not to exceed the manufacturer's test pressure limits.
Allow the system to stand under pressure. If no drop in pressure is noted
over a 12-hour period, you can rest assured the system is sealed.

Methods of Refrigerant Leak Detection

One of the most difficult areas of sealed system servicing can be trying to
find a refrigerant leak. The methods used are

1) Bubble Test (Soap Solution)

2) Water Immersion Method
3) Halide Torch
4) Dye Interception Method
5) Red Litmus Paper
6) Standing Hold Test
7) Isolation of the Sealed System
8) Electronic Leak Detectors

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 9) Ultrasonic Leak Detectors

10) Sulphur candles

EVACUATION AND DEHYDRATION

After completion of the piping pressure test; the refrigeration system

shall be evacuated and dehydrated with a vacuum pump. A
refrigeration system is evacuated if the internal pressure of a sealed
refrigeration system is reduced to about 29 in. Hg. Air, moisture and
non condensable gases will have been removed. A micron gauge
measures deep vacuum below 29 in. Hg provided the system is
completely sealed.

CHARGING
The common methods of charging a refrigeration system are

1) Vapour charging – This is specially used in small units i.e. domestic

applications.
2) Liquid charging is used in large systems.

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BASIC ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES

Voltage

Voltage is the electrical force that causes current to flow in a circuit. It is

measured in VOLTS.

Electrical Current

Current is the movement of electrical charge - the flow of electrons other

charged particles through the electronic circuit. The direction of a current is
opposite to electrons flow direction. Current is measured in AMPERES
(AMPS, A).

Resistance

Resistance causes an opposition to the flow of electricity in a circuit. It is

used to control the amount of voltage and/or amperage in a circuit. It is
measured in OHMS.

Ohm’s law

Ohm's law is the main basic electrical law and defines the resistance of a
device to the flow of electrons.

There are three different notations of Ohm’s law

1. Unknown current

2. Unknown voltage

3. Unknown resistance

Resistors in Series & Resistors in Parallel

A series circuit is one with all the loads in a row. The resistors are like links
in a chain. There is only one path for the electricity to flow.

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A parallel circuit is one that has two or more paths for the electricity to flow.
In other words, the loads are parallel to each other.

Electromagnet

An electromagnet is a type of magnet whose magnetic field is produced by

the flow of electric current. The magnetic field disappears when the current
ceases.

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Electromagnetic induction

Electromagnetic induction is the production of voltage across a conductor

situated in a changing magnetic field or a conductor moving through a
stationary magnetic field. Voltage is produced in a coil due to relative
motion between the coil and magnetic lines of force.

Alternating Current (AC), Voltage, sinusoidal Waveform,

Alternating current (AC) electricity is the type of electricity commonly used

in homes and businesses throughout the world. AC electricity alternates its
direction in a back-and-forth motion. The direction alternates between 50
and 60 times per second.

AC electricity is created by an AC electric generator, which determines the

frequency. In an AC electricity the voltage can be readily changed, thus
making it more suitable for long-distance transmission than DC electricity.
AC can employ capacitors and inductors in electronic circuitry, allowing for
a wide range of applications.

MOTORS

A motor uses magnets to create motion. Opposites poles attract and

like poles repel. So if you have two bar magnets with their ends
marked "north" and "south," then the north end of one magnet will
attract the south end of the other. On the other hand, the north end of
one magnet will repel the north end of the other. Inside an electric
motor, these attracting and repelling forces create rotational motion.
The armature (or rotor) is an electromagnet. The motor has copper
wound around a soft iron core. The field magnet is still a permanent
magnet.

In refrigeration single phase and three phase AC motors are used.

Single Phase Ac Motors

The many types of single-phase motors are distinguished by the means by

which they are started. Those used in Refrigeration and Air conditioning are

1) Shaded Pole

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 2) Split Phase
3) Capacitor Start
4) Capacitor start capacitor run
5) Permanent Split capacitor

Split Phase Motor

The Split Phase Motor, also called an induction-start/induction-run motor,

is probably the simplest single-phase motor made for industrial use. It has
two windings: a start and a main winding, Figure 1. The start winding is
made with smaller gage wire and fewer turns relative to the main winding to
create more resistance, thus putting the start winding's field at a different
angle than that of the main winding, and causing the motor to rotate. The
main winding, of heavier wire, keeps the motor running the rest of the time.
A split-phase motor uses a switching mechanism (relay) that disconnects the
start winding from the main winding when the motor comes up to about 75%
of rated speed. It is less expensive than other single-phase motor types. The
starting torques are low and are used up to 1/3 HP. This is commonly used in
domestic refrigeration applications.

COMMON FAULTS IN DOMESTIC REFRIGERATION

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Common
Remedial Action
Problems
1. Does not run, no light in refrigerator
a. No power
- AC outlet defective or open
Check power supply
circuit
- service cord defective Replace

2. Does not run, light in refrigerator works

a. Temperature control defective Replace
b. Defrost timer defective Replace
c. Start relay defective Replace
d. Compressor failure Replace

3. Does not run for period of time after

defrost
a. Defrost terminator defective Replace
b. Defrost timer defective Replace

4. Runs continuously with no cooling

Leak test, repair, evacuate
a. Loss of refrigerant charge
and charge system
b. Insufficient compressor
Replace compressor
pumping efficiency

5. Runs continuously, unit too cold

a. Temperature control defective Replace
b. Temperature control out of
Reset
adjustment

6. Runs excessively, freezer & refrigerator

not cold enough
a. Evaporator fan defective Replace
b. Defrost timer defective Replace

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 c. Compressor failure Replace
d. Condenser fan defective Replace
e. Dirty condenser Replace

7. Runs & cycles, refrigerator normal,

freezer not cold enough
a. Poor door seal on freezer Replace
b. Light stays on in freezer Replace switch
c. Excessive door openings Advice
d. To much warm food placed in
Advice
freezer at one time

8. Refrigerator normal, but sweating

a. Interior
- Bad door seals Replace or adjust
b. Exterior
- Void in insulation No repair
- Bad door seals Replace

9. Excessively noisy
a. Unit not level Level unit
b. Internal compressor problem Not repairable
c. Condenser fan defective Replace
d. Evaporator fan defective Replace
e. Defrost water pan rattles Reposition pan

10. Water leaking inside refrigerator

a. Restriction in drain system Service

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 PRACTICALS

 Cutting , flaring and swaging copper tubing

 Brazing copper tubing
 Evacuation and dehydration
 Leak detection
 Charging domestic refrigerator
 Wiring domestic refrigerator
 Pinching off the unit

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1) Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning by Athouse et al

2) Air Conditioning Engineering 4th edition by W. P. Jones
3) Tropical Refrigeration and Air Conditioning by L.W Cottell et al
4) A course in Refrigeration and Air Conditioning (Environmental
Engineering) 4th edition by S. C. Arora & S. Domkundwar
5) www.wztaikang.com
6) www.panelworld.co.za
7) www.wolflabs.co.uk

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