CHAPTER 3.

FLOW MEASUREMENT
❖ Defination Of Flow :
➢ It is defined as fluid in motion. Flow may be of gas vapour too.

❖ Types Of Flow :
a) Laminar Flow
b) Turbulent Flow

a) Laminar Flow

Laminar flow occurs when the fluid flows in infinitesimal parallel layers with no
disruption between them. For laminar flow Reynolds number Re < 2300

b) Turbulent flow

Turbulent flow occurs when the fluid does not flow in parallel layers, the lateral mixing
is very high, and there is a disruption between the layers. Re > 4000.

❖ Reynolds number :

The number which provides the information about whether the flow under test is laminar
or turbulent is called Reynold’s number.
❖ Classification Of Flow Measuring Transducers :

a) Variable head flow meter:

1) Venturimeter
2) Orifice plate meter
3) Flow nozzle
4) Pitot tube

b) Variable area flow meter:

1) Rotameter

c) Electrical flow meter:

1) Turbine flow meter

2) Electromagnetic Flow meter
3) Ultrasonic flow meter
4) Time difference and Doppler Type
5) Hot wire anemometer
6) Vortex flow meter type
 VENTURIMETER
➢ It is a primary element of differential pressure Flow meters.
➢ It consists of a straight inlet section, a converging conical inlet section, a cylindrical
throat and diverging recovery cone.
➢ Straight inlet section has same diameter as pipe. In converging conical inlet section, the
cross-section of stream decreases & velocity increases.
➢ In cylindrical throat, flow velocity will be maximum & static pressure will be minimum.
➢ In diverging recovery cone flow velocity decreases
➢ The pressure taps are located at straight edge section and at cylindrical throat where
pressure is minimum thus the maximum Pressure Gauges across this point.
➢ As it has no sharp edges and does not project into fluid stream, it can be used to handle
fluids with solid, slurries, etc.
➢ The cross-sectional area of fluid does not increase or decreases abruptly, so permanent
pressure loss or energy loss is very low as compared to orifice plate.

➢ The flow is introduced to the meter through the inlet with diameter ‘D’.
➢ The inclined angle of the converging section is α1 which may be between 19o to 23o.
➢ The flow is then passed through the throat section which have the diameter‘d’.
➢ Two pressure taps (one at inlet section and second is at middle of throat section) are
provided to measure the pressure difference by using U-tube manometer as shown in
figure.
➢ The diversion section has inclined angle α2 which may be between 5o to 15o.
➢ Flow rate is proportional to the square root of the differential pressure.
➢ Flow rate α √P1 – P2.
❖ Advantages :
➢ High-pressure recovery.
➢ It can be fixed in any orientation: inclined, horizontal, and vertical.
➢ Less permanent pressure reduction.
➢ Less cone angle and smooth construction help solid substances to move through it. So it
can be employed for dirty fluids.
➢ High discharge coefficient.
➢ It is much more accurate than the flow nozzle and orifice.

❖ Disadvantages :
➢ Size and cost are comparatively high.
➢ It isn’t easy to examine because of its construction.
➢ For desired results, the Venturi tube should be preceded by lengthy, straight pipes.
➢ Maintenance is not very easy.
➢ It cannot be used in pipes that have small diameters.

❖ Applications:
➢ For measurement of liquid, slurries, dirty fluids etc.
 ORIFICE PLATE METER
➢ An Orifice Meter is basically a type of differential flow meter which is used to measure
the rate of fluid flow (mainly Liquids or Gases), using the Differential Pressure
Measurement principle.
❖ Different Types Of Orifice Plates :

a) Concentric Orifice Plate:

➢ In a concentric orifice plate, the orifice is located at the center of the plate and is
circular in shape.
➢ The plate is installed perpendicular to the flow direction, and the fluid passes through
the orifice.
➢ The upstream face of the plate is flat, while the downstream face is beveled or rounded
to reduce turbulence.
➢ This type of orifice plate is suitable for most applications and is relatively easy to
install.
b) Eccentric Orifice Plate:
➢ An eccentric orifice plate has the orifice located off-center, closer to one edge of the
plate.
➢ The plate is positioned with the orifice on the top side when installed in the pipeline.
➢ By offsetting the orifice, the flow of fluid is directed to one side, reducing the potential
for clogging or buildup of solids.
➢ Eccentric orifice plates are commonly used in applications with particulate-laden
fluids.
c) Segmental Orifice Plate:
➢ A segmental orifice plate has a circular orifice that is not complete, but rather a
segment of a circle.
➢ The shape of the orifice resembles a portion of a pie or a segment of a circle.
 ➢ This design provides a more gradual and controlled pressure recovery after the orifice,
reducing turbulence and pressure loss.
➢ Segmental orifice plates are suitable for applications where the flow velocity is high
or where erosive fluids are present.

❖ Construction and Working Principle:

Construction:

➢ Orifice Meter Consists of following four Parts:

o Inlet Suction
o Orifice Plate
 o Flow Conditioner
o Outlet section
➢ Inlet Section: The name inlet section means the fluid will enter into the orifice meter
through the inlet section.
➢ Orifice Plate: The orifice plate is situated between the inlet and outlet and the plate is
used to generate pressure drop that will enable the flow rate. The orifice plate
construction: It is thin size having one hole from that the water will pass.
➢ Flow Conditioner: The flow conditioner is used to increase the linear flow in the inlet
section of the meter tube. The flow conditioner is installed nearly the inlet section of the
meter tube.
➢ Outlet Section: Now here in the outlet section, the pressure of the fluid is being
discharged and determined.

Working Principle:

➢ The working of the orifice meter is based on the principle of Bernoulli’s equation.
➢ The fluid flows inside the Inlet section of the Orifice meter having a pressure P1.
➢ As the fluid proceeds further into the Converging section, its pressure reduces gradually
and it finally reaches a value of P2 at the end of the Converging section and enters the
cylindrical section.
➢ The differential pressure sensor connected between the Inlet and the the Cylindrical
Throat section of the Orifice meter displays the difference in pressure (P1-P2).
➢ This differential pressure is measured using U tube manometer is in direct proportion to
the flow rate of the liquid flowing through the Orifice meter.
➢ Now when the increases in the velocity, the decrease in the pressure and it is vice versa.

❖ Advantages of Orifice Meter:

➢ High Accuracy.
➢ Orifice meters are easy to calibrate.
➢ The Orifice is small plates and easy to install.
➢ Pressure drop is very less.
➢ Easy to operate.
➢ The orifice meter is easy to maintain.
➢ It Measures a wide range of flows.
➢ It required less space to install.
 ➢ They are the most suitable for most gases and liquids.
➢ It is low-cost equipment.
➢ Simple in construction.
➢ They are more efficient and reliable.
➢ Available in different types of materials.
➢ It is available in a wide range of sizes.
➢ Their characteristics are well known and predictable.

❖ Disadvantages of Orifice Meter:

➢ It Requires homogeneous and a single-phase liquid.
➢ Calibration affects the output readings.
➢ It gets easily blocked if any matter present in the fluid will affect the measurements.
➢ Pressure drop is high in the fluid.
➢ Measurement accuracy depends on the density, pressure, and viscosity of the fluid.
➢ It has a low range capacity.
❖ Difference Between Venturi Flow Meter And Orifice Plate Meter :
FLOW NOZZEL
PITOT TUBE
 ROTAMETER
➢ Rotameter: An variable-area flowmeter is one where the fluid must pass through a
restriction whose area increases with flow rate. The height of the float is directly
proportional to the flowrate.

❖ Working of Rotameter :
➢ It consists of a vertical tube with conical cone or shape.
➢ It is constant pressure drop variable flow meter in which float is free to move within it
the fluid flows through the tube from bottom to the top
➢ When no fluid is flowing the float reset at the bottom of the tube
➢ The float is made of such a diameter that it completely blocks the inlet section
➢ When a flow starts in a pipeline and the fluid reaches the float, the buoyancy effect of
fluid makes the float lighter
➢ The float has a density greater than that of flowing material so that the buoyancy effect
alone is not sufficient to lift the float
➢ The float remains close until the pressure of flowing material (fluid flow or Drag ) +
buoyancy effect of fluid exceeds the downward pressure due to the weight of the float
𝑖.𝑒 𝑊 = 𝑆 + 𝐴
Where,
W= Weight of float
S= Fluid flow or Drag
 A= Buoyancy effect
➢ The float then rises and floats within the flowing medium (Pipe) in proportional to the
flow rate
➢ The float reaches a stable position in the tube when the upward force exerted by the
flowing fluid (i.e 𝑆 + 𝐴) equals the downward gravitational force exerted by the weight
of the float.
➢ Increase in the flow rate causes the float to rise higher in the tube
➢ Decrease in the flow rate causes the float come down to the lower level
➢ The float gives reading on a calibrated scale which is on glass tube and the flow rate can
be determined by direct observation of the metering tube

❖ Advantages:
➢ We can find the rate of flow by direct visual.
➢ There is a low-pressure loss in it.
➢ Cost of this equipment is less.
➢ Easy in construction.
➢ We can work on it directly, without any sample flows.
➢ No external power or fuel for its operation

❖ Disadvantages:
➢ This is not used where there is fast changes occur in measurements.
➢ Low accuracy
➢ Requirement for buoyancy correction in liquids
➢ Subject to density, viscosity and temperature
➢ The fluid must be clean, no solids content
➢ Erosion of device (wear and tear)
➢ Can be expensive for large diameters
➢ Operate in the vertical position only
TURBINE FLOW METER
 ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOW METER
➢ Electromagnetic flowmeter working is based on Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic
Induction.
➢ According to this principle, when a conductive medium passes through a magnetic field
B, a voltage E is generated which is proportional to the velocity ‘v’ of the medium, the
density of the magnetic field, and the length of the conductor.

➢ In a magnetic flow meter, a current is applied to wire coils mounted within or outside the
meter body to generate a magnetic field.
➢ The liquid flowing through the pipe acts as the conductor and this induces a voltage that
is proportional to the average flow velocity.
➢ This voltage is detected by sensing electrodes mounted in the Electromagnetic flowmeter
body and then it is sent to a transmitter which calculates the volumetric flow rate based
on the pipe dimensions.
➢ Mathematically,
we can state Faraday’s law as
E  B.l.v
where,
E – is the emf or voltage generated in a conductor,
B- is the magnetic flux density
l- is the length of the conductor
v- is the velocity of the conductor
❖ Advantage:
➢ Provides wide linear range.
➢ Ability to measure reverses flow.
➢ Gives rapid response to flow changes
➢ No obstruction is created to flow
➢ It can handle corrosive as well as slurry materials.
➢ It has very low pressure drop.
➢ Available in large size and capacity

❖ Applications:
➢ They are used where applications involving measurement of erosive/corrosive slurries.
➢ They are employed in measuring paper stock or pulp, as well as low flow rates and pipe
networks with relatively short inside diameters.
➢ It is useful for electrically conducting fluid.

❖ Limitations:
➢ It is used only for liquids.
➢ It is not suitable for low velocity.
➢ It is more expensive.
➢ It is suitable for fluids having conductivity greater than 20 micro ohm/cm.
➢ Gas inclusion cause errors.
➢ Difficulties in on site calibration.
❖ Numerical on electromagnetic flow meter :

Que.: Determine the velocity of flow in an electromagnetic flow meter for flowing
condition. The flux density in the liquid has an average value of 0.08 weber/m². The
diameter of the pipe is 10cm. The induced voltage of electromagnetic flow meter is
recorded as 0.2 mV.

Given :

Flux density (B) =0.08 weber/m².

Length of conductor=Diameter of pipe (L=D) = 10cm=0.1m
Induce Voltage (e)=0.2mv
Velocity (v) = ?
According to Faraday Law,
e = BLv
 ULTRASONIC FLOW METER
➢ Ultrasonic flow meters use sound waves to measure the flow rate of a fluid.
➢ Doppler flow meters transmit ultrasonic sound waves into the fluid.
➢ These waves are reflected off particles and bubbles in the fluid.
➢ The frequency change between the transmitted wave and the received wave can be used
to measure the velocity of the fluid flow.
➢ Time of Flight flow meters use the frequency change between transmitted and received
sound waves to calculate the velocity of a flow.

❖ Types Of Ultrasonic Flow Meter:

a) Transist time flow meters (time differences)
b) Doppler type.

a) Transist time flow meters (time differences) :

➢ Flow measurement shown in Figure based on Transit time principle that utilizes two
transducers, which function as both ultrasonic transmitters and receivers.
➢ The transducers are clamped to the outside of a closed pipe at a specific distance from
each other
➢ The flow meter operates by alternatively transmitting and receiving ultrasonic signal
pulses between the two transducers.
➢ The ultrasonic signals are first transmitted in the direction of the fluid and then against
fluid flow.
➢ Since sound energy in a moving liquid is carried faster when it travels in the direction of
flow than against it, a time difference between the signals time-of-flight will occur.
 ➢ If the fluid is not moving, the time difference is zero and the flowmeter will indicate zero
flow.
➢ The transit-time of the signals is accurately measured in both flow directions and the
difference in time calculated.
L = c * dt + v * dt
Here,
L = distance between emitter-sensor
dt = runtime
v = flow velocity
c = speed of sound
➢ Thus, Flow Velocity (v) = (L/dt) – c

b) Doppler Principle Doppler :

➢ principle of measurement is suitable for contaminated or aerated liquids where the solid
content is pretty high (> 10% by volume) and measurement cannot be done using Time
of flight method.
➢ Doppler principle actually relies on particles or gas bubbles flowing with the liquid in
order to give a flow rate reading.
➢ When ultrasound hits a moving particle or gas bubble, the reflected sound can be detected
and the frequency shift measured.
➢ The frequency change is proportional to flow velocity which is converted to volumetric
flow rate by multiplying by the cross-sectional area of the pipe.

➢ The Doppler Effect Ultrasonic Flow meter use reflected ultrasonic sound to measure the
fluid velocity.
➢ By measuring the frequency shift between the Ultrasonic frequency source, The receiver,
and The fluid carrier, the relative motion are measured.
➢ The resulting frequency shift is named the Doppler Effect.
➢ The fluid for which pipe flow rate is being measured must have material like particles or
air bubbles that will reflect ultrasonic waves
➢ A signal of known ultrasonic frequency (0.5 to 10MHz) is transmitted through fluid ,
which has uniform velocity (v)
➢ Solids, bubbles or any discontinuity in liquid will reflect back to the receiver
➢ Because of the velocity of the liquid there frequency, there will be a frequency shift at
the receiver end which is protentional to the velocity
❖ Write any two specifications :
➢ Accuracy
➢ Linearity
➢ Repeatability
➢ Weight
➢ Mounting Type
➢ End Fittings
➢ Media Temperature
➢ Velocity Flow Rate
➢ Gas Volumetric Flow Rate
➢ Liquid Volumetric Flow Rate
➢ Operating Temperature
➢ Operating Pressure
➢ Electrical Output

❖ Advantages:
➢ It has no moving parts
➢ Its velocity (Output relationship is linear)
➢ Excellent dynamic response.

❖ Disadvantages:
➢ Complex circuit
➢ Relative high cost
Que. 1 Explain the following troubles and related remedies in ultrasonic flow meter: (i)
Meter does not show reading (ii) Meter show less value of flow measured. (iii) Meter show
high value of flow measured

i) Meter does not show reading :

ii) Meter shows less value of flow measured :

iii)Meter shows high value of flow measured:

Que. 2 Describe the problems occurs in working of ultrasonic flowmeter and write the
procedure to troubleshoot these problems.

Ans:
Problem 1:
For Doppler ultrasonic flow measurement it is considered that the calibration of the
flowmeter varies with the speed of sound through the fluid (c).
As c increases, Δf must proportionately decrease for any fixed volumetric flow rate Q.
Since the flowmeter is designed to directly interpret flow rate in terms of Δf, an increase in
c causing a decrease in Δf will thus register as a decrease in Q.
Remedy 1:
The speed of sound for a fluid must be precisely known in order for a Doppler ultrasonic
flowmeter to accurately measure flow.

Problem 2:
Temperature affects liquid density, and chemical composition which affects bulk modulus
and hence the speed of sound in liquid. Thus, temperature and composition both are
influencing factors for Doppler ultrasonic flowmeter calibration.

Problem 3:
The Doppler effect applies only to flowmeter applications where bubbles or particles of
sufficient size exist in the fluid to reflect sound waves, it is only the speed of sound through
liquids (and not gases).

Remedy 2 & 3:
A requirement for reliable operation of a transit-time ultrasonic flowmeter is that the process
fluid be free from gas bubbles or solid particles which might scatter or obstruct the sound
waves.
Hence applicable for gas flow streams as well as on liquid flow streams.

Problem 4:
A potential problem with the transit-time flowmeter is being able to measure the true average
fluid velocity when the flow profile changes with Reynolds number.
Remedy 4:
popular way to mitigate this problem is to use multiple sensor pairs, sending acoustic signals
along multiple paths through the fluid (i.e. a multipath ultrasonic flowmeter), and to average
the resulting velocity measurements.

Problem 5: Ultrasonic flowmeters are adversely affected by swirl and other large-scale fluid
disturbances,
Remedy 5: Substantial lengths of straight pipe upstream and downstream of the
measurement flow tube should be maintained to stabilize the flow profile.
HOT WIRE ANEMOMETER
VORTEX FLOW METER
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT METER
SPECIFICATION OF VARIOUS FLOW METER
FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED FOR SELECTION OF FLOW
METER
➢ Factors to be considered for selection of right type of flow meter:
➢ Type of fluid: Very first criterion to select the flowmeter is type of fluid like liquids/
gases, clean / contaminated, corrosive/ non corrosive, conductive/ non- conductive etc.
➢ Mounting: The pipes carrying the fluids are vertically mounted or horizontally mounted.
➢ Losses: Losses in the fluids parameters like pressure loss in variable head / area meters
is acceptable.
➢ Material: Identifying the meters which are technically capable of performing the required
measurements and are available in acceptable materials. e.g. if fluids are corrosive, the
material should be chosen so that it withstand in such conditions. In electromagnetic
method, meter pipe should be electrically non-conducting type.
➢ Type of Flow: While selecting the meter one should consider the type of flow i.e. reverse
flow, pulsating flow, laminar/ turbulent etc.
➢ Flow Parameters: Maximum and minimum values of Temperature, Pressure, Density,
Velocity etc. properties of fluid should also be considered while selecting the fluids.