A wetland is an area of land that is either covered by water

or saturated with water. The water is often groundwater, seeping up

from an aquifer or spring. A wetland’s water can also come from a
nearby river or lake. Seawater can also create wetlands, especially
in coastal areas that experience strong tides.

A wetland is entirely covered by water at least part of the year. The

depth and duration of this seasonal flooding
varies. Wetlands are transition zones. They are neither totally dry
land nor totally underwater; they have characteristics of both.

The saturation of wetland soil determines the vegetation that

surrounds it. Plants that live in wetlands are uniquely adapted to
their watery (hydric) soil. Wetland plants are called hydrophytes.
Seasonally dry wetlands or wetlands with slow-moving water can
often support trees and other sturdy vegetation. More frequently
flooded wetlands have mosses or grasses as their
dominant hydrophytes.

Wetlands exist in many kinds of climates, on every continent except

Antarctica. They vary in size from isolated prairie potholes to huge
salt marshes. They are found along coasts and inland.
Some wetlands are flooded woodlands, full of trees. Others are
more like flat, watery grasslands. Still others are choked by thick,
spongy mosses.

Wetlands go by many names, such as swamps, peatlands,

sloughs, marshes, muskegs, bogs, fens, potholes, and mires. Most
scientists consider swamps, marshes, and bogs to be the three
major kinds of wetlands.

Swamps

A swamp is a wetland permanently saturated with water and

dominated by trees. There are two main types of swamps:
freshwater swamps and saltwater swamps. Freshwater swamps are
common in inland areas. Saltwater swamps protect coasts from the
open ocean.

Freshwater Swamps
Freshwater swamps often form on flat land around lakes or streams,
where the water table is high and runoff is slow. Seasonal flooding
and rainwater cause the water level in these swamps to fluctuate, or
change. Water-tolerant plants, such as cattails, lotus, and cypress,
grow in the swamp’s wet soil. These plants are key to maintaining
the swamp’s ecosystem.

Freshwater swamps are common in tropical areas near the Equator.

These equatorial swamps usually experience year-round heat
and humidity.

The Eastern and Western Congolian Swamp Forests surround the

Congo River, in the nations of the Democratic Republic of Congo
and the Republic of the Congo. Tall evergreen trees dominate
the swamp forests. Many species of these trees, such as bubinga
and ovangkol, are harvested for timber. Bubinga and ovangkol are
expensive, luxury woods used to make musical instruments such as
violins, as well as furniture. The thick canopy of trees means
Congolian swamp forests are more shaded and humid than
other wetlands. The muddy floor of these swamps is home to
hundreds of insects, reptiles, and amphibians, including dozens of
species of frogs.

Congolian swamp forests are also home to a wide variety of large

mammals. Most of these mammals are herbivores. Colobus and
mangabey monkeys eat mostly tropical fruit. Other mammals, such
as forest buffalo, forest elephants, and lowland gorillas, feed on the
abundant vegetation of the wetland. In fact, an adult male gorilla can
eat up to 32 kilograms (45 pounds) of leaves, fruit, and bark every
day.

In more temperate climates, cypress trees often grow out of the still
waters of freshwater swamps. Spanish moss may hang from tree
branches. Willows and other shrubs may grow beneath the trees.
Angular knobs called cypress knees sometimes poke as much as 4
meters (13 feet) above the water. Cypress knees are outgrowths of
the trees’ root systems. Scientists are not sure what purpose knees
serve. They may simply provide support, or they may transport
oxygen to the roots.
Tiny water plants called duckweed often form a green cover on the
surface of the water. Alligators, frogs, and snakes called water
moccasins may swim among the plants. Reptiles and amphibians
thrive in freshwater swamps because they are adapted to the
fluctuating water levels.

Cypress swamps are common throughout the U.S. The bayous of

the state of Louisiana, near slow-moving parts of the Mississippi
River, are probably the most famous American swamplands.
Shrimp, crawfish, wading birds, and fish such as catfish are native
to bayous.

Distinct cultures have also developed near bayous and other

freshwater swamps. In Louisiana, the food and music
of Cajun culture is closely associated with bayou wildlife and
imagery.

Saltwater Swamps
Saltwater swamps are usually found along tropical coastlines.
Formation of these swamps begins with bare flats of mud or sand
that are thinly covered by seawater during high tides. The brackish
water of saltwater swamps is not entirely seawater, but not entirely
freshwater, either.

Some hydrophytes, such as mangrove trees, can tolerate brackish

water. Mangroves are easy to recognize because of their tall, stilt-
like roots, which hold the small trunks and branches of the trees
above water. Mangrove roots anchor sediment and
help soil accumulate around them. They also help
build sediment through their growth and decay.

Many organisms live among mangrove roots. The root

system provides shelter and a place to feed on fallen leaves and
other material. Crabs, conchs, and other shellfish are abundant in
mangrove swamps.

Saltwater swamps are also home to a huge variety of birds.

Mangrove roots and branches provide excellent nesting sites.
Saltwater swamps are home to seabirds, such as gulls, as well as
freshwater birds, such as herons. The abundance of plants, insects,
and small animals provides food for these birds, whose droppings
help fertilize the swamp.

The Sundarbans, a saltwater swamp in India and Bangladesh, has

the largest mangrove forest in the world. Located on mud flats near
the delta of the Ganges River, the area is saturated in freshwater.
The Sundarbans also experience strong tides from the Indian
Ocean. The biodiversity of the Sundarbans stretches from tiny algae
and moss to Bengal tigers. The Bangladeshi portion of
the wetland is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Dozens, perhaps hundreds, of different species of mangrove trees

thrive in the Sundarbans. In drier areas of the swamp, palms and
grasses grow. Insects such as bees build hives in the trees. In fact,
harvesting honey has been a major economic activity in the
Sundarbans for centuries.

Bees and other insects are one of the main food sources
for tropical birds in the area. Storks, ibises, and herons nest in the
high branches of mangrove and palm trees. Smaller birds such as
kingfishers and pigeons roost in shrubs. Some birds feed on the
hundreds of fish that inhabit the Sundarbans’ brackish water: rays,
carp, eels, crabs, and shrimp.

Many reptiles and amphibians live in and around the swamp,

including frogs, toads, turtles, and snakes. Some of the snakes of
the Sundarbans, such as the Indian python, regularly grow up to 3
meters (10 feet) long. Monitor lizards and crocodiles, also native to
the Sundarbans, are even larger.

The large reptiles of the Sundarbans regularly prey on mammals

such as deer, boar, mongooses, and monkeys. However, the most
famous predator of the Sundarbans is the Bengal tiger,
an endangered species. Bengal tigers are apex predators—human
beings are their only natural predator. In the Sundarbans, Bengal
tigers swim in the swampy water and climb trees. The cats, which
can grow to 220 kilograms (484 pounds), have been known to
attack people in the swamp. Scientists and honey collectors are
especially at risk.
Marshes

North and south of the tropics, swamps give way to marshes. These
wetlands form a flat, grassy fringe near river mouths, in bays, and
along coastlines. Many are alternately flooded and exposed by the
movement of tides. Like swamps, marshes are often divided into
freshwater and saltwater categories.

Freshwater Marshes
Freshwater marshes, often found hundreds of kilometers from the
coast, are dominated by grasses and aquatic plants.
These marshes often develop around lakes and streams.

Many freshwater marshes lie in the prairie pothole region of North

America, the heart of which extends from central Canada through
the northern Midwest of the United States.

Prairie potholes are bowl-shaped depressions left by chunks of

glacial ice buried in the soil during the most recent ice age. When
the ice melted, muddy water filled the potholes. Fertile soil and
a temperate climate make these marshes some of the richest in the
world. For this reason, many prairie potholes have been drained and
the land used for agriculture. Thousands of migratory birds depend
on the remaining prairie potholes as they travel from the Arctic to
more temperate climates every year.

Farther south, freshwater marshes form much of the Everglades, a

huge wetland region in southern Florida. Water from Lake
Okeechobee flows slowly through the Everglades on its way to the
ocean. Sawgrass, cypress, and mangroves grow along its path. The
muddy, slow-moving water is also home to rare types of orchid.

The Everglades are known for their diversity of wildlife.

This marsh contains hundreds of species of wading birds, each of
which is adapted to feed on insects, fish, clams, shrimp, or even
rodents such as mice. Alligators make their nests in the dense
sawgrass, and swim in the murky water. Deer and the endangered
Florida panther live in the dry areas of the marsh, while manatees
and even dolphins swim in the so-called “River of Grass.”
Saltwater Marshes
Salt marshes are some of the richest ecosystems for biodiversity.
Dominated by grasses, they provide food and shelter for algae,
fungi, shellfish, fish, amphibians, and reptiles. Wading birds and
other animals feed on the vegetation and abundant insects.

The warm saltwater marshes of northern Australia are influenced by

the tides of the Indian and Pacific oceans. They often overlap with
the freshwater marshes of rivers, such as the Jardine. A few
mangrove trees may dot saltwater marshes, but they are dominated
by grasses and a layer of algae called an algal mat. This algal
mat is home to many insects and amphibians.

A wide variety of birds are found in Australia’s saltwater marshes.

Some of these birds nest in the shrubs and prey on insects and fish
in the area. Others are migratory, only visiting the marsh when their
home ranges become too cold or dry to support life.

Australia’s saltwater marshes are also home to the saltwater

crocodile. These enormous reptiles often spend the wet season in
freshwater swamps and rivers, and migrate to saltwater marshes in
the dry season. In addition to fish, Australia’s saltwater crocodiles
hunt larger animals that may pass through the wetland: kangaroos,
birds, and wild boars. Many Australian beaches have strict warnings
to swimmers during certain seasons, because saltwater crocodiles
are a threat to people as well.

Bogs

Swamps and marshes are generally found in

warm climates. Bogs are more common in cold or even Arctic areas
in North America, Europe, and Asia. They also exist at high altitudes
in warmer regions, such as the Sierra Nevada in the United
States. Bogs are often called moors or fens in Europe, and muskegs
in Canada.

Like many wetlands, bogs develop in areas where the water table,
or the upper surface of underground water, is high. They often begin
in glacial depressions called kettle lakes, which are deeper
than prairie potholes.
A bog forms as a kettle lake gradually fills with plant debris. Leaves,
roots, and stems of large plants accumulate on the bed of the lake.
As the lake becomes shallower, mosses and other plants growing
along the edges of the lake extend into the water. They form a
loose, floating layer of tangled vegetation on the water’s surface.
Eventually, these plants are followed by water-loving grasses and
sedges. Soon, the water is choked with vegetation. The oldest,
partially decayed vegetation at the bottom of the bog forms a thick,
spongy mat called peat.

Peat is a valuable fuel in many parts of the world. It is often the first
step in the creation of coal, a fossil fuel. (The fossils
in coal are wetland plants.) Some people living near bogs cut and
dry squares of peat. It is burned for heating and cooking, or used to
insulate buildings. In Ireland, peat supplies a portion of the country’s
electrical energy.

Bogs preserve more than the remains of plants, however. The

bodies of dozens of prehistoric people have been found in bogs in
Europe and Asia. These “bog bodies” have been preserved for
thousands of years. Bog bodies are in such excellent condition
that anthropologists can examine clothes, tattoos, and hair color,
and even investigate a cause of death. Most people found
in bogs were killed, though historians and anthropologists debate
whether they were murdered or sacrificed as part of a
religious ritual.

Some bogs can support a person’s weight. They are called

quaking bogs because the surface quakes when a person walks on
the spongy peat. The island of Ireland, with its cool, wet climate, has
hundreds of quaking bogs.

Unlike other wetlands, bogs usually are not agriculturally fertile. The
amount of acid in the soil and water is generally higher than that
in swamps or marshes. The supply of nutrients, especially nitrogen,
is low.

Only certain kinds of plants can grow in bogs. Some of the few
plants harvested in the wet, acidic soil of bogs are cranberries and
blueberries. Plants are autotrophs, meaning they are able to create
their own food from air, water, and sunlight. Many bog plants have
adapted to the poor nutrients in the soil and water by expanding
their food source. Pitcher plants and sundew, common in bogs,
are carnivorous: They trap and consume insects.

Because of the limited species of plants, bogs do not have

the biodiversity common in other types of wetlands. Insects,
common in all wetlands, include butterflies and dragonflies. These
insects feed on the nectar in bog flowers. Ireland has dozens of
native butterflies found in bogs. Birds, such as geese and pheasant,
also make their homes in the bog, although it is unusual to find
larger animals.

In North America, moose are one of the few large animals that thrive
in bog habitats. Moose, the largest species of deer, consume
aquatic plants such as pond lilies.

Vital Ecosystems

Wetlands are some of the most valuable ecosystems on Earth. They

act like giant sponges or reservoirs. During heavy
rains, wetlands absorb excess water, limiting the effects of
flooding. Wetlands also protect coastal areas from storm surges that
can wash away fragile beaches and coastal communities.
Saltwater swamps and tidal salt marshes help secure
coastal soil and sand.

Wetland ecosystems also act as water-treatment facilities. The

plants, fungi, and algae of a wetland filter wastes
and purify water. Nitrates and other runoff chemicals often wash
into wetlands from urban areas and farms. Organisms there absorb
the harmful chemicals. Pollutants not absorbed by plants slowly sink
to the bottom, where they are buried in sand and other sediment.

Wetlands, especially marshes and swamps, are home to a wide

variety of plant and animal life. Some animals, such as shrimp, live
in tidal marshes. Many marine fishes, such as striped bass, enter
coastal wetlands to spawn. Bass swim from the ocean and into
salt marshes to lay their eggs. When the eggs hatch, the young
bass find plenty of food and some protection in the grasses or tree
roots. Oysters live in huge reefs in salt marshes. All of
these wetlands are home to economically valuable fisheries.

The Chesapeake Bay watershed, on the East Coast of the United

States, includes more than 60,000 hectares (1.5 million acres)
of wetlands. Near the bay, the ecosystem is a tidal salt marsh.
Farther from the Atlantic Ocean, freshwater marshes appear close
to the Susquehanna River and its tributaries.

Chesapeake Bay wetlands are home to an extraordinary variety of

wildlife. Plants include grasses, wild rice, pond lily, cattail, alder, and
button bushes. Trees such as red maple, black gum, river birch,
black willow, Atlantic white cedar, and bald cypress grow in the
bay’s forested wetlands.

Chesapeake Bay wetlands are a major nesting area for the bald
eagle, a symbol of the United States. The world’s largest population
of osprey also makes its home there. Bald eagles and ospreys feed
on fish in the Chesapeake Bay. Many migratory birds, including
swans and geese, spend winters in the Chesapeake wetlands.

Other animals native to the Chesapeake Bay include muskrats,

beavers, otters, turtles, frogs, and numerous shellfish, as well as the
fox squirrel and bog turtle, which are endangered species.

Economic Importance

Wetlands are economically important to people. They are popular

places for recreational activities, such as hunting, hiking, canoeing,
and bird-watching. According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Americans spend more than $100 billion on wetland-related
recreational activities every year.

More than 75% of the fish and shellfish that

are commercially harvested worldwide are linked with wetlands. For
example, the blue crab harvest from the Chesapeake Bay in 2007
was valued at about $51 million. This crab is the official
“state crustacean” of the U.S. state of Maryland, and plays an
important part of the state’s identity. Images of blue crabs are on
thousands of souvenirs, and many Maryland restaurants serve crab
cakes. The blue crab is also on Maryland’s license plate featuring
the Chesapeake Bay.

For most of history, wetlands were looked upon as wastelands.

They do not easily support development. The soil is wet, spongy,
and difficult to build on. Wetlands are also home to pests, from
mosquitoes to alligators.

Until recently, draining wetlands was accepted practice.

Drained wetlands provided land for agriculture, housing, industry,
schools, and hospitals. The capital of the United States,
Washington, D.C., is built on a drained wetland along the Potomac
and Anacostia rivers.

Almost half of U.S. wetlands have been destroyed for development.

Drainage and peat harvesting have destroyed wetlands in Ireland
and Scandinavia.

Many fish that depend on wetlands have become rare. Some of

these species, such as flounder, trout, and bass,
are commercially important. Freshwater and ocean fisheries depend
on wetlands to provide habitat for the next generation of fish.

In the early 1970s, governments began recognizing the enormous

value of wetlands. To protect the vanishing ecosystems, hunting
and fishing licenses were restricted. Living shorelines and
other restoration projects encouraged the development of
coastal wetlands to protect communities from storm surges. Fines
and restrictions on agricultural and industrial runoff reduced the
toxic chemicals spilling into wetlands.

In some parts of the world, including the United States, it is now

against the law to alter or destroy wetlands. Through management
plans and stricter laws, people are trying to protect
remaining wetlands and to recreate them in areas where they have
been destroyed.

Case Study: Tres Rios

The arid urban area of Phoenix, Arizona, serves an example of
how wetlands support the economy, health, and wildlife of an area.
In the early 1990s, city leaders worked with the Army Corps of
Engineers, the Environmental Protection Agency, and local
environmental groups to create a wetland, the Tres Rios
Demonstration Project. Tres Rios receives its water from a
wastewater facility serving the busy urban area of Phoenix, as well
as the seasonal streams of the Gila, Salt, and Agua Fria rivers.

More than two million gallons of wastewater flow into Tres Rios
every day. Thousands of birds flock to Tres Rios: waterfowl, such as
ducks and cormorants; terrestrial species, such as sparrows and
cardinals; and migratory species, such as blackbirds. Even raptors
such as osprey inhabit Tres Rios.

The habitat established at Tres Rios was so successful that wildlife

managers were forced to relocate beavers, native to
Arizona marshes, because multiplied too quickly for the wetland to
sustain.

Tres Rios cleans the wastewater that flows into it.

The ecosystem acts as a filter for toxic chemicals. Its position along
the Salt River also makes Tres Rios a natural flood-control
mechanism.

Finally, Tres Rios was less expensive to construct than a new water
treatment plant for the city of Phoenix.