CHAPTER

Formulation of Aquafeeds
MAE R. CATACUTAN
4
Introduction
The developm ent o f a feed that is both effective and economical for an
aquaculture species in all its life stages is a continuous effort. Aquafeed
d evelop m en t started w h en natu ral food sources in cu ltu re system s
became inadequate and had to be supplemented with prepared feed. As
fish stocking densities in culture increase, supplem ental feeding is no
longer sufficient. A complete feed that contains all the necessary nutrients
in s u ffic ie n t a m o u n ts to b rin g a b o u t good gro w th , su rviva l, and
reproduction is needed. Feed ingredients generally come from animal or
plant sources and some are by-products of the food industry. There is no
sin gle feed in gred ien t or fe ed stu ff that contains all the nu trients in
adequate amounts. Thus, different feed ingredients are combined to make
a feed that has the desired composition and nutrient levels. In combining
various feed ingredients, it is important to know how much of each feed
ingredient should be used to produce a cost-effective aquafeed.
W ith the growth and expansion of aquaculture into a major industry,
several fish species are being cultured; thus, the development o f more
efficien t aquafeed form u lations should continue. In developing cost-
effective formulated diets, many important factors have to be considered.
This chapter discusses these factors and the mathematical calculations
in formulating a feed. It aims to enable students to formulate diets using
purified and practical feed ingredients, and also to formulate effective
supplem ental and complete diets for aquaculture species.

Feed Ingredients for Aquaculture

Feed ingredients or feedstuffs for aquaculture come from many different

sources and are used because oftentimes they are not utilized for human
consum ption. The choice o f a feed ingredient in aquafeed form ulation
d e p e n d s on: c o n te n t o f e s s e n tia l n u trie n ts ; d ig e s tib ility and
bioavailability; absence o f antinutritional factors and toxic substances;
com m ercial availability; and cost.
Anim al and plant m aterials are the m ost common feed ingredients.
Some wastes and by-products of the food industry are also utilized. There
100 CHAPTER 4 NUTRITION IN TROPICAL AQUACULTURE

Table 4.1 Some sources of protein, lipid, and carbohydrate in are feed ingredients that are indigenous in
aquaculture feeds som e a rea s and m ay n ot be a v a ila b le in
P ro te in
Lipid
C a r b o h y d r a te
commercial quantities. Some feed ingredients
for aquaculture feeds are listed in Table 4.1
B lo o d m e a l B e e f ta llo w B re a d flo u r
C o p ra m e a l C o rn o il
and shown in Figure 4.1.
C a s s a v a s ta rc h
D e fa tte d s o y b e a n m e a l C o d liv e r o il C o rn m e a l
Feedstuffs o f animal origin usually contain
F is h m e a l C o c o n u t o il C o rn s ta rc h high amounts of protein with good amino acid
M eat and bone m eal C o tto n s e e d o il F in e ric e b ra n p ro file (T a b le 4 .2 ). A p ro te in so u rc e is
S h rim p h e a d m e a l M e n h a d e n o il S a g o p a lm s ta rc h considered good if the am ino acid profile is
S h rim p m e a l P o lla c k liv e r oil Seaw eeds close to that o f the species being fed. Some
S q u id m e a l T u n a liv e r oil p la n t p ro te in s o u rc e s h a ve h igh p ro te in
T ra s h fis h S q u id liv e r o il content but they often have in ferior am ino
Y e a st S o y b e a n o il
acid p ro file s com p ared w ith p ro tein from
anim al sources. Feedstuffs from plants are
good sources of carbohydrate, and some are o f good protein quality such
as soybean meal. Some protein sources like legumes and nuts are also
sources of energy but are more expensive than the common carbohydrate
sources with high levels o f digestible carbohydrate such as sago palm
starch and bread flour. Generally, carbohydrates are cheaper sources of
energy (Figure 4.2) than lipid or fat sources. They are also used as feed

F ig u r e 4 .1
Some feedstuffs for aquafeeds, fish offal (A) shrimp meal (B) animal meat waste (C) meat and
bone meal (D) soybean meal (E) and yeast (F).
 CHAPTER 4 Formulation of Aquafeeds 101
Table 4.2 Amino acid composition of some fish meals (FM), leaf meals (LM) and other protein sources
Amount (g/100 g protein)

A m in o acid W h ite P e ru via n S apsap Tuna Tabagak S h rim p S q u id Soybean Kangkong C a m o te Ipil-ip il A c a c ia
FM FM FM FM FM m eal m eal m eal LM LM LM LM TamarindLM

A la n in e 6 .0 6.1 6 .7 5 .0 5 .5 5 .5 5 .8 4 .0 5 .0 5 .2 6 .2 3 .2 3 .6
A r g in in e 6 .2 5 .5 4 .0 5 .4 4 .7 7.1 7 .5 6 .0 3 .3 3 .7 5 .2 2 .2 2 .4
A s p a rtic a c id 9 .4 8 .7 9 .5 8 .5 8.1 8 .3 10.1 11.1 8 .7 1 0 .2 1 1 .4 6 .3 7 .6
C y s tin e 0 .7 0 .9 0 .8 0 .7 0 .9 0 .6 0 .9 1.2 0 .5 0 .3 0 .6 0 .5 0 .5
G lu ta m ic a c id 1 3 .8 1 3 .2 1 4 .9 1 1 .2 1 1 .3 1 2 .4 1 5 .8 1 8 .7 8 .8 1 0 .2 1 1 .2 6 .6 7 .6
G ly c in e 7 .0 5 .4 6 .4 5 .2 5 .3 4 .9 5 .7 4 .0 4 .3 4 .7 6 .0 3 .2 4 .0
H is tid in e 2 .2 1 .8 3 .9 5 .6 2 .3 2.1 2 .2 3 .2 2 .7 2 .8 1 .4 3 .9 4 .0
Is o le u c in e 3 .9 4.1 4 .5 3 .9 4 .2 3 .8 4 .2 4 .5 3 .4 3 .7 6 .6 2 .4 3 .0
L e u c in e 7 .4 7.1 7 .5 6 .5 6 .6 6.7 7 .7 7 .2 6 .5 7 .9 6 .6 4 .8 5 .7
L y s in e 7 .7 7 .4 7 .3 6 .2 7 .3 6 .3 7 .8 5 .8 4 .6 4 .4 6.1 2 .9 3 .4
M e t h io n in e 3 .0 2 .8 2 .9 2 .3 2 .8 2 .4 2 .8 1 .4 1 .5 1 .8 1 .2 0 .9 0 .9
P h e n y la la n in e 4 .3 3 .8 3 .8 3 .8 3 .5 3 .8 3 .4 5 .2 5 .7 6 .5 3 .9 3 .8 4 .2
P r o lin e 4 .3 4 .2 3 .5 3 .7 3 .0 3 .2 3 .8 5 .5 3 .9 3 .8 5 .5 3 .6 3 .8
S e r in e 4 .4 3 .6 3 .4 3 .3 3.1 3.1 3 .9 5 .2 3 .7 4 .3 4 .4 3 .2 3 .8
T h r e o n in e 4 .2 3 .9 3 .9 3 .6 3 .7 3 .6 4.1 3 .8 3 .9 4 .4 5.1 2 .7 3 .6
T r y p to p h a n 1 .0 0 .7 1.2 0 .8 0 .8 1.1 1 .0 0 .4 NA NA NA NA NA
T y r o s in e 3 .8 3 .2 4 .4 2 .6 3 .3 3 .3 3.1 2 .7 4.1 6 .5 3 .4 3 .5 3 .0
V a lin e 5.1 5 .2 5 .2 4 .5 4 .9 4 .3 4 .3 4 .4 5 .3 5 .8 6 .3 3 .5 3 .9
% P ro te in 7 0 .5 7 0 .5 6 6 .0 7 7 .2 7 8 .4 7 1 .8 7 8 .7 4 3 .8 3 1 .9 3 0 .8 2 7 .8 2 5 .3 15.1

Values given are means; NA, not analyzed

Source: Peñaflorida 1989

Figure 4 .2
Some sources of dietary energy are corn (A), rice bran (B), cassava (C).

binders. Aside from carbohydrates, lipids are also used as sources of

energy. They also provide essential fatty acids in fish diets. Examples of
com m only used dietary lipid sources are fish liver oils and plant oils
such as soybean oil and com oil.
The choice o f a feed ingredient is mainly dependent on the amount of
essen tia l n u trien ts th a t it con tain s. T ab le 4.3 gives the proxim ate
com position (crude protein, crude fat, digestible carbohydrate or NFE,
crude fiber, and ash) of some feed ingredients. Feedstuffs containing high
amounts of protein with good amino acid profile are usually expensive and
their use is constrained by cost. The bioavailability o f nutrients present
in a feedstuff varies for different aquaculture species and will influence
the level o f inclusion o f a feedstuff in the feed formula. Although feedstuffs
m ay contain the sam e am ount o f nutrient, for exam ple protein, the
feedstuff with more digestible protein should be chosen over that with
102 CHAPTER 4 NUTRITION IN TROPICAL AQUACULTURE

Table 4.3 Proximate composition of some feed ingredients analyzed by the Centralized
Analytical Laboratory at Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center,
Aquaculture Department *

A m o u n t (% d ry m a tte r)

Crude
M o is tu re C ru d e C ru d e N F E ** A sh
Fiber
P ro te in Fat

A n im a l:
F is h m e a l (F M , lo c a l) (6) 1 0 .3 64.1 6 .5 0 .8 8 .5 20 .1
F M , C h ile a n (2 7 ) 8 .4 70 .1 8 .5 0 .5 4.1 1 6 .8
F M , D a n is h (2) 9 .5 7 3 .9 9 .4 0 .3 2 .4 1 4 .0
F M , P e ru v ia n (3 0 ) 8 .3 6 8 .3 5 .9 0 .8 7 .7 1 7 .3
F M , P e ru v ia n (2 6 ) 7.1 6 7 .9 1 0 .0 1.3 4.1 1 6 .7
F M , tu n a (9) 9 .4 6 5 .4 8 .0 0 .8 8 .8 1 7 .0
F M , w h ite (1 1 ) 7 .2 6 9 .0 7 .6 0 .6 4 .8 1 8 .0
P ra w n h e a d m e a l (3 5 ) 6 .5 5 1 .2 5 .2 1 3 .3 5 .3 2 5 .0
S h rim p m e a l, A c e te s sp . (6 0 ) 8 .2 6 8 .6 3 .9 3 .6 7 .6 1 6 .3
S q u id m e a l (6 0 ) 6 .9 7 8 .5 5 .5 1.3 6 .7 8 .0
S q u id m e a l, s c ra p (4) 5 .5 74.1 7.1 0 .9 8.1 9 .8
F ro g m e a l (2 ) 7 .6 6 2 .5 1.7 1.2 4 .7 2 9 .9
B lo o d m e a l (2) 6 .3 8 7 .7 3 .0 0 .4 3 .3 5 .6
M e a t a n d b o n e m e a l (1 9 ) 5 .6 4 6 .8 9 .6 2 .0 7 .5 34 .1
P la n t:
A c a c ia L e a f M e a l (L M ) (2) 4 .4 2 5 .7 5 .6 2 1 .2 4 1 .7 5 .8
A lfa lfa LM 7 .2 1 7 .2 3 .0 2 7 .7 4 2 .9 9 .2
C a m o te L M , (7) 4 .5 2 9 .7 4 .9 1 0 .0 4 3 .2 1 2 .2
C a s s a v a L M , (8) 5 .9 22 .1 9 .3 1 2 .4 4 9 .2 7 .0
Ip il-ip il L M , g ia n t (1 4 ) 7 .8 25 .1 6 .8 1 0 .6 4 4 .0 1 3 .5
Ip il-ip il L M , n a tiv e (6) 1 0 .3 2 9 .3 8 .8 1 1 .5 4 3 .5 6 .9
K a n g -k o n g L M (6) 5 .7 2 8 .5 5 .4 1 0 .5 4 3 .6 1 2 .0
M a lu n g g a y L M (7 ) 3 .5 3 0 .4 8 .4 8 .3 4 3 .7 9 .2
P a p a y a L M (1 0 ) 5 .4 2 0 .7 1 1 .6 1 1 .2 4 2 .6 1 3 .9
C o p ra m e a l (1 0 ) 7 .9 2 2 .0 6 .7 1 7 .3 4 4 .3 9 .7
C o w p e a (7) 8 .0 2 3 .0 1.3 4.1 6 7 .5 4.1
C o w p e a , d e h u lle d (2 ) 7 .7 2 5 .4 0 .9 1.4 6 8 .3 4 .0
M u n g b e a n , g re e n (5) 7.1 2 3 .2 1.2 3.1 6 8 .7 3 .8
M u n g b e a n , y e llo w (5) 7 .7 24.1 1.1 3 .8 67 .1 3 .9
R ic e b e a n (2 ) 5 .0 2 6 .5 0 .8 4 .0 6 4 .6 4.1
C o rn m e a l (1 0 ) 8 .4 7 .8 4 .7 2 .6 83 .1 1.8
C o rn s ta rc h (5) 1 1 .9 0 .4 0 .2 1.1 9 8 .2 0.1
F lo u r, b re a d (4 0 ) 12.1 1 2 .9 1.2 0 .3 8 4 .9 0 .7
F lo u r, w h o le w h e a t (1 5 ) 1 1 .3 1 5 .3 1.7 0 .8 81.1 1.1
W h e a t, P o lla rd (4) 9 .5 1 5 .4 4 .5 1 0 .3 6 4 .0 5 .8
G e rm , w h e a t (2) 6 .0 2 7 .8 4 .3 3 .4 5 9 .6 4 .9
G lu te n , c o rn (5) 7 .3 6 2 .6 7 .7 2 .2 2 5 .9 1.6
G lu te n , w h e a t (6) 8 .9 8 0 .7 1.4 0 .4 1 6 .4 1.1
R ic e b ra n (7 8 ) 9 .2 1 3 .3 14.1 8 .5 5 3 .4 1 0 .7
R ic e b ra n , tik i-tik i (5) 1 0 .7 1 8 .0 2 .0 8 .0 6 2 .4 9 .6
R ic e h u ll (7) 7 .0 3 .3 2 .0 3 2 .4 4 1 .6 2 0 .7
S o y b e a n m e a l, a s is (2 1 ) 5 .6 3 5 .8 1 9 .8 4 .9 3 3 .9 5 .6
S o y b e a n m e a l, d e fa tte d (1 0 8 ) 8 .4 4 3 .6 1.5 5 .5 4 1 .7 7 .7
O th e r s o u rc e s :
C a s e in (1 1 ) 7 .2 8 9 .7 0.1 0 .3 8 .9 1.0
C ra b m e a l (2 ) 4 .2 3 7 .9 4.1 1 0 .7 8 .9 3 8 .4
G e la tin (6 ) 7 .9 9 4 .4 0 .0 0.1 5.1 0 .4
M u s s e l m e a l, g re e n (3 0 ) 5 .9 6 4 .6 8 .6 3 .0 1 2 .5 1 1 .8
O y s te r m e a l (6) 4 .4 5 4 .6 9 .4 4 .0 2 0 .1 1 1 .9
S c a llo p m e a l (2) 7 .3 6 5 .2 1 0 .9 1.4 8 .8 1 3 .7
S n a il m e a l, k u h o l (5) 4 .0 52.1 1.8 2.1 1 5 .7 2 8 .3
Y ea st, B re w e rs (2) 7 .2 4 9 .4 1.6 2 .4 3 4 .5 12.1
 CHAPTER 4 Formulation of Aquafeeds 103
Table 4.3 (continued)

A m o u n t (% d ry m a tte r)

M o is tu r e C ru d e C ru d e N F E ** A sh
P ro te in Fat

Y e a s t, C a n d id a (3) 8 .3 5 5 .2 0 .8 1.7 35.1 7 .4

N a tu r a l F o o d :
A c a r tia s p . (c o p e p o d s ) 7 .8 7 1 .2 8 .3 5 .4 9 .9 5 .2
A rte m ia (3 7 ) 8 .0 5 5 .5 6 .8 1 1 .3 1 5 .0 1 1 .4
A z o lla (2 ) 8 .0 2 7 .2 3 .4 1 2 .9 3 6 .5 2 0 .0
B ra c h io n u s s p . (5) 8.1 5 1 .9 1 0 .4 3 .5 1 5 .3 1 8 .9
C h a e to c e r o s c a lc itr a n s (7 ) 7 .6 2 4 .4 7.1 2 .5 2 6 .7 3 9 .3
C h lo re lla , m a rin e (3) 10.1 35.1 4 .2 5 .6 2 7 .7 2 7 .4
Is o c h r y s is g a lb a n a (2) 1 0 .4 3 3 .6 18.1 4 .4 2 3 .0 2 0 .9
M o in a m a c r o c o p a (3 ) 8 .5 5 7 .8 7 .6 8 .4 1 7 .2 9 .0
S a rg a s s u m (2) 1 0 .4 9 .0 0 .8 9 .6 4 6 .4 3 4 .2
S k e le to n e m a s p . (4) 1 0 .4 2 4 .7 2 .6 0 .7 2 0 .2 5 1 .8
S p iru lin a (2) 8 .0 5 6 .7 2 .8 0 .6 28.1 1 1 .8
T e tra s e lm is sp. (4) 5 .5 4 9 .1 1 0 .7 2.1 1 9 .0 19.1
D ig m a n (4) 9 .8 2 0 .6 3 .3 1 6 .4 3 5 .9 2 3 .8
E n te ro m o rp h a (lu m o t) (1 5 ) 1 5 .2 1 3 .8 1.9 9 .3 3 6 .9 38.1
G r a c ila r ia s p . (1 8 ) 7 .0 1 0 .2 0 .4 5 .8 4 4 .8 3 8 .8
K a p p a p h y c u s s p . (1 0 ) 6.1 5 .4 0 .8 6.1 5 7 .3 3 0 .4

* Values are means for the number of samples given in parentheses. Not all feed ingredients are available in
commercial quantities but may be used where they are commonly found in large amounts.
**NFE - Nitrogen-free extract

poor p rotein ava ila b ility. Th e d ig estib ility o f protein (expressed in

percentage) in some feedstuffs for some aquaculture species are listed
in Table 4.4.

Table 4.4 Apparent protein digestibility coefficients (APDC) in % of some feedstuffs for
aquaculture species
A q u a c u ltu r e S p e c ie s F e e d s tu ffs APDC % R e fe re n c e s

S h rim p
T ig e r s h rim p F is h m e a l 61 C a ta c u ta n 1 9 9 7
S o y b e a n m e a l, d e fa tte d 93
S q u id m e a l 96
S h rim p m e a l 95
S h rim p h e a d m e a l 89
M eat and bone m eal 74
Y e a st C a n d id a sp. 93
C o p ra m e a l 75
F is h
M ilk fis h F ish m e a l 4 5 -8 1 * F e rra ris e t al. 1 9 8 6
D e fa tte d s o y b e a n m e a l 4 5 -9 4 *
C a rp W h ite fis h m e a l, 95 N R C 1977
m e c h a n ic a l e x tra c te d
S o y b e a n s e e d m e a l, 8 1 -9 6
s o lv e n t e x tra c te d
R e d s e a b re a m W h ite fis h m e a l, 6 1 -8 7
m e c h a n ic a l e x tra c te d
C h a n n e l c a tfis h S o y b e a n s e e d m e a l, 7 2 -8 4
s o lv e n t e x tra c te d

* tested at different salinities

104 CHAPTER 4 NUTRITION IN TROPICAL AQUACULTURE

Many other components are added in the feed formula aside from the
major sources of nutrients. In complete feed formulations, micronutrients
are added in small amounts in the form of vitamin and mineral mixtures.
Examples of these mixes for crustaceans and fishes are shown in Tables
4.5, 4.6, and 4.7. For econom ic reasons, other substances are also

Table 4 .5 Vitamin and mineral mixtures for crustaceans (A) and tiger shrimp juvenile (B).
m g /1 0 0 g d ry d ie t

A* B **

T h ia m in e H C l ( B 1) 1 .2 6 4 .0
P y rid o x in e H C l (B 2) 3 .7 0 1 2 .0
R ib o fla v in (B 6) 2 .5 7 8 .0
C y a n o c o b a la m in ( B 12) 0 .0 2 5 0 .0 8
N ic o tin ic a c id 1 2 .6 2 4 0 .0
F o lic a c id 0 .2 5 0 .8
B io tin 0 .1 3 0 .4
P a ra a m in o b e n z o ic a c id 3 .1 6 1 0 .0
C a lc iu m p a n to th e n a te 1 8 .9 3 6 0 .0
In o s ito l 1 2 6 .1 8 4 0 0 .0
N a -a s c o rb a te (C ) 6 3 0 .9 2 2 0 0 0 .0
C h o lin e c h lo r id e 1 8 9 .2 7 6 0 0 .0
β -c a ro te n e (A ) 3 .0 3 9 .6
C a lc ife ro l (D ) 0 .3 8 1 .2
α -to c o p h e r o l (E ) 6.3 1 2 0 .0
M e n a d io n e (K ) 1 .2 6 4 .0

TOTAL 1 0 0 0 .0 0 3 1 7 0 .0 8

g /1 0 0 g d ry d ie t
M IN E R A L S
A* B **

K 2H P O 4 2 .3 3 9 2 .0 0 0
C a 3 (P O 4)2 3 .1 8 1 2 .7 2 0
M g S O 4.7 H 2O 3 .5 5 6 3 .0 4 1
N a H 2P O 4.2 H 2O 0 .9 2 4 0 .7 9 0

TOTAL 1 0 .0 0 0 8 .5 5 1

* Source: Teshima and Kanazawa 1982

included in the feed form ula to reduce fines during feed m anufacture,
and storage losses due to feed degradation and spoilage, and im prove
feed durability during handling and w ater stability. These substances
include synthetic binders, antioxidants, and mold inhibitors. To make
feed m ore attractive to fish, pigm ents and attractants m ay be added
(Table 4.8).

Feed Formulation

Feed form u lation is a process that in volves com b in in g variou s feed

ingredients, which contain different amounts o f nutrients, so that the
resulting composition would meet the specific requirement of the cultured
species. The nutrient levels o f feed ingredients to be used are balanced
mathematically in order to come up with the desired final composition.
 CHAPTER 4 Formulation o f Aquafeeds 105
Table 4 .6 Recommended vitamin mixture for warmwater fishes such
as milkfish, sea bass, and catfish *
V ita m in A m o u n t (p e r kg ) in d ry d ie ta
S u p p le m e n ta l C o m p le te

V ita m in A a c tiv ity 2 ,0 0 0 IU 5 ,5 0 0 IU

V ita m in D 3 a c tiv ity 2 2 0 IU 1 ,0 0 0 IU
V ita m in E 11 IU 5 0 IU
V ita m in K 5 mg 10 m g
C h o lin e 440 mg 550 mg
N ia c in 17 - 2 8 b m g 100 m g
R ib o fla v in 2 -7 b m g 20 mg
P y r id o x in e 11 m g 20 mg
T h ia m in 0 20 mg
C a lc iu m p a n to th e n a te 7 - 1 1b m g 50 mg
B io tin 0 0.1 m g
F o la c in 0 5 mg
V ita m in B 12 2 -1 0 m g 20 mg
A s c o r b ic a c id 0 -1 0 0 b m g 3 0 -1 0 0 b m g
In o s ito l 0 100 m g

a These am ounts do not allow fo r processing or storage losses.

b H ighest am ounts are appropriate when “standing crop” of fish exceeds 500 kg/hectare.
* S o u rce : N R C 1977.

Table 4.7 Mineral m ixtures for purified and Table 4.8 Other feed additives
practical warm w ater fish diets*
F e e d B in d e rs
M in e r a l D ry D ie t (g /1 0 0 g ) agar
a lg in ic a c id
P r a c tic a l D ie ts
a s ta rc h
CaCO 3 0 .7 5 0
b e n to n ite s
M n S O 4.H 2O 0 .0 3 0
c a r b o x y m e th y c e llu lo s e (C M C )
Z n S O 4.7 H 2O 0 .0 7 0
c a rra g e e n a n
C u S O 4.5 H 2O 0 .0 0 6 g e la tin
F e S O 4.7 H 2O 0 .0 5 0 g ra c ila ria (d rie d a n d g ro u n d )
NaCl 0 .7 5 0 h e m ic e llu lo s e
K IO 3 0 .0 0 0 2 lig n o s u lfa te s
C a H P O 4.2 H 2O 2 .0 0
A n tio x id a n ts
P u r ifie d D ie ts
v ita m in C
C a H P O 4.2 H 2O 2 .0 7
b u ty la te d h y d ro x y a n is o le (B H A )
CaCO 3 1 .4 8
b u ty la te d h y d ro x y to lu e n e (B H T )
K H 2P O 4 1 .0 0 e th o x y q u in (1 ,2 d ih y d ro -6 -e th o x y ,
KCl 0 .1 0 - 2 ,2 ,4 - tr im e th y lq u in o lin e )
NaCl 0 .6 0
M o ld in h ib ito rs
M n S O 4.H 2O 0 .0 3 5
c itric a c id
F e S O 4.7 H 2O 0 .0 5
s o d iu m , c a lc iu m , o r p o ta s s iu m s o rb a te
M gSO4 0 .3 0
K IO 3 0 .0 0 1 A ttra c ta n ts :
C u S O 4.5 H 2O 0 .0 0 3 C o lo r
ZnC O3 0 .0 1 5 c a r o te n o id s
C o C l2 0 .0 0 0 1 7 x a n th o te rin (re d a n d y e llo w x a n th o p h y lls )
N a M o O 4.2 H 2O 0 .0 0 0 8 3
Feed:
N a 2S e O 3 0 .0 0 0 0 2
b e ta in e
g lu ta m ic a c id
S ource: N R C 1977
ta u r in e
106 CHAPTER 4 NUTRITION IN TROPICAL AQUACULTURE

It also takes into account the cost o f materials, acceptability, and ease
o f preparation.
The two most important factors to consider in formulating a feed for any
aquaculture species are nutrient requirements and feeding behavior. Other
factors to consider are the stages in the life cycle (larval, grow-out or
broodstock) and the type of culture system. Like any other animal, fish and
crustaceans need enough protein, lipid, energy, vitamins, and minerals.
These nutrients should be present in the form ulated feed in adequate
amounts. Excessive amounts o f nutrients is wasteful, while insufficient
levels will result in slow growth. An allowance is made in the formula for
nutrient losses during feed manufacture.
The feeding habit and behavior of the animal is also an important aspect
to consider in feed formulation. For example, crustaceans such as shrimps
and crabs are slow eaters and they take some time to consume the pelleted
feed. In contrast, fish consume the feed immediately and, oftentimes, the
feed is eaten before it touches the pond bottom. Thus, crustaceans require
a more water stable feed than fish. A feed binder, usually a carbohydrate
source, i s added to the formulation to make the pelleted feed stay intact
much longer in the water. Seaweed extracts such as kappa-carrageenan
and alginates are commonly used as binders in microbound larval diet
preparation. Larval diets may be prepared in suspension form, colloid form,
in solution, or in dry form enclosed within a microcapsule or microcoated
with a binder. Sometimes an attractant is added to the feed so that the
pellet can easily be located and quickly consumed by the fish. Most aquatic
species in the larval stage stay in the water column and gradually become
bottom dwellers. Thus, the preferred feed at the early life stages is a feed
that does not settle in the tank bottom but stays in the water column for a
long time. Some aquatic species may prefer a specific feed form, type, or
size that should be considered in feed formulation.
The requirement for nutrients and energy varies for broodstock, grow
out, and larval stages; therefore, feed formulation would also vary in nutrient
content depending on the growth stages. Although feed has been formulated
and tested for all the life stages of milkfish, tilapia, and shrimp and for
various stages in some species (see Chapter 7), these are continuously
being refined based on recent research findings. Recent data on nutrient
requirements, and availability of new, cheap but good protein sources are
important information in refining a feed formula.
The processed feed is influenced by the quality of the feed ingredients.
Some feedstuffs show wide fluctuations in their nutrient content due to
seasonal and geographical variations. Feedstuffs should first be analyzed
for their proximate composition, but if this is not possible, feed composition
tables (FCT) can be used as guide in formulating feeds. In some FCTs, the
moisture content is included and the amounts of nutrients are expressed
either on a dry matter basis or on as received basis. In formulating feeds, a
uniform set of values should be consistently used. Values are expressed
either on a dry matter basis, or as received basis. To convert the amount of
nutrients from dry matter basis to as received basis, use the formula:

(100 - % moisture)
% nutrient (as received) = % nutrient (dry matter basis ) x
100
 CHAPTER 4 Formulation of Aquafeeds 107
There is no definite feed formula for any species because of the many
environm ental and physiological factors involved as well as differences
in the a v a ila b ility o f feed in gred ien ts from one loca lity to another.
Substitution o f a feedstuff or feedstuffs in the formula is possible provided
that the final formulation is similar in nutrient content and there are no
negative effects on growth and survival and increase in feed cost. Feeding
experiments have shown that favorable results are obtained as long as
the amounts o f nutrients present do not exceed the recommended nutrient
levels. Excess o f nutrients can be expensive, and can cause deterioration
o f the culture system. Maximum levels of incorporation of some feedstuffs
in the form ula for carnivores, omnivores, and herbivores are listed in
Table 4.9

Table 4.9 Recommended maximum inclusion levels (%) of some major feed ingredients in a
practical diet for fish and shrimp

| F ish S h rim p

C a r n iv o r e O m n iv o r e / C a r n iv o r e O m n iv o r e /
F e e d s tu ffs
H e r b iv o r e H e r b iv o r e

A lfa lfa m e a l 5 10 5 10
B lo o d m e a l, s p ra y d rie d 10 10 10 10
C a s s a v a /T a p io c a m e a l 15 35 15 25
C o con ut m eal 15 25 15 25
C o rn g ra in m e a l 20 35 15
C o rn g lu te n m e a l 15 20 15 20
C o tto n s e e d m e a l, s o lv e n t e x tra c te d 15 20 10 15
C o rn d is tille r s 10 15 10 15
D ic a lc iu m p h o s p h a te 3 3 3 3
H y d ro ly z e d fe a th e r m e a l 10 10 10 10
F is h m e a l n o lim it n o lim it 20 35
F is h p ro te in c o n c e n tra te 15 10 15 15
G ro u n d m e a l, s o lv e n t e x tra c te d 15 25 15 25
L iv e r m e a l 50 50 25 20
M e a t a n d b o n e m e a l, 20 25 15 20
P o u ltry b y -p ro d u c t m e a l 15 20 15 20
R a p e s e e d m e a l, s o lv e n t e x tra c te d 20 25 15 20
R ic e b ra n , s o lv e n t e x tra c te d 15 35 15 35
S h rim p m e a l 25 25 n o lim it n o lim it
S q u id m e a l n o lim it n o lim it n o lim it n o lim it
S o rg h u m m e a l 20 35 15 35
S o y b e a n m e a l, s o lv e n t e x tra c te d 25 35 20 30
S o y b e a n m e a l, fu ll fa t 35 40 20 30
W h e a t g ra in m e a l 20 35 20 35
W h e a t b ra n 15 30 15 30
W h e a t g lu te n m e a l 15 15 20 20
W h e a t m id d lin g s 25 40 20 35
W hey 10 10 10 10
Y e a s t (B re w e rs ), d rie d 15 15 15 15

S o u rce : Tacon 1988

108 CHAPTER 4 NUTRITION IN TROPICAL AQUACULTURE

There are several methods o f formulating feeds. These are Pearson’s

S q u a re M eth od , A lg e b ra ic E q u a tio n , T r ia l and E rror, and L in e a r
P ro g ra m m in g . T h e P e a r s o n ’s S q u a re m eth o d is re c o m m e n d e d in
formulating a supplemental feed with only two to four ingredients. The
Trial and Error method is generally used in calculating a formula for a
complete diet with many ingredients. In commercial feed production where
c o s t is a p r in c ip a l c o n s id e ra tio n , a c o m p u te r p ro g ra m (L in e a r
Program m ing) is used to com bine feed in gredien ts that w ill give an
effective formulation with the lowest cost.
M athem atical calculations using these m ethods, except for Linear
Programming, are given in the following examples.

I. Pearson’s Square and Algebraic Equation Methods

E x a m p le 1. W h e n o n ly tw o fe ed in g re d ie n ts a re to b e co m b in e d .

T o d e te rm in e th e a m o u n t o f e a c h in g r e d ie n t in a s u p p le m e n ta l fe ed
th a t w o u ld c o n ta in 2 5 % p r o te in u s in g F is h M e a l (F M ) a n d R ic e B ra n
(R B ), w ith p ro te in c o n te n ts o f 6 3 % a n d 10%, re s p e c tiv e ly .

□ Pearson’s Square Method:

a) First draw a square and write the desired protein level of the feed
at the center of the square.
b) W rite the two ingredients with their respective protein contents
on each com er o f the left side o f the square, the ingredient with
higher protein on the upper and with lower protein on the lower
left hand corner.
c) Subtract the desired level o f protein from each ingredient and
w rite the differen ce on the righ t corn er o f the square th at is
diagonally opposite the protein level of each ingredient.
d) Get the sum of the numbers at the right side of the square.
e) Determine the percentage o f each ingredient needed for the feed
form ula by dividing the numbers written on the right hand side
by the sum o f the difference multiplied by 100.

About 283 g FM and 717 g o f RB are required to make a kg o f the

supplemental feed that will contain 25% protein. To check for the amount
o f protein in the feed, the protein content (in percent) of each ingredient
 CHAPTER 4 Formulation o f Aquafeeds 109
is multiplied by the amount o f FM and RB (283 g and 717 g respectively)
to be combined. The amount o f protein coming from each ingredient is
added to get the total amount. The total amount is divided by 1000 and
multiplied by 100 to give 25% protein.

FM = 283 g x 63% = 178.3 g protein

RB = 717 g x 10% = 71.7 g protein
Total protein 250.0 g /kg or 25% protein

or (250 / 1000) x 100 = 25%

□ Algebraic Equation Method:

Let: x = g FM/ kg feed

y = g RB/ kg feed

so that :
x +y = 1000 g feed (Equation I)
0.63 x + 0.10 y = 250 g protein/1000 g feed (Equation II)

Multiply Equation I by 0.10:

0.10 x + 0.10 y = 100 g (Equation III)

Subtract Equation III from Equation II:

0.63 x + 0.10 y = 250 g protein/1000 g feed
- (0.10 x + 0 .1 0 y = 100 g )
0.53 x + 0 = 150
X = 150/0.53 = 283 g FM

Substitute in Equation I:
283 + y = 1000
y = 1000 - 283 = 717 g RB

Example 2: W hen three or more feed ingredients are available for use.

F o rm u la te a fish d iet to con tain 35% p rotein by com b in in g the

follow ing ingredients with their respective protein content:

FM - 60% protein
Soybean Meal (SBM) - 45% protein
RB 8% protein
C om Meal (CM) 12% protein

Assum e the proportion o f 1 part FM to 2 parts SBM or 1:2 and equal

parts o f RB and CM or 1:1. FM and SBM are the main sources o f protein
while RB and CM are the main sources o f carbohydrate or energy but
also contain protein.
110 CHAPTER 4 NUTRITION IN TROPICAL AQUACULTURE

□ Pearson’s Square Method:

a) Draw a square and write at the center the desired protein level as
in the first example.

b) Calculate the protein level from the protein sources FM and SBM.
according to the specified ratio: 1:2

FM : 1 x 60 = 60
SBM : 2 x 45 = 90
Average : 150 / 3 = 50

c) Calculate the energy sources, RB and CM also according to the

ratio 1:1

RB : 1x 8 = 8
CM : 1 x 12 = 12
Average : 20 / 2 = 10

d) W rite the calculated average protein content on the upper left

hand corner for the protein sources and the protein content of the
energy sources on the lower left corner of the square.

e) W rite the desired protein level at the center and s u b t r a c t this

value from the protein content of FM and SBM and protein content
of RB and CM. Write the number diagonally opposite the ingredients
or on the lower right hand corner for protein sources and upper
right hand corner for energy sources. Proceed as in d) and e) of
Example 1.

f) Multiply the final percentage derived for the protein sources by 1/3 for
FM and 2/3 for SBM. For the energy sources, multiply by 1/2 each of
the RB and CM to find out the exact amount of each ingredient to be
used in the formula with the desired level of 35% protein.
 CHAPTER 4 Formulation of Aquafeeds 111
Protein sources = 62.5%
In % In g/kg feed
FM = 6 2 .5 x 1/3 = 20.83% 208.3
SBM = 62.5 x 2/3 = 41.67% 416.7

Energy sources = 37.5%

RB = 37.5% x 1/2 = 18.75% 187.5

CM = 37.5% x 1/2 = 18.75% 187.5
Total 100.00% 1,000

g) To check that a kilo o f feed contains 35% protein, proceed as

follows:

FM 208.3 g x 60% protein = 125.0 g protein

SBM = 416.7 g x 45% protein = 187.5 g protein
RB 187.5 g x 8% protein = 15.0 g protein
CM 187.5 g x 12% protein = 22.5 g protein
Total per 1000 g feed 350.0 g protein/kg or 35%

□ Algebraic Equation Method:

Separate ingredients into protein and energy sources and calculate

a vera g e p ro te in c o n trib u tio n o f each grou p a cco rd in g to sp ecified
proportions as in Example 2 letters a), b) and c) Pearson’s Square method.
Then:

Let: x = g o f FM and SBM o f protein sources/ kg feed

y = g o f RB and CM as energy sources/ kg feed

X + y = 1000 g feed (Equation I)

0.50 x + 0.10 y = 350 g protein/ kg feed (Equation II)

Multiply (I) by 0.10 : 0.10 x + 0.10 y = 100 (Equation III)

Subtract (III) from (II):

0.50 x + 0.10 y = 350
- (0.10 x + 0.10 y = 100)
0.40 x + 0 = 250
X = 625

FM : 625 x 1/3 = 208.3 g

SBM : 625 x 2/3 = 416.7 g

From Equation (I)

y = 1000 - X
y = 1000 - 625 = 375

RB = 375/2 = 187.5 g
CM = 375/2 = 187.5 g
112 CHAPTER 4 NUTRITION IN TROPICAL AQUACULTURE

E x a m p le 3: W h e n s o m e feed c o m p o n e n ts a re fixed.

P re p a re a fish d ie t to co n ta in 32 % p ro te in u s in g F M (6 0 % p ro tein )
an d C o p ra m ea l or C pM (2 0 % p r o t e in ) a s p r o t e in s o u r c e s to b e
in c lu d e d in th e diet:

R ic e b ra n (1 0 % p ro tein ) = 22%
M in e r a l m ix = 2%
V ita m in m ix = 1%

□ Pearson’s Square Method:

a) Determine the amount of FM and CpM per 1 kg feed mixture, by

su btracting the am ounts o f RB, m ineral m ix and vitam in m ix
from 1000.
1000 - (220 + 20 + 10) = 750 g/ kg feed

b) Vitamin and mineral mixes do not contain protein, but 220 g RB

supplies 22 g protein. Therefore, subtracting 22 g protein from RB
from the 320 g desired protein level equals 298 g protein, which
must come from 750 g o f FM and CpM.

c) Convert to percentage the amount o f protein (298 g/kg) and solve

by the Pearson’s Square m ethod the am ount that should come
from the combined levels of FM and CpM (750 g):
298/750 x 100 = 39.73%

d) Follow steps a) to e) in Example 1 and check for final protein in

one kg diet:

e) A total of 370 g FM (222 g protein) and 380 g CpM (76 g protein)

gives 298 kg protein. This amount of protein plus the 22 g protein
from 220 g RB makes a total of 320 g protein or 32% o f one kg
diet.
 CHAPTER 4 Formulation o f Aquafeeds 113
□ Algebraic Equation Method:

Before proceeding to form ulate the necessary equations, first do

steps a) and b) described in the Pearson’s Square method.

Let : x = g of FM required
y = g of CpM required

x +y = 750 g (Equation I)
0.60 x + 0.20 y = 298 g protein (Equation II)

M u ltiply (I) by 0.2 :

0.20 x + 0.2 y = 150 (Equation III)

Subtract (III) from (II):

0.60 x + 0.20 y = 298
- (0.20 x + 0.2 y = 150)
0.40 x + 0 = 148
x = 148 / 0.4 = 370g FM

Substitute (I):
370 + y = 750 g
y = 380 g CpM

II. Trial and Error Method

For the Trial and Error method, a worksheet and a table o f proximate
com position are necessary.

Exam ple 1: Form ulate a diet that will contain fish meal (FM), defatted
soybean meal (DSBM), meat and bone meal (MBM), rice bran (RB), and
vitam in and mineral mixes. Cod liver oil (CLO) is the lipid source, bread
flour (BF) is the source o f carbohydrate and binder, and lime is used as
filler. The finished diet should contain 35% crude protein, 12% crude
fat, with a dietary energy of 340 to 400 kcal/100 g diet.

The proximate composition o f these feed ingredients are:

Ingredients g / 100 g
Protein Fat Fiber Ash NFE
FM 66.70 9.11 0.59 13.36 10.24
DSBM 50.34 1.45 8.59 7.64 31.98
MBM 46.91 10.90 1.11 36.10 4.98
RB 14.80 12.66 4.17 8.92 59.45
BF 14.17 1.54 0.56 0.68 83.05
114 CHAPTER 4 NUTRITION IN TROPICAL AQUACULTURE

The following ingredients are incorporated in fixed amounts:

FM = 10%
SBM = 18%
BF = 5%
Vit/m in mix = 3%
Total = 36%

The remaining percentage, which is 64%, will be supplied by MBM, RB,

CLO, and the filler (lime). About 58 g will come from MBM and RB and 6 g
from lipid and filler. The closest estim ates to the required values are
obtained by trial and error.

1. Fill in the required ingredients and the corresponding am ounts in

Columns 1 and 2 in the Worksheet (Appendix A).

2. F ill in the re s p e c tiv e n u trien t co n ten t b ased on the p ro x im a te

composition of each ingredient on the upper left hand com er o f each
box (Worksheet 1).

3. Calculate the amount of nutrient from each ingredient by multiplying the

specified amount of the ingredient (column 2) by the percentages of the
nutrient (column 3) to obtain the amount in grams. Start with the protein
sources.
For example, 10 g FM with 66.7% protein contributes 6.67 g protein
to the diet. Add up the protein from FM, SBM, and BF (Worksheet
1, column 3). Do the same for the rest.

4. Calculate the amount of protein that should come from MBM and RB
by subtracting the known protein contribution o f the other ingredients
(FM+DSBM+BF) from the total protein required (35%).
35 g protein - (6.67 + 9.06 + 0.71) = 18.56 g protein to come from
MBM +RB
This value should come from 58 g of MBM + RB, which is 18.56/
58 = 32% protein

5. Use Pearson’s Square to calculate the exact amount of MBM and RB

to be used in the feed formulation:
 CHAPTER 4 Formulation o f Aquafeeds 115
6. Fill-up Worksheet 2 with calculated amounts o f MBM (31.07 g) and
RB (26.93 g).

7. Calculate nutrient contribution from each feed ingredient. After the

amounts o f protein sources have been calculated, proceed to calculate
the lipid sources and lipid levels.
For lipids, the partial amount from other ingredients is equal to
8.05%, therefore, to m eet the requirem ent o f 12%, CLO will be
added at 3.95% (colu m n 4). To m ake the form u lation 100%,
calculate all the other nutrients and determine how much filler
or lime to add by subtracting 97.95 from 100 equals 2.05.

8. Calculate the sum o f fiber, ash and NFE to have a complete record of
the m ajor nutrients. Indicate these values in columns 5, 6, and 7,
resp ectively. T h ese can be com pared to the analyzed proxim ate
composition o f processed feed.

9. To determ ine the dietary en ergy/ 100 g diet use the physiological
values of 4.5, 8, 3.3 as follows:

Protein = 35 g x 4.5 kcal/g = 157.5 kcal

Fat = 12 g x 8.0 kcal/g = 96 kcal
Carbohydrate = 28.5 g x 3.3 kcal/g = 94 kcal
347.5 kcal/100 g diet

Worksheet 1
C a lc u la te d n u trie n t c o m p o s itio n o f fe e d
Feed formulation code: M-1
Date computed: March 8, 2000
Formulated by: Mary Cruz

Ingredients g/100g Protein% Fat% Fiber% Ash% NFE%

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
66.7 9.11 0.59 13.36 10.24
Fish Meal 10 6.67

Meat and Bone Meal

50.34 1.45 8.59 7.64 31.98

Soybean meal (defatted) 18 9.06

Rice bran

14.71 1.54 0.56 0.68 83.05

Bread flour 5
0.71

Vitamin/mineral mix 3

Cod liver oil

Lime

35.00
16.44
18.56
TOTAL 36
116 CHAPTER 4 NUTRITION IN TROPICAL AQUACULTURE

Worksheet 2
C a lc u la te d n u trie n t c o m p o s itio n o f fe e d
Feed formulation code: M-1
Date computed: M a rc h 8. 2 0 0 0
Formulated by: M a ry C ru z

Ingredients g/100g Protein% Fat% Fiber% Ash% NFE%

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
911 .59 13 36 1 0 .2 4
Fish Meal 10
6.67 0.91 0.06 1.34 1.02
46.91 1
.9
0 1.11 36.1 8
.9
4
Meat and Bone Meal 31.07
14.57 3.39 3.34 11.22 1.55
50.34 1.45 8.59 7.64 31.98
Soybean meal (defatted) 18
9.06 0.26 1.55 1.38 5.76
14.8 12.66 4.17 8.92 59.45
Rice bran 26.93
3.98 3.41 1.12 2.40 16.01
14.17 0.68 83.05
Bread flour 1 .5 4 6
.5
0
5
0.71 0.08 0.03 0.03 4.15

Vitamin/mineral mix 3

100
Cod liver oil 3.95
3.95
100
Lime 2.05

TOTAL 100 35.0 12

E x a m p le 2: F o rm u la te a d ie t th a t w o u ld c o n ta in n o t le s s th a n 4 0 % p ro te in
w ith d ie ta ry e n e rg y co n te n t o f n o t less th a n 3 4 0 k c a l/ 1 0 0 g d ie t w ith th e
fo llo w in g fe e d in g re d ie n ts . C o n s id e r a ls o th e d ig e s tib ility c o e ffic ie n ts o f
th e m a jo r n u trie n ts , p ro te in , lip id , a n d c a rb o h y d ra te

U se F M a n d S M in a 1:1 ratio
L ip id so u rc e is cod liv e r oil, w ith to ta l d ie ta ry fa t n o t to e x c e e d 15%
C a rb o h y d ra te so u rc e is b re a d flo u r
V ita m in m ix 2% , M in e ra l m ix 1%, a n d L e c ith in 0 .5 %
F ille r is c e llu lo s e

T h e p ro x im a te a n a lys is an d d ig e s tib ility co e fficie n ts o f p ro tein , lip id , an d

c a rb o h y d ra te so u rc e s on a d ry m a tte r b asis:

% Nutrients % D igestibility

Protein Lipid Carbo­ Crude Crude Protein Lipid Carbo­

hydrate fiber ssh hydrate

Fish meal 65.8 5.9 7.8 0.8 19.7 80 93 94

Shrimp meal 68.6 3.7 7.5 3.6 16.6 75 96 97
Squid meal 78.5 5.5 6.8 1.2 8.0 88 91 89
Bread flour 13.9 1.2 83.9 0.3 0.7 75 90 95
 CHAPTER 4 Formulation of Aquafeeds 117
The fixed amount from vitamin and mineral mixes and lecithin, is 3.5%.
The rem aining am ount is equal to 96.5% and will be supplied by the
other ingredients. In Worksheet 3:

1. Fill in the fix ingredients and the corresponding amounts in Worksheet

3. Then, try a 1:1 ratio of 25 g each o f FM and SM and write these
numbers on the worksheet.

2. Fill in the nutrient composition of FM and SM in Worksheet 3, columns

3 to 7 on the left hand box for each column corresponding to each
nutrient. Calculate the nutrient contribution based on the proximate
com position and digestibility coefficients and fill in the respective
box.
C om pu te the protein , lipid, and ca rb oh yd ra te con trib u ted by a
feed stu ff using the formula:

Weight of feedstuff x % Protein X % Digestibility

100 100

From the proximate composition table,

FM: 25 g x 0.658 x 0.80 = 13.16 g protein
25 g x 0.059 x 0.93 = 1.37 g lipid
25 g x 0.078 x 0.94 = 1.83 g carbohydrate
Do the same for SM.

3. Calculate the amount o f protein to be contributed by SqM as:

13.6 g (FM) + 12.7 g (SM) = 26.3 g

40g (total protein) - 26.3g (FM + SM) = 13.7 g SqM protein

To calculate weight o f SqM to be used in the formula:

Weight o f SqM = ( SqM protein

% Protein/100 x )(
% Digestibility
100
)
13.7 g
= = 19.8 g SqM
(0.785 x 0.88)

4. Fill in the calculated amounts of protein, lipid, and carbohydrate from

19.8 g SqM (using the formula in step 2).

5. Sum up the dietary lipid from all the protein sources and subtract
the value to calculate the amount o f CLO to be added. Assume dietary
lipid to be about 12% [12 - (1.37 + 0.89 + 0.99) = 8.75].

6. Sum up the dietary energy (use energy values for each nutrient in
the previous example) at this point to be able to calculate the amount
o f energy to be contributed by bread flour (340 kcal - 292.5 kcal =
47.5 kcal):
118 CHAPTER 4 NUTRITION IN TROPICAL AQUACULTURE

Protein : 40 g x 4.5 kcal/g = 180

Lipid : 12 g x 8.0 kcal/g = 96
NFE : 5 g x 3.3 kcal/g = 16.3
292.5 kcal

7. Bread flour is about 90% carbohydrate with a digestibility o f about

95%, so that 47.5 kcal divided be 3.3 is about 14.4 g. Since the
digestibility is less than 100%, the am ount o f bread flou r m aybe
increased to 16 g. Calculate the nutrients contributed by 16 g bread
flour (as in step 2).

8. Determine the sum o f ingredients used (25+25+19.8+16+3+0.5+8.75

= 98.05) and subtract the value from 100. The difference is the amount
o f the filler, cellulose (1.95) to make the total equal to 100.

9. Add up the nutrients and calculate the total dietary energy /100g diet.

Protein : 41.5 g x 4.5 kcal/g = 186.8

Lipid : 12.67 g x 8.0 kcal/g = 101.4
Carbohydrate : 17.83 g x 3.3 kcal/g = 58.8
347.8 kcal/lOOg

10. Compute the total ash and fiber content in the feed formula (column 5
and 6). The minimum dietary level for ash or fiber is about 10% because
higher levels can cause poor growth and survival. Compare the computed
valu es to the actu al resu lts o f the ch em ical a n alysis to d etect
discrepancies.

Worksheet 3
C alculated nutrient com position o f fe e d
Feed formulation code: M-1
Date computed: March 10. 2001
Formulated by: M arv Cruz

Ingredients g/100g Protein% Fat% Fiber% Ash% NFE%

(D (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
65.8 5.9 0.8 19.7 7.8
Fish Meal 25
13.2 1.37 0.20 4.92 1.83
68.6 3.7 3.6 16.6 n\5“
Shrimp meal 25
12.9 0.89 0.90 4.15 2.0
78.5 5.5 1.2 8.0 6.8
Squid meal 19.8
13.7 0.99 0.24 1.58 1.2
13.9 1.2 0.3 0.7 83.9
Bread flour 16.0
1.7 0.17 0.05 0.11 12.8

Vitamin/mineral mix 3.0

100
Lecithin 0.5
0.5
100
Cod liver oil 8.75
7.5
Cellulose 1.95

TOTAL 100 41.5 12.67 1.39 10.76 17.83

 CHAPTER 4 Formulation of Aquafeeds 119
III. Linear Program for Least-Cost Formulation

Linear programming is used when many ingredients are to be combined

fo r a le a s t co st feed form u la . T h is m eth od is e s p e c ia lly u sefu l in
commercial feed manufacture wherein large quantities o f feed ingredients
are used. A computer is necessary in this type o f formulation. When one
or more ingredients are not available, other feed ingredients are utilized
as su bstitu tes in order to com e up w ith the sam e feed quality. The
qu an tities o f su bstitu te in gredien ts are determ ined using the linear
programming method. Information on the amounts of nutrients in each
o f the feed ingredients to be used is essential in this method. This can
be ob tain ed from a feed com p osition table or ch em ical analysis. A
computer program will list several combinations to come up with almost
similar feed quality at a lesser cost. Examples of computer program for
least cost form ulation are the sim ple linear program m ing spreadsheet
and the sophisticated Brill Formulation Package.

Purified Diet Formulation

In nutritional requirem ent studies, purified ingredients are used in the

formulation o f diets. This is necessary to study the optimum level of one
specific nutrient, e.g. essential amino acid. The use of purified ingredients
enables one to vary the level o f the nutrient whose dietary requirement
is being studied while keeping the other nutrient levels constant. Examples
o f purified ingredients include casein and gelatin as protein sources,
dextrin and sucrose as carbohydrate sources, and cellulose for the non­
n utritive filler.

E x a m p le : F o rm u la te a p u rifie d d iet to c o n ta in a b o u t 5 0 % p ro te in u s in g
c a s e in a n d g e la tin a t 1:1 ra tio , c o d liv e r o il le v e l a t 12% . a n d v ita m in
a n d m in e ra l m ix tu re s a t 3 % each , w ith a d ie ta ry e n e rg y o f 3 8 0 k c a l/ 1 0 0
g diet. A s s u m e c a s e in a n d g e la tin to c o n ta in 9 3 % p ro te in w ith a p p a ren t
p r o te in d ig e s tib ility o f 9 6 % , w h ile d e x tr in is 100% d ig e s tib le . In c lu d e
fe e d a d d itiv e s s u c h as a ttra c ta n t a t 1% a n d b in d e r at 2% .

Feed ingredients Percentage

G elatin
Casein
D extrin
Cod liver oil 12
Vitam in mix 3
M ineral m ix 3
Feed binder 2
A ttractan t 1
120 CHAPTER 4 NUTRITION IN TROPICAL AQUACULTURE

Following the computation in Example 2 in the Trial and Error Method

section, the amount of casein and gelatin would be 28 g each. The total
dietary energy content of the above diet is:

50 g protein x 4.5 kcal/g protein = 225

12 g lipid x 8.0 kcal/g lipid = 96
Total 321 kcal/100 g diet

The amount of dextrin will make up the remaining energy requirement.

If the total dietary energy content is 380 kcal/100 g diet, then the amount
of dextrin to be added should supply the energy difference which is 380
kcal - 321 kcal = 59 kcal. Since a gram of carbohydrate has an energy
content of 3.3 kcal, therefore. 59 kcal divided by 3.3 kcal/g dextrin is 18
grams. To make the form ula 100%, a filler, such as cellulose, can be
used. The final composition would be:

Feed ingredients %
G elatin 28
Casein 28
Dextrin 18
Cod liver oil 12
Vitam in mix 3
Mineral mix 3
Feed binder 2
A ttractan t 1
Cellulose (filler) 5
Total 100

Summary

Feed is a very important com ponent in the success o f an aquaculture

ventu re. W ith increased stockin g densities, natu ral food in cu ltu re
systems has to be supplemented with formulated feeds. It is important
to know the nutrients required by the aquaculture species as these
would be the starting point in feed formulation. A single feedstuff does
not have all the required nutrients for growth, survival, and reproduction.
H ence, it is n ecessary to kn ow the n u trien t con ten t and levels in
com m only used feedstuffs so that these can be combined to come up
with the desired formulation by mathem atical calculations.
Several mathematical methods can be used in feed formulation: the
Pearson's square technique, the algebraic equation m ethod, the trial
and error method, and linear programming. The first two are simple,
the third uses a worksheet, and the fourth requires a computer software.
In balancing a ration, protein which is the major component of the diet
is computed first, the energy (lipid and carbohydrate) levels of the diet
are then adjusted to the desired dietary level.
 C H A P TE R 4 Formulation of Aquafeeds 121
Guide Questions

1. Name some m ethods in form ulating diets. Give the advantages and
disadvantages o f each method.
2. W hy is it im portant to know the nutrient content o f feedstuffs and
their levels before one can start formulating a feed?
3. W hy is protein the first nutrient to be considered in form ulating a
diet?
4. Discuss factors to be considered and their importance in formulating
a feed for a specific species.
5. Give at least 3 feedstuffs that are good sources of:
a) protein
b) lipids
c) carbohydrate
6. Calculate the amount of fish meal and rice bran in a diet that contains
30% protein. The protein contents o f fish meal and rice bran are,
60% and 15%, respectively.
7. Use the in gredien ts in E xam ple 1 in the T ria l and Error M ethod
section in form u lating a diet that w ill contain not less than 35%
protein, dietary lipid o f not more than 10% and dietary energy not
less than 350 kcal/ 100g diet.

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Catacutan MR. Coloso RM. 1995. Effect of dietary protein to energy ratios
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Catacutan MR. 1997. Protein and dry matter digestibility o f feedstuffs in

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C u zon G, G u illau m e J. 1991. R ecom m en d ation s for p ra ctica l feed

formulation. In: Castell JD and Corpron KE (eds). The Crustacean
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Eusebio PS. 1991. Effect o f dehulling on the nutritive value o f some

legum inous seeds as protein sources for tiger prawn, Penaeus
monodon juveniles. Aquaculture 99:297-308.
122 CHAPTER 4 NUTRITION IN TROPICAL AQUACULTURE

Eusebio JS, Eusebio PS. 1984. Effect of processing on the protein quality
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Feed D evelopm ent Section. 1994. Feeds and feeding o f m ilkfish, Nile
tilapia, Asian sea bass and tiger shrimp. SEAFDEC Aquaculture
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Ghazalay-Delaine (eds). Malaysia, May 27-30. 2001. Am erican
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and c o ld w a te r fis h sp e c ie s . P a p e r No. 31, FAO T e c h n ic a l
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 CHAPTER 4 Formulation of Aquafeeds 123
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