Sensors 21 01500 v2

sensors
Review
Recent Progress of Fluxgate Magnetic Sensors: Basic Research
and Application
Songrui Wei 1 , Xiaoqi Liao 2,3 , Han Zhang 1 , Jianhua Pang 4 and Yan Zhou 5, *
1 Institute of Microscale Optoelectronics, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China;

weisongrui@szu.edu.cn (S.W.); hzhang@szu.edu.cn (H.Z.)
2 College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China;
xiaoqiliao@szu.edu.cn
3 Ångström Laboratory, Department of Engineering Sciences, Uppsala University, 75121 Uppsala, Sweden
4 Shenzhen Institute of Guangdong Ocean University, International Biological Valley, Dapeng District,
Shenzhen 518060, China; njpjh@sina.com
5 School of Science and Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen 518172, China
* Correspondence: zhouyan@cuhk.edu.cn
Abstract: Fluxgate magnetic sensors are especially important in detecting weak magnetic fields. The
mechanism of a fluxgate magnetic sensor is based on Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.
The structure of a fluxgate magnetic sensor mainly consists of excitation windings, core and sensing
windings, similar to the structure of a transformer. To date, they have been applied to many fields
such as geophysics and astro-observations, wearable electronic devices and non-destructive testing.
In this review, we report the recent progress in both the basic research and applications of fluxgate
magnetic sensors, especially in the past two years. Regarding the basic research, we focus on the
progress in lowering the noise, better calibration methods and increasing the sensitivity. Concerning
applications, we introduce recent work about fluxgate magnetometers on spacecraft, unmanned

aerial vehicles, wearable electronic devices and defect detection in coiled tubing. Based on the above
Citation: Wei, S.; Liao, X.; Zhang, H.;
work, we hope that we can have a clearer prospect about the future research direction of fluxgate
Pang, J.; Zhou, Y. Recent Progress of
magnetic sensor.
Fluxgate Magnetic Sensors: Basic
Research and Application. Sensors
Keywords: magnetic sensor; fluxgate; noise; sensitivity; calibration
2021, 21, 1500. https://doi.org/
10.3390/s21041500
Academic Editor: Guo-Hua Feng

1. Introduction
Received: 29 December 2020 Sensors are devices for detecting, collecting and transmitting various kinds of infor-
Accepted: 5 February 2021 mation from the environment. It is the first step of most forms of artificial intelligence
Published: 22 February 2021 and they play more and more important roles in many fields of industry and daily life.
Among them, magnetic sensors detect magnetic fields and currents and are widely used
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral in astro-observation, geophysics observation, non-destructive testing and wearable in-
with regard to jurisdictional claims in telligent devices, etc. [1–5]. To date, many types of magnetic sensors based on different
published maps and institutional affil- mechanisms have been developed. The magnetic sensors based on fluxgate, Hall effect
iations.
and magnetoresistance effect are the most widely investigated [5]. In this review, we will
focus on the recent progress of fluxgate magnetic sensors regarding both basic research
and applications.
Compared with other magnetic sensors, fluxgate magnetic sensors have advantages
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. such as high sensitivity, high accuracy, high resolution, simple and compact structures, and
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. low noise [6–14]. What’s more, they can be used in different kinds of environment and
This article is an open access article even hostile environments, and they have important applications in weak magnetic field
distributed under the terms and measurements. The basic structures of parallel and orthogonal fluxgate magnetometers
conditions of the Creative Commons
are schematically shown in Figure 1 [15]. They are mainly composed of three parts: the
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
magnetizing windings, the sensing windings and the core. The basic working principle
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
of a fluxgate sensor is about the periodic change of the magnetic permeability of the soft
4.0/).
Sensors 2021, 21, 1500. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21041500 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

s 2020, 20, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 18
Sensors 2021, 21, 1500 2 of 18
the magnetizing windings, the sensing windings and the core. The basic working princi-
ple of a fluxgate sensor is about the periodic change of the magnetic permeability of the
ferromagnetic
soft ferromagnetic core which core
is which
drivenisbydriven by a periodic
a periodic exciting exciting
current. current. The periodic
The periodic cur- current in
the exciting
rent in the exciting windings
windings will induce
will induce a periodic
a periodic magnetic
magnetic field
field in theinmagnetic
the magnetic
core core and this
and this will further induce a periodic current in the sensing windings. When there is nois no ambient
will further induce a periodic current in the sensing windings. When there
magnetic
ambient magnetic field,field, the current
the current of exciting
of the the exciting windings
windings and and the sensing
the sensing windings matches.
windings
However, when the soft core is exposed to an ambient magnetic
matches. However, when the soft core is exposed to an ambient magnetic field, the soft field, the soft core will be
core will be more easily saturated in the ambient magnetic field’s direction and less easily saturated in
more easily saturated in the ambient magnetic field’s direction and less easily
theopposite
saturated in the oppositedirection.
direction.InInthis
thiscase,
case,the
thecurrents
currentsofofthe
theexciting
excitingwindings
windingsand and the sensing
the sensing windings do not match. The difference between the current of exciting wind-windings and
windings do not match. The difference between the current of exciting
sensing windings are used to estimate the strength of the magnetic field and the output
ings and sensing windings are used to estimate the strength of the magnetic field and the
signal is usually integrated to the form of a voltage. For the orthogonal fluxgate sensor,
output signal is usually integrated to the form of a voltage. For the orthogonal fluxgate
the case is a little different. The noise of orthogonal fluxgate sensor is mainly originated
sensor, the case is a little different. The noise of orthogonal fluxgate sensor is mainly orig-
from the domain walls movement. This is the so called Barkhausen noise. To reduce the
inated from the domain walls movement. This is the so called Barkhausen noise. To reduce
noise, a DC excitation current which is sufficiently larger than the AC excitation current is
the noise, a DC excitation current which is sufficiently larger than the AC excitation cur-
applied to reduce the movement of the domain walls. This describes fundamental mode
rent is applied to reduce the movement of the domain walls. This describes fundamental
orthogonal fluxgates (FM-OFG).
mode orthogonal fluxgates (FM-OFG).
Figure 1. TheFigure 1. Thediagram

schematical schematical diagram
of: (a) parallelof: (a) parallel
fluxgate fluxgate
magnetic magnetic
sensor sensor and fluxgate
and (b) orthogonal (b) orthogonal
magnetic sensor.
The word “parallel” and “orthogonal” in the name mean the orientation between the excitationthe
fluxgate magnetic sensor. The word “parallel” and “orthogonal” in the name mean orientation
magnetic field and the
between the excitation magnetic field and the probed magnetic field. In (a), the excitation magnetic
probed magnetic field. In (a), the excitation magnetic field Hex is parallel to the probed magnetic field Hdc . In (b), the
field Hex is parallel to the probed magnetic field Hdc. In (b), the excitation current is along the axial
excitation current is along the axial direction. So, the excitation magnetic field is around the circle and orthogonal to the
direction. So, the excitation magnetic field is around the circle and orthogonal to the probed field
probed field Hdc . Only the orthogonal fluxgate sensor needs the DC exciting current which should be sufficiently larger
Hdc. Only the orthogonal fluxgate sensor needs the DC exciting current which should be sufficiently
than the AC larger
exciting current.
than the AC exciting current.
To date, many kinds of fluxgate sensors have been developed. According to the
To date, many kinds of fluxgate sensors have been developed. According to the ori-
orientation between the magnetic field of excitation current and target magnetic field,
entation between the magnetic field of excitation current and target magnetic field,
fluxgate sensors can be divided into parallel fluxgate sensors and orthogonal fluxgate
fluxgate sensors can be divided into parallel fluxgate sensors and orthogonal fluxgate sen-
sensors, as shown in Figure 1. They are named after the orientation between the excitation
sors, as shown in Figure 1. They are named after the orientation between the excitation
magnetic field and the probed magnetic field. According to the measured signal, they can be
magnetic field and the probed magnetic field. According to the measured signal, they can
divided into voltage fluxgate sensors and time domain fluxgate sensors. In voltage fluxgate
be divided into voltage fluxgate sensors and time domain fluxgate sensors. In voltage
sensors, the voltage on the sensing windings is measured to estimate the ambient field. In
fluxgate sensors, the voltage on the sensing windings is measured to estimate the ambient
time domain fluxgate sensors, the time difference between the positive and negative signal
field. In time domain fluxgate sensors, the time difference between the positive and neg-
will be used to estimate the ambient field. The working principle of the voltage fluxgate
ative signal will be used to estimate the ambient field. The working principle of the voltage
sensor is described in the last paragraph. The working principle of the residence time-
fluxgate sensor is described
difference (RTD)in fluxgate
the last paragraph.
magnetometer Theisworking principle
schematically of the
shown in residence
Figure 2 [16]. Figure 2a
time-difference (RTD) fluxgate magnetometer is schematically shown
is an ideal square hysteresis loop. When there is noexternal magnetic in Figure 2 [16]. Fig-
field, the relationship
ure 2a is an ideal square hysteresis loop. When there is noexternal magnetic
between the magnetic field and time will be shown as the solid black line field, the re- in Figure 2b.
lationship between
The time theintervals
magneticbetween
field and
thetime will be
positive andshown as the
negative solid black
saturation statesline
areinequal. Namely,
Figure 2b. TheRTtime intervals
+ −between the positive and negative saturation states are
D = T − T = 0. When an external magnetic field in applied on the magnetic core, theequal.
Namely, RT Dfigure
= T+ −will
T− =be0.lifted
When inan
theexternal magnetic
H direction field
and the in appliedison
equilibrium the magnetic
broken as shown in Figure 2c.
core, the figure will be lifted in the H direction and the equilibrium is broken
Under this condition, the time difference is no longer zero as shown in Figure as shown in 2d.
(more than 1500 prints per hour), fast drying of the motif, mass production, precise layer-
by-layer printing, and the option of printing on non-flat surfaces [17–19]. The structure of
this review is arranged as follows: Firstly, it is divided into two main parts, covering basic
investigations and applications. In the basic investigation part, recent works about the
Sensors 2021, 21, 1500 noise, calibration method and the sensitivity are discussed. For the application part, 3 ofap-
18
plications in astro-observation, geographical observation, wearable electronic devices and
non-destructive testing are discussed.
Figure
Figure 2. Schematic diagram
2. Schematic diagramofofthe
theworking
workingprinciple
principleofof RTD
RTD fluxgate
fluxgate magnetometer.
magnetometer. (a) Ideal
(a) Ideal
squarehysteresis
square hysteresisloop,
loop,(b)
(b)magnetic
magneticinduction
induction intensity
intensity corresponding
corresponding to to the
the hysteresis
hysteresis loop
loop in
in (a),
(a),sinusoidal
(c) (c) sinusoidal excitation
excitation signal
signal of anofRTD
an RTD fluxgate
fluxgate withwith and without
and without a target
a target magnetic
magnetic field,field,
and (d)
and (d) induced
induced voltage
voltage signal signal
from from coil
sensing sensing
withcoil
andwith and awithout
without a target magnetic
target magnetic field. field.
2. Basic Research
Their high cost of fabrication has limited the application of fluxgate sensors in more
daily necessity fields. The recent trend of fluxgate sensors in industry is to reduce the
2.1. Noise
fabrication cost. Many new fabrication methods have been proposed and the pad-printing
Butta et al. investigated the relationship between the noise of an orthogonal fluxgate
technique is one of them. The pad-printing technique is one of the micro-printing tech-
and the composition of the wire-core [20]. The noise of a fundamental mode orthogonal
niques which have the advantages of being fast and simple. The micro-printing technique
fluxgate is usually ascribed to Barkhausen noise [21,22]. The origin of this noise is the move-
provides new features such as flexibility to fluxgate magnetic sensors. Compared with
ment of the domain wall in the alloy wires which make up the core of magnetic sensor. To
other micro-printing techniques, pad-printing has advantages such as high printing rates
date, most works are devoted to eliminating this kind of noise and much progress has been
(more than 1500 prints per hour), fast drying of the motif, mass production, precise layer-
made. Researchers have applied various methods such as optimizing the geometry to re-
by-layer printing, and the option of printing on non-flat surfaces [17–19]. The structure
duce the demagnetization and using multiple wires and the Barkhausen noise has thus been
of this review is arranged as follows: Firstly, it is divided into two main parts, covering
reduced to a very low level [23], but the total noise is still in a high level and the origin of
basic investigations and applications. In the basic investigation part, recent works about
the noise,
the remaining noise ismethod
calibration unclear.and
In [20], Butta et al.are
the sensitivity proposed that For
discussed. the the
remaining noisepart,
application may
come from the magnetostriction of the wire. According to the definition of magnetostriction,
applications in astro-observation, geographical observation, wearable electronic devices
on one
and hand, when an
non-destructive external
testing magnetic field is applied on magnetic materials, there will
are discussed.
be a deformation on the direction of the magnetic field. On the other hand, when stress is
applied
2. on the magnetic material, the magnetization of the material will also be changed. In
Basic Research
2.1. Noise
Butta et al. investigated the relationship between the noise of an orthogonal fluxgate
and the composition of the wire-core [20]. The noise of a fundamental mode orthogonal
fluxgate is usually ascribed to Barkhausen noise [21,22]. The origin of this noise is the
movement of the domain wall in the alloy wires which make up the core of magnetic sensor.
To date, most works are devoted to eliminating this kind of noise and much progress has
been made. Researchers have applied various methods such as optimizing the geometry
to reduce the demagnetization and using multiple wires and the Barkhausen noise has
thus been reduced to a very low level [23], but the total noise is still in a high level and the
origin of the remaining noise is unclear. In [20], Butta et al. proposed that the remaining
noise may come from the magnetostriction of the wire. According to the definition of
magnetostriction, on one hand, when an external magnetic field is applied on magnetic
materials, there will be a deformation on the direction of the magnetic field. On the other
hand, when stress is applied on the magnetic material, the magnetization of the material
will also be changed. In the production process of alloy wires, many kinds of stress are
introduced. What’s more, when the magnetic sensor is working, stress can also be induced
because of the thermal expansion of the wire and the substrate. This means that for a certain
s 2020, 20, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 18
Sensors 2021, 21, 1500

theproduction process of alloy wires, many kinds of stress are introduced. What’s more, 4 of 18
when the magnetic sensor is working, stress can also be induced because of the thermal
expansion of the wire and the substrate. This means that for a certain magnetic field, there
will be different magnetizations
magnetic in the
field, there wire
will bedue to the stress
different and magnetostriction.
magnetizations in the wireThe duefluc-
to the stress and
tuation of the magnetostriction.
magnetization under a constant external field, by definition,
The fluctuation of the magnetization under a constant external is the noise. As field, by
the magnetostriction
definition, is the noise. As the magnetostriction is usually dependent on theincomposition of
is usually dependent on the composition of the magnetic materials,
this work different compositions
the magnetic of (Co
materials, Fex)work
in1−xthis 75Si15Bdifferent
10 systems were investigated
compositions of (Co1in which x
−x Fex )75 Si15 B10 systems
= 0.05, 0.055, 0.06,
were 0.062, 0.065, 0.07inand
investigated 0.08.xIt=is0.05,
which found that the
0.055, 0.06,noise
0.062,is really
0.065,dependent on It is found
0.07 and 0.08.
the composition and the noise reaches the minimum when x = 0.06. At
that the noise is really dependent on the composition and the noise reaches the minimum the same time, the
magnetostrictionwhen is also
x = almost
0.06. Atvanishing.
the sameOn time,thethe
other hand, when x = is
magnetostriction 0.06,
alsothe noise vanishing.
almost does On the
not depend onotherthe stress anymore. It means that this part of noise
hand, when x = 0.06, the noise does not depend on the stress anymore. is strongly dependent on It means
the magnetostriction.
that thisBased
part ofonnoisethe above
is stronglyresults, they propose
dependent on thethat when annealing,
magnetostriction. the on the above
Based
materials should not be
results, bend
they and the
propose thatstress
when should be as the
annealing, small as possible.
materials shouldThat notisbe
because
bend and the stress
the magnetostriction
should be is dependent
as small as on the temperature.
possible. That is because Eventhe materials without obvious
magnetostriction is dependent on the
magnetostriction effects at room
temperature. Eventemperature,
materials without may still
obvioushavemagnetostriction
strong magnetostriction effects atatroom
an- temperature,
nealing temperature.
may still have strong magnetostriction at annealing temperature.
Song et al. tried to reduce
Song the noise
et al. tried to reduce of the fluxgate
the noise ofsensor systemsensor
the fluxgate by another
system way.
by As
another way. As
the noise is dependent
the noise on the input excitation
is dependent on the input current, they proposed
excitation current, they a method
proposed to easily
a method to easily
find the most find
propertheexcitation
most proper excitation
current current fluxgate
for a specific for a specific
sensor fluxgate
[24]. The sensor [24]. The considered
considered
parameters ofparameters
the excitation of the excitation
current include current
IAC, IDC include andIAC, IDC and the
the frequency. The frequency.
excitationThe excitation
module whichmodule provides which provides the
the excitation excitation
current mainly current
includes mainly
threeincludes
parts: the three parts: the waveform
waveform
generator, the signal conditioning electronics and
generator, the signal conditioning electronics and the voltage controlled current source, the voltage controlled current source, as
as shown in Figure 3. With such a module, the proper parameters of the excitation current current with
shown in Figure 3. With such a module, the proper parameters of the excitation
with the lowest thenoise
lowest cannoise can beobtained.
be easily easily obtained.
Finally,Finally, they tested
they tested the noisethe noise
of theofcorre-
the corresponding
sponding sensor sensor in practical
in practical application.
application.
Figure
Figure 3. 3. The structure
The structure of the excitation
of the excitation modulemodule which provides
which provides the excitation
the excitation current current in S.X.
in S.X. Song et Song
al.’s work.
et al.’s work.
Janosek et al. developed the lowest noise fundamental-mode, orthogonal fluxgate
Janosek etmagnetometer
al. developedpublished
the lowestsonoise far [25]. Low noise magnetometers
fundamental-mode, orthogonalare important in many
fluxgate
magnetometer published so far [25]. Low noise magnetometers are important in many nondestruc-
fields such as geomagnetic observatories, scientific experiments in aerospace,
tive testing and
fields such as geomagnetic evaluation, and
observatories, nanoparticle
scientific detection
experiments [26–34]. According
in aerospace, nondestruc- to the structure,
tive testing andfluxgate magnetometers
evaluation, and nanoparticlecan bedetection
classified[26–34].
into theAccording
parallel type
to theand orthogonal type. For
structure,
the parallel can
fluxgate magnetometers typebefluxgate
classifiedmagnetometer, the 1-pT
into the parallel typenoise for 1 Hz cantype.
and orthogonal be only
Forobtained with
special
the parallel type arrangements
fluxgate magnetometer, and cross correlation
the 1-pT noise for measurements
1 Hz can be only [34–39]. On the
obtained with other hand, for
the orthogonal type, low noise can be only obtained with
special arrangements and cross correlation measurements [34–39]. On the other hand, for the fundamental-mode operated
fluxgate. Since the discovery of the orthogonal type by
the orthogonal type, low noise can be only obtained with the fundamental-mode operated Sasada in 2001 [40], the noise of this
kind of magnetometer has been continuously improved.
fluxgate. Since the discovery of the orthogonal type by Sasada in 2001 [40], the noise of However, a widely acknowledged
disadvantagehas
this kind of magnetometer of orthogonal type fluxgate
been continuously magnetometers
improved. However,isa their
widely relatively
acknowl- large offset drift.
Although
edged disadvantage this offset drift
of orthogonal typecan be reduced
fluxgate in either digital
magnetometers is theiror relatively
analog domain,
large in Janosek’s
work, this method is not applied because it will cause an
offset drift. Although this offset drift can be reduced in either digital or analog domain, increase of the noise.
in
√
Janosek’s work, this method is not applied because it will cause an increase of the noise. the open loop
In Janosek’s work, the noise for 1 Hz is 0.75 and 1.5 pT rms / Hz for
andwork,
In Janosek’s closedtheloop, respectively.
noise for 1 Hz is Additionally,
0.75 and 1.5 pT benefitting from the annealing process of the
rms/√Hz for the open loop and
alloy core, the offset drift is also very small (about
closed loop, respectively. Additionally, benefitting from the annealing process 2.5 nT/K). With such
of the a good property,
alloy
the developed fluxgate magnetometer has many promising applications. For example,
core, the offset drift is also very small (about 2.5 nT/K). With such a good property, the
compared to a low-noise observatory magnetometer, it is found that it has good perfor-
mance at mHz frequency and is suitable for the measurement such as magnetotellurics. It
can be also used in magnetocardiography (MCG) measurement. Benefitting from the low
noise and offset drift, MCG measurements can be performed under room temperature and
Sensors 2020, 20, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 18
developed fluxgate magnetometer has many promising applications. For example, com-
Sensors 2021, 21, 1500 pared to a low-noise observatory magnetometer, it is found that it has good performance
5 of 18
at mHz frequency and is suitable for the measurement such as magnetotellurics. It can be
also used in magnetocardiography (MCG) measurement. Benefitting from the low noise
and offset drift, MCG measurements can be performed under room temperature and
without
withoutshielding
shieldingand
andaveraging.
averaging.The
Thearrangement
arrangementofofthe
theMCG
MCGmeasurement
measurementisisshown
showninin
Figure 4 [25].
Figure 4 [25].
Figure4.4.The
Figure Theschematic
schematicdiagram
diagramofofMCG
MCGmeasurements
measurementsbased
basedononfluxgate
fluxgatemagnetometers.
magnetometers.
2.2.
2.2.Errors
Errorsand
andCalibration
CalibrationMethods
Methods
For
For tri-axis orthogonalfluxgate
tri-axis orthogonal fluxgatemagnetometers,
magnetometers,there thereare arethree
threekinds
kindsofofinevitable
inevitable
errors
errors because of the limitation of manufacture technology: zero positionerror,
because of the limitation of manufacture technology: zero position error,sensitivity
sensitivity
error
errorand
andorthogonal
orthogonalerror.
error. For
For the zero position
the zero position error,
error, itit means
meansthe theoutput
outputofofthe
themagne-
mag-
netometer
tometer isisnot
notzero
zero under
under a zero
a zero magnetic
magnetic field.
field. If we
If we only only consider
consider the the effect
effect of core
of core rem-
remanence
anence andand circuit
circuit drift,
drift, the the relationship
relationship between
between the output
the output of a of a real
real magnetometer,
magnetometer, ideal
ideal magnetometer
magnetometer and and
zerozero position
position errorerror
termterm
can becanwritten
be writtenas: as:
Bx1 𝐵 Bx 𝐵 𝐵Bx0
     
 By1  𝐵 =  =By 𝐵 ++ 𝐵By0 , , (1)
(1)
Bz1 𝐵 Bz 𝐵 𝐵Bz0
in the above equation, Bx1, By1 and Bz1 are real output. Bx, By, and Bz are ideal output. Bx0,
in the above equation, Bx1 , By1 and Bz1 are real output. Bx , By , and Bz are ideal output. Bx0 ,
BB y0 and Bz0 are the zero position error terms and they can be obtained by the output of the
y0 and Bz0 are the zero position error terms and they can be obtained by the output of the
magnetometer
magnetometer when whentherethereisisno
nomagnetic
magneticfield.field.The
Thesensitivity
sensitivityerror
errorisisoriginated
originatedfromfromthethe
difference between the sensitivity of the three coordinate axes.
difference between the sensitivity of the three coordinate axes. The relationship betweenThe relationship between
thereal
the realoutput,
output,idealidealoutput
outputand andthethesensitivity
sensitivityofofthree
threeaxes
axescan
canbebewritten
writtenas:as:
 𝐵  𝐾 0 0 𝐵 
Bx1 𝐵 =Kx 0 0 𝐾 0 0 𝐵Bx , (2)
 By1  =  0 Ky 0  By , (2)
𝐵 0 0 𝐾 𝐵
Bz1 0 0 Kz Bz
in the above equation, Bx1, By1 and Bz1 are the real output. Bx, By, and Bz are the ideal output.
inKxthe
, Kyabove
, and Kequation, Bx1 , By1 and
z are the sensitivities of B
the
z1 xare theyreal
axis, axisoutput.
and z axis,Bx ,respectively.
By , and Bz areIn the
idealideal
case,
Kx = Ky K=xK
output. ,K y , 1.
z = andThe Kzorthogonal
are the sensitivities of the x axis,
error is originated fromy axis and z axis,between
the mismatch respectively. In
the ideal
ideal case, K = K = K =
coordinate xand yreal coordinate
z 1. The orthogonal error is originated from the mismatch
or the relationship between the real coordinates are not between
the idealorthogonal.
exactly coordinate and real coordinate
As above, if the angleorbetween
the relationship
the ideal between
coordinate the real
and coordinates
real coordinate
are not exactly orthogonal. As above, if the angle between the ideal
is as shown in Figure 5 [41], the relationship between the real output and ideal output coordinate and realcan
coordinate
be writtenisas:as shown in Figure 5 [41], the relationship between the real output and ideal
output can be written as:
𝐵 cos 𝛼 cos 𝛼 cos 𝛼 𝐵
=coscos
α x 𝛽 coscosαy 𝛽 coscosαz 𝛽 𝐵Bx ,
𝐵 
(3)
  
Bx1
 By1  𝐵=  coscos 𝛾 cos 𝛾
β x cos β y cos β z cos 𝛾   𝐵By , (3)
B z1 cos γ x cos γ y cos γ z B z
in ideal case, αx = βy = γz = 0, αy = αz = βx = βz = γx = γy = 90°. If we consider a fluxgate
gradiometer which is composed of two identical fluxgate magnetometers, an additional
in ideal case, αx = βy = γz = 0, αy = αz = βx = βz = γx = γy = 90◦ . If we consider a fluxgate
gradiometer which is composed of two identical fluxgate magnetometers, an additional
error term will occur which is originated from the inconsistent placement of two fluxgate
magnetometers. It is named the position error for the fluxgate gradiometer and the form of
the expression is same to the orthogonal error.
Sensors 2021, 21, 1500 error term will occur which is originated from the inconsistent placement of two fluxgate
6 of 18
magnetometers. It is named the position error for the fluxgate gradiometer and the form
of the expression is same to the orthogonal error.
Figure5.5.The
Figure Thedifference
differencebetween
betweenideal
idealcoordinate
coordinate(a)
(a)and
andreal
realcoordinate
coordinate(b)(b)about
aboutthe theorthogonal
orthogonal
error. The a-b-c coordinate system is the reference coordinate. Under ideal condition,
error. The a-b-c coordinate system is the reference coordinate. Under ideal condition, the theoutput
output
coordinate system coincides with the reference coordinate, as shown in Figure 4a.
coordinate system coincides with the reference coordinate, as shown in Figure 4a. However, underHowever, under
real condition, there will be a deviation as shown in Figure 4b. For Equation (3), αx, βy and γz are the
real condition, there will be a deviation as shown in Figure 4b. For Equation (3), αx , βy and γz are the
angle between x and x1, y and y1, z and z1, respectively. Accordingly, αy, αz, βx, βz, γx, and γy are the
angle between x and x1 , y and y1 , z and z1 , respectively. Accordingly, αy , αz , βx , βz , γx , and γy are the
angle between x and y1, x and z1, y and x1, y and z1, z and x1, z and y1, respectively.
angle between x and y1 , x and z1 , y and x1 , y and z1 , z and x1 , z and y1 , respectively.
In Xu et al.’s work, the effect of sensitivity error, orthogonal error and position error
In Xu et al.’s work, the effect of sensitivity error, orthogonal error and position error
are considered together in one matrix A and the zero position error is considered in an-
are considered together in one matrix A and the zero position error is considered in another
other term B0. So, the total effect of these error terms can be written as:
term B0 . So, the total effect of these error terms can be written as:
𝑩𝟏 = 𝑨 ⋅ 𝑩 + 𝑩 𝟎 , (4)
B1 = A · B + B0 , (4)
𝐵 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝐵 𝐵
where 𝑩𝟏 = 𝐵Bx1 , 𝑨 = 𝑎 a11 𝑎 a12𝑎 a,13𝑩 = 𝐵 , 𝑩B𝟎 x= 𝐵 .
       
Bx0
where B1 =  𝐵By1 , A =𝑎 a21 𝑎 a22𝑎 a23 , B𝐵=  By ,𝐵B0 =  By0 .
Bz1 a31 a32 a33 Bz Bz0
With this method, the calibration is quick and accurate. The coefficients A and B0 can
With this method, the calibration is quick and accurate. The coefficients A and B0 can
be obtained by the method of undetermined coefficients after several measurements. At
be obtained by the method of undetermined coefficients after several measurements. At
the end of the paper, this calibration method is performed in experiments. For a single
the end of the paper, this calibration method is performed in experiments. For a single
three-component magnetometer, the maximum deviation can be reduced from 552.4 nT
three-component magnetometer, the maximum deviation can be reduced from 552.4 nT
to 15.0 nT with this calibration method. For the fluxgate gradiometer which is composed
to 15.0 nT with this calibration method. For the fluxgate gradiometer which is composed
of two similar magnetometers, the maximum deviation can be reduced from 3891.5 nT to
of two similar magnetometers, the maximum deviation can be reduced from 3891.5 nT to
37.2nT
37.2 nTwith
withthis
thiscalibration
calibrationmethod.
method.
Pan et al. provided a new
Pan et al. provided a new calibration calibrationmethod
methodfor fortriaxial
triaxialfluxgate
fluxgatemagnetometers
magnetometers
(TFMs) which combines a magnetic shielding room (MSR) and
(TFMs) which combines a magnetic shielding room (MSR) and a triaxial uniform magnetic a triaxial uniform magnetic
fieldcoil
field coil(TUMC)
(TUMC)[42]. [42]. As
As described
described above,
above, thethe TFMTFM hashasthree
threeintrinsic
intrinsicerrors.
errors. ToTodate,
date,
two kinds of calibration methods are proposed. The vector calibration method uses aa
two kinds of calibration methods are proposed. The vector calibration method uses
knownvector
known vectormagnetic
magneticfieldfieldasas
thethe reference
reference andand its accuracy
its accuracy is strongly
is strongly dependent
dependent on
on the
the accuracy of the known magnetic field [43]. However, the
accuracy of the known magnetic field [43]. However, the disturbance of the environmentaldisturbance of the environ-
mental magnetic
magnetic field andfield and the inaccuracy
the inaccuracy of thecannot
of the turntable turntable cannot
support thesupport
pursuit the pursuit of
of calibration
calibration
of of fluxgate magnetometers,
fluxgate magnetometers, so another method,so another method,
the scalar the scalar
calibration calibration
method method
is proposed,
is proposed,
whose accuracy whose accuracy
is not dependent is notondependent
the attitude on information.
the attitude information.
The conceptThe concept
of the scalarof
the scalar calibration
calibration method wasmethod proposed wasasproposed
early as the as early
1970s.asUnderthe 1970s.
ideal Under idealthe
conditions, conditions,
form of
theTFM
the formoutput
of the TFM
should output should besurface.
be a spherical a spherical surface.
However, dueHowever, due to of
to the existence thethe
existence
above
of the above three errors, the form of the TFM output will change
three errors, the form of the TFM output will change from a sphere to an ellipsoid. Based from a sphere to an
ellipsoid.
on the shape Based onellipsoid,
of the the shapethe of the ellipsoid, the
magnetometer canmagnetometer
be calibrated can [44].be calibrated [44].
Inpractical
In practicalcalibration,
calibration,the theaccuracy
accuracymay maybe beaffected
affectedby bythetheenvironmental
environmentalmagneticmagnetic
field[45,46]
field [45,46]andandthe
theintrinsic
intrinsicmagnetic
magnetic impurities
impurities in in
thethe turntable
turntable [47,48]
[47,48] if the
if the turntable
turntable is
is used
used to tune
to tune the the attitude
attitude of the
of the magnetic
magnetic field.field.
The The problem
problem of the ofenvironmental
the environmental mag-
magnetic
neticisfield
field moreis more and more
and more serious
serious withwith
the the widely
widely used used electronic
electronic devices.ToTosolve
devices. solvethis
this
problem,ininthis
problem, thiswork,
work,thetheMSR
MSRisisused.
used.On Onthetheother
otherhand,hand,in insome
someearlyearlyworks,
works,to toreduce
reduce
the
themagnetic
magneticfieldfieldwhich
whichisisoriginated
originatedfrom fromthe thepower
powersystemsystemofofthe theturntable,
turntable,theytheyuse
useaa
manual method to rotate the turntable, but in this way, another problem about the time
evolution of the magnetic field emerges because it usually takes more time to tune the
turntable manually. To solve this problem, a standard TUMC is used. In Pan’s work,
Sensors 2021, 21, 1500 7 of 18

turntable manually. To solve this problem, a standard TUMC is used. In Pan’s work,
turntable
firstly, manually. To solve this problem, a standardand TUMC isSecondly,
used. In Pan’s work,
firstly,they
theyconstructed
constructedthetheerror
errormodel
modelofofthe
theTUMC
TUMC andTFM. TFM. Secondly,the themagnetic
magnetic
firstly, they
environmental constructed the error model of the TUMC and TFM. Secondly, the magnetic
environmentalnoise noisemodel
modelofofMSR
MSRisisadded.
added.The
Themost
mostimportant
importantpartpartofofthis
thiswork
workisisthe
the
environmental
analysis noise model ofdisturbance
MSR is added. The and
mosttheimportant part ofcharacteristics
this work is the
analysis of the magnetic field disturbance in MSR and the magnetic field characteristicsofof
of the magnetic field in MSR magnetic field
analysis
TUMC ofMSR.
the magnetic field disturbance performed
in MSR and the itmagnetic field characteristics of
TUMCin in MSR.Finally,
Finally,experiments
experimentsareare performedand and itisisproved
provedthat
thatthis
thiscalibration
calibration
TUMC
method inhas
MSR. Finally,
high experiments
sensitivity and are performed
accuracy. The and itdiagram
schematic is proved andthat
thethis calibration
experimental
method has high sensitivity and accuracy. The schematic diagram and the experimental
method
picture has high sensitivity andinaccuracy. The schematic diagram and the experimental
pictureofofthis
thismethod
methodisisshown
shown inFigures
Figures66and
and7,7,respectively
respectively[42].
[42].
picture of this method is shown in Figures 6 and 7, respectively [42].
Figure6.6.Schematic
Figure Schematicdiagram
diagramofofthe
thecalibration
calibrationmethod
methodofofTFMs
TFMsbased
basedon
onMSR
MSRand
andTUMC.
TUMC.
Figure 6. Schematic diagram of the calibration method of TFMs based on MSR and TUMC.
Figure 7. Experimental picture of the device for calibration of TFMs with MSR and TUMC: (a) Test platform; (b) Calibra-
Figure 7.
Figure Experimental picture
7. Experimental picture of
of the
thedevice
devicefor
forcalibration
calibrationofofTFMs
TFMswith
withMSR
MSRand
andTUMC:
TUMC:(a)(a)
Test platform;
Test (b)(b)
platform; Calibration
Calibra-
tion of TUMC; (c) Calibration of TFM.
of TUMC;
tion (c) Calibration
of TUMC; of TFM.
(c) Calibration of TFM.
2.3.Sensitivity
2.3. Sensitivityand
andOther
OtherRelated
RelatedResearch
ResearchWorks
Works
2.3. Sensitivity and Other Related Research Works
Sensitivityisisaacore
Sensitivity coreproperty
propertyofofsensors.
sensors.For
Forfluxgate
fluxgatemagnetometers,
magnetometers,ititisisusually
usually
Sensitivity is a core property of sensors. For fluxgate magnetometers, it is usually
expressed as the change of an output such as voltage or time difference per ambient
expressed as the change of an output such as voltage or time difference per ambient field. field.
expressed as the change of an output such as voltage or time difference per ambient field.
Szewczyk et al. tried to increase the sensitivity of fluxgate sensors produced by the printed
circuit board method [15]. The printed circuit board method is proposed to solve the
Sensors 2021, 21, 1500 8 of 18
Szewczyk et al. tried to increase the sensitivity of fluxgate sensors produced by the printed
circuit board method [15]. The printed circuit board method is proposed to solve the prob-
problem
lem of the of the
highhigh
costcost
of of traditional
traditional fluxgatesensors.
fluxgate sensors.The
Thehigh
highcostcost of
of traditional
traditional fluxgate
fluxgate
sensors
sensors is due to the large amount of manual work involved in theirproduction,
is due to the large amount of manual work involved in their production,so sothe
the
printed
printed circuit board method can reduce the cost of fluxgate sensors efficiently, but atthe
circuit board method can reduce the cost of fluxgate sensors efficiently, but at the
same
same time,
time, the
the sensitivity
sensitivity of of fluxgate
fluxgatemagnetometers
magnetometers basedbased onon printed
printed circuit
circuitboards
boardsisis
strongly
strongly reduced [49]. In
reduced [49]. In[15],
[15],the
theauthors
authors investigated
investigated thethe feasibility
feasibility of increasing
of increasing the
the sen-
sensitivity by lengthening
sitivity by lengthening the the
corecore
andand using
using a magnetic
a magnetic flux flux concentrator
concentrator basedbased
on theonfinite
the
finite element method and open-source software. The magnetic flux concentrator has
element method and open-source software. The magnetic flux concentrator has been ap-
been applied in many other magnetic sensors to increase the sensitivity [50,51]. Generally
plied in many other magnetic sensors to increase the sensitivity [50,51]. Generally speak-
speaking, it increases the sensitivity by decreasing the demagnetization field. However, the
ing, it increases the sensitivity by decreasing the demagnetization field. However, the per-
performance of magnetic flux concentrators based on thin layer fluxgate sensors has never
formance of magnetic flux concentrators based on thin layer fluxgate sensors has never
been discussed. In this work, it is found that a longer core will effectively increase the sensi-
been discussed. In this work, it is found that a longer core will effectively increase the
tivity but the effect of the magnetic flux concentrator is very weak, so it is not recommended
sensitivity but the effect of the magnetic flux concentrator is very weak, so it is not recom-
to use a magnetic flux concentrator in a printed circuit board-based fluxgate magnetometer.
mended to use a magnetic flux concentrator in a printed circuit board-based fluxgate mag-
To increase the sensitivity of a RTD fluxgate magnetometer, Chen et al. built a sen-
netometer.
sitivity model for RTD fluxgate magnetometers [16]. The model is clear and simple and
To increase the sensitivity of a RTD fluxgate magnetometer, Chen et al. built a sensi-
can discuss the sensitivity of the RTD fluxgate and the coercivity of the magnetic core
tivity model for RTD fluxgate magnetometers [16]. The model is clear and simple and can
separately. When the excitation current is sinusoidal, the sensitivity of the RTD fluxgate
discusscan
sensor thebesensitivity
written as of thethe RTD fluxgate
function and the
of coercivity coercivity
of the magneticofcore theasmagnetic core sepa-
well as amplitude
rately. When the excitation current is sinusoidal, the
and frequency of the driving field, as shown in Equation (5) [52]: sensitivity of the RTD fluxgate sensor
can be written as the function of coercivity of the magnetic core as well as amplitude and
frequency of the driving field, as shown in Equation (5) [52]:
 
1 1
∂RTD 2 Hem Hem 
S= =  r 2 + r 2 ,
 (5)
∂Hx 𝑆 =ω 
=1 − Hc + Hx

+ 1 − Hc − ,Hx

(5)
Hem Hem
However, as as the
thecoercivity
coercivityofofthe
thecore
coreisisdependent
dependent onon
thethe driving
driving condition
condition andand
the
the relationship between them is unknown, it is difficult to calculate the
relationship between them is unknown, it is difficult to calculate the sensitivity with Equa-sensitivity with
Equation (5). What’s
tion (5). What’s more,more,
thethe sensitivity
sensitivity is is also
also dependenton
dependent onthe
thetarget
target magnetic
magnetic field
field as
as
shown in Figure 8 [16]. It can be seen that only under low target magnetic
shown in Figure 8 [16]. It can be seen that only under low target magnetic field conditions, field conditions,
the
the sensitivity
sensitivity isis nearly
nearly uniform (within ±± 1000
uniform (within 1000 nT),
nT), so
so the
the sensor
sensor can
can only
onlyaccurately
accurately
measure
measure low lowfields
fields[53].
[53].InInSzewczyk’s
Szewczyk’swork,work,theytheydeduced
deducedthe theexpression
expressionof ofsensitivity
sensitivity
under
under sinusoidal
sinusoidal excitation
excitation from
from the
theexpression
expressionof ofsensitivity
sensitivityunder
undertrilinear
trilinearexcitation
excitation
and
and tried to calculate the differential permeability µd more accurately. Finally,the
tried to calculate the differential permeability µd more accurately. Finally, themodel
model
isis verified
verified bybyexperiments.
experiments. This This work
work separates
separates the the investigation
investigation ofof sensitivity
sensitivity of
of RTD
RTD
fluxgates
fluxgatesand andcoercivity
coercivityof ofthe
themagnetic
magneticcore.
core.ItItalso
alsooffers
offersaaplatform
platformtotofurther
furtherinvestigate
investigate
the
thestructure
structureofofRTD
RTDfluxgate
fluxgatemagnetic
magneticsensors.
sensors.
Figure8.8.Relationship
Figure Relationshipbetween
betweensensitivity
sensitivityof
ofRTD
RTDfluxgate
fluxgatemagnetometer
magnetometerandandtarget
targetmagnetic
magneticfield.
field. Because
Because of thisof this relationship,
relationship, the RTDthefluxgate
RTD fluxgate magnetometer
magnetometer canbeonly
can only be applied
applied in detect-
in detecting weak
ing weak magnetic
magnetic field. field.
Yang et al. proposed a time domain method to measure current [54]. It is a bidirec-
tionally saturated fluxgate based on open-loop self-oscillating technology. The advantage
Sensors 2021, 21, 1500 9 of 18

Yang et al. proposed a time domain method to measure current [54]. It is a bidirec-
tionally saturated fluxgate based on open-loop self-oscillating technology. The advantage
of this method is that there is no time delay because the current is estimated by the time
of this method
difference is that
between thethere
first is no time and
half-cycle delay
thebecause
second the currentofisthe
half-cycle estimated by To
excitation. theobtain
time
difference between the first half-cycle and the second half-cycle of the excitation.
a better temperature stability, the authors used a nanocrystalline alloy core. Finally, the To obtain
aperformance
better temperature stability,
of the method is the authorsby
confirmed used a nanocrystalline
experiments alloy core. such
and the properties Finally, the
as line-
performance of the method is confirmed by experiments and the properties
arity and sensitivity are discussed. Ramasamy et al. characterized the superconducting such as linearity
and sensitivity
quantum are discussed.
interfere Ramasamy et al.
device (SQUID)-based characterized
time the superconducting
domain electromagnetic (TDEM) quantum
system
interfere
[55]. It is device (SQUID)-based
found that the early time time domain
of the electromagnetic
fluxgate magnetometer (TDEM)
behaves system
like a [55]. It is
combina-
found
tion of induction coil and magnetic field sensor. However, at later times, it behaves likeofa
that the early time of the fluxgate magnetometer behaves like a combination
induction
pure magneticcoil and
fieldmagnetic
sensor. field sensor. However, at later times, it behaves like a pure
magnetic field sensor.
3. Applications
3. Applications
Because of their high sensitivity and resolution, fluxgate magnetic sensors are widely
Because of their high sensitivity and resolution, fluxgate magnetic sensors are widely
used in geophysics and astro-observations. Recently, China’s first Mars mission Tianwen-1
used in geophysics and astro-observations. Recently, China’s first Mars mission Tianwen-1
and NASA’s spacecraft Juno both used fluxgate sensors to detect the magnetic field on Mars
and NASA’s spacecraft Juno both used fluxgate sensors to detect the magnetic field on
and Jupiter.
Mars The unmanned
and Jupiter. The unmannedaerialaerial
vehicles are also
vehicles are used as theasnew
also used carrier
the new to perform
carrier such
to perform
detections about Earth’s magnetic field apart from the traditional carriers such as
such detections about Earth’s magnetic field apart from the traditional carriers such as a a helicop-
ter aeromagnetic
helicopter surveyssurveys
aeromagnetic or a ground magnetic
or a ground surveys.surveys.
magnetic
3.1. Astro
3.1. Astro Observation
Observation
Recently,China’s
Recently, China’sfirst
firstMars
Marsmission
missionTianwen-1
Tianwen-1was waslunched
lunched andand Mars
Mars Orbiter
Orbiter Magne-
Magne-
tometer
tometer (MOMAG) is one of the seven scientific payloads on it. The project
one of the seven scientific payloads on it. The project is performed is performed by
a team
by a teamfrom
fromChinese
ChineseAcademy
AcademyofofSciences
SciencesKeyKey Laboratory
Laboratory of Geospace Environment
Environment of of
University of
University of Science
Science andand Technology
Technologyof ofChina
China[56].
[56].The
TheMOMAG
MOMAGincludes
includestwo twoseparate
separate
fluxgate sensors which
fluxgate whichare arefixed
fixedon onaaboom
boomasasshown
shown ininFigure
Figure9 [56]. TheThe
9 [56]. dual magnetom-
dual magne-
eter structure
tometer is designed
structure is designed to eliminate the the
to eliminate interference
interferenceof the magnetic
of the magneticfield induced
field inducedby the
by
orbiter.
the Considering
orbiter. Considering thatthat
the distance
the distancebetween the two
between the magnetometers
two magnetometers (about 0.9 m)0.9
(about is much
m) is
smaller
much compared
smaller with the
compared withsizetheofsize
Mars’s magnetosphere,
of Mars’s so the so
magnetosphere, difference of the results
the difference of the
results
between between
the two themagnetometers
two magnetometers can becan be assumed
assumed to betosolely
be solely
due due
to theto the orbiter
orbiter andandthe
the corresponding
corresponding noise.
noise. In this
In this way,way, the magnetic
the magnetic fieldfield
fromfrom the orbiter
the orbiter can be canseparated
be separated
from
from the total
the total magnetic
magnetic field.field.
ThisThis method
method is firstly
is firstly developed
developed in the
in the Venus
Venus Express
Express project
project in
in 2006.
2006.
Figure 9.
Figure 9. The
The schematic
schematic diagram
diagram of
ofTianwen-1
Tianwen-1Mars
Marsorbiter
orbiterand
andthe
thedual-structure
dual-structureMars
MarsOrbiter
Orbiter
Magnetometer on it.
Magnetometer on it.
ItIt has
has been
been found
found that
that there
there isisno
noglobal
globalmagnetic
magnetic field
fieldon
onMars
Marsby bythe
theMars
MarsGlobal
Global
Surveyor (MGS)
Surveyor (MGS) Mission
Mission in
in1998,
1998,but
buttwotwoother
otherkinds
kindsof
ofmagnetic
magneticfield
fieldstill
stillexist.
exist.They
Theyareare
the magnetosphere
the magnetosphere produced
produced by bythe
thesolar
solarwind
windand
andthe
thelocal
localstrong
strongmagnetic
magneticcrustal
crustalfield
field
near the southern highlands of Mars. The most important mission of MOMAG is to measure
the vector magnetic field of the two sources and the interaction between them. The solar
the vector magnetic field of the two sources and the interaction between them. The solar
wind is a cluster of plasmas running under supersonic speed. It carries the interplanetary
magnetic field (IMF) with it. As it cannot pass through Mars, it leaves a magnetosphere
around the Mars with the frozen-in IMF. The structure of the magnetosphere is shown in
Figure 10 [56]. It mainly includes the bow shock, magnetosheath, magnetic pileup boundary
Sensors 2021, 21, 1500 10 of 18
(MPB) and the ionosphere or photoelectron boundary (PEB). The bow shock is the outer-
most part of magnetosphere. The solar wind transitions from supersonic to subsonic when
it passes through the bow shock. The layer inside the bow shock is the hotter, denser, more
turbulent
wind magnetosheath
is a cluster of plasmas and the MPB
running underis the lower boundary
supersonic speed. of magnetosheath.
It carries The layer
the interplanetary
inside thefield
magnetic magnetosheath
(IMF) with is it.the
AsPEB. It is the
it cannot pass critical
through partMars,
of magnetosphere of Mars which
it leaves a magnetosphere
around
separates thetheMars
ionswith
mostlythefrom
frozen-in IMF.
the solar Theand
wind structure
the ions ofmostly
the magnetosphere
from Mars. Onisthe shown
night
in Figure
side, there10 is [56]. It mainly
a magnetic includes
tail. About thethe bow shock,
magnetic crustalmagnetosheath,
field near the southernmagnetic pileup
highlands,
boundary
we know that (MPB) it isand
much thestronger
ionosphere than or thephotoelectron
magnetic fieldboundary of the Earth. (PEB). The abow
It forms small shock
local
ismagnetosphere
the outermostand partstrongly
of magnetosphere. The solar
affects the magnetic wind
field from transitions
solar winds from supersonic
at lower to
altitude.
subsonic
On one hand,whenit itcan passes through
protect the bow
the planet shock.
surface fromThe layer inside
the damage the bow shock
of electrically charged is par-
the
hotter,
ticles indenser,
universe. more
On turbulent
the other hand,magnetosheath
it can also shieldand the the MPB is theflux
ion escape lowernearboundary
the southern of
magnetosheath.
highlands. The layer inside the magnetosheath is the PEB. It is the critical part of
magnetosphere
As the fluxgateof Mars which separates
magnetometers do not theperform
ions mostly frommeasurement,
absolute the solar wind andneed
they the ions
to be
mostly
calibrated both on Earth and in-flight. After the measurement, the results need to becrustal
from Mars. On the night side, there is a magnetic tail. About the magnetic further
field near the
corrected southern
to exclude thehighlands, we know that
various influencing it is To
factors. muchsave stronger thanpower
the limited the magnetic field
of the space-
of the the
craft, Earth. It forms aplan
observation small localcarefully
is also magnetosphere
designed. and strongly
Near affects the
the periareon andmagnetic
apoareon, field
the
from solar winds at lower altitude. On one hand, it can protect
magnetometer will work at the sampling frequency of 32 Hz. In other positions, the magne- the planet surface from the
damage
tometer of willelectrically
work at the charged
sampling particles in universe.
frequency of 1 Hz.On Onthe other hand,
average, it can also shield
the magnetometer will
the ion escape flux near the southern highlands.
detect the magnetic field of Mars’s magnetosphere 1.89 kilobits per second.
Figure10.
Figure 10.Schematic
Schematicdiagram
diagramof
ofthe
themagnetosphere
magnetosphereproduced
producedby
bysolar
solarwind
windon
onMars.
Mars.
Kotsiaros
As et al. magnetometers
the fluxgate reported the measurement
do not perform of Jupiter’s
absolutemagnetic field bythey
measurement, the need
fluxgate
to
be calibrated both
magnetometer on Earth
installed and
on the in-flight.
spinning After the
spacecraft measurement,
Juno [57]. Similarthe results needdesign,
to Tianwen-1′s to be
further corrected
the fluxgate to excludeonthe
magnetometer various
Juno influencing
also uses factors. To
two independent save the limited
magnetometers power
placed on a
of
barthe
of spacecraft, theto
the spacecraft observation plan
eliminate the is also
effect carefullyfield
of magnetic designed.
induced Near thespacecraft
by the periareonitself.
and
apoareon,
Differently,the magnetometer
Juno spins every 30 will work
s, or at two
about the sampling frequency
turns per minute. of 32 Hz.
According In other
to Faraday’s
positions, the magnetometer
law of electromagnetic willorwork
induction at law,
Lenz’s the sampling
a spinningfrequency
conductorofin1magnetic
Hz. On average,
field will
the magnetometer
induce an edge currentwill in
detect the magnetic
the conductor field
and the of Mars’s
edge currentmagnetosphere 1.89 kilobits
will in turn generate an addi-
per second.
tional magnetic field. This additional magnetic field can be seen as the background noise
Kotsiaros et al. reported the measurement of Jupiter’s magnetic field by the fluxgate
magnetometer installed on the spinning spacecraft Juno [57]. Similar to Tianwen-1’s design,
the fluxgate magnetometer on Juno also uses two independent magnetometers placed on
a bar of the spacecraft to eliminate the effect of magnetic field induced by the spacecraft
itself. Differently, Juno spins every 30 s, or about two turns per minute. According
to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction or Lenz’s law, a spinning conductor in
magnetic field will induce an edge current in the conductor and the edge current will in
turn generate an additional magnetic field. This additional magnetic field can be seen as
the background noise and it will affect the measurement of the Jupiter’s intrinsic magnetic
field. According to author’s estimations, the additional magnetic field is about 0.001 Gauss
Sensors
2020, 20, x FOR PEER2020, 20, x FOR PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 11 of 18 11 of 18
Sensors 2021, 21, 1500 11 of 18
and it will affectand it will affect the

the measurement ofmeasurement of the Jupiter’s
the Jupiter’s intrinsic magnetic intrinsic magnetic field.
field. According to au-According to au-
thor’s
thor’s estimations, the estimations, the additional
additional magnetic field ismagnetic
about 0.001 field is about
Gauss in an0.001 Gaussfield
intrinsic in anof intrinsic field of
about 3 Gauss.in about
For 3 Gauss.
fluxgate For
sensors, fluxgate
this sensors,
value is this
pretty value
large is
and pretty
should large
an intrinsic field of about 3 Gauss. For fluxgate sensors, this value is prettynot and
be should
ignored. not be ignored.
large and
The
The authors applied
should authors
thenot
finiteapplied the finite
element method
be ignored. element
and the
The authors method
Maxwell
applied and the
theequations Maxwell equations
to quantitatively
finite element to quantitatively
method and the Maxwell
calculate
calculate the spinning
equations the
induced spinning
magnetic induced
to quantitatively field. magnetic
They
calculate also field.upThey
put
the spinning also put
a method
induced up a method
tomagnetic
eliminate thistoThey
field. eliminate this
also put
additional
additional field.upThe
a method field.
corresponding Theresults
corresponding
to eliminate results
are additional
this shown are shown
in Figures
field. 11 and
The in12
Figures
[57]. At
corresponding 11the
and 12 [57].
end
results At the end
are shown in
of the paper, theyof also
the paper,
Figures 11 andthey
provide 12 also At
another
[57]. provide
method
the endanother
of theismethod
which similar
paper, which
to the
they alsois similar
“thin to
shell”
provide the “thin
method
another shell”which
method methodis
to evaluate
to evaluate the similar
induced the
field. induced field.
to the “thin shell” method to evaluate the induced field.
Figure 11. The Figure

results of 11. The results
different of different times of the finiteused
element method used in analyzing the mag-
Figure 11. The results of different times of thetimes
finiteofelement
the finite element
method method
used in analyzing
in analyzing the field
the magnetic mag- caused by the
netic field caused netic
by field
the causedspace
spinning by the spinning space craft.
craft.
spinning space craft.
Figure12.
Figure 12. Two different
Figure 12. Two
cases
Two different
ofdifferent casesofofthe
the modulation
cases themodulation
modulation
results. results.
The blueresults.
one The
is for
The theblue
bluecaseone
one is is
with afor
for the
the case
case with
with a
a stronger
stronger magnetic stronger
field in magnetic
z direction field in
while z direction
the yellow while
one is the
for yellow
the caseone is
with for
a the case
stronger with
magnetica stronger
magnetic field in z direction while the yellow one is for the case with a stronger magnetic field in magnetic
field in x-y direction.
field in x-y direction.
x-y direction.
3.2.Geophysics
GeophysicsObservation
3.2. Geophysics Observation
3.2. Observation
LeMaire
Le Maire et al. Le Maireaetet
applied al.applied
al.
fluxgate applied aafluxgate
sensor fluxgate sensor
which issensor which
which
mounted ismounted
onisan mounted
unmanned ononan anunmanned
unmannedaerial
aerial aerial
vehicle (UAV) in vehicle
vehicle
magnetic(UAV)
(UAV) in magnetic
mapping magnetic mapping [58].
mappingwith
[58]. Compared Compared
[58]. Compared
other with other
with
geophysical geophysical
other
mapping meth- mapping
geophysical meth-
mapping
ods, magnetic
methods,
ods, magnetic mapping has themapping
magnetic mapping
advantages has of
the
hasadvantagesbothoflarge
the advantages
mapping mapping
ofscale both
mapping
objectslarge
both scale
andlarge objects
scale
small- and small-
objects and
scale
scale objects with theobjects
small-scale with with
sameobjects the same
instrument. the instrument.
same Traditionally,
instrument.
Traditionally, magnetic
Traditionally,
magnetic mapping magnetic
is mapping
usually per- is usually
mapping per-
is usually
formed
performed by the
by theground
ground ororairborne
airborne magnetic
magnetic surveying.
surveying.
formed by the ground or airborne magnetic surveying. However, there is a gap of height However,
However, there is a
a gap
gap of
of height
height
between
between
between the ground the
andthe ground
ground
airborne andairborne
and
magnetic airborne magnetic
magnetic
surveying surveying
surveying
because becausethe
because
the fixed-wing thefixed-wing
fixed-wing
aircraft aircraftand
and aircraft and
helicopters cannot fly too low for safety reasons. For ground magnetic surveying, its result
can be easily affected by the noise from the anthropogenic origin which will affect the
Sensors 2021, 21, 1500 12 of 18

helicopters cannot fly too low for safety reasons. For ground magnetic surveying, its result
can be easily affected by the noise from the anthropogenic origin which will affect the results
of airborne magnetic surveying, so the results of ground and airborne magnetic surveying
results of airborne magnetic surveying, so the results of ground and airborne magnetic
are not easy to relate. However, the demand for continuously measuring the magnetic field
surveying are not easy to relate. However, the demand for continuously measuring the
of different heights is strong. It is well known that the map obtained by magnetic method
magnetic field of different heights is strong. It is well known that the map obtained by
can vary by several orders of magnitude according to different distances to the magnetic
magnetic method can vary by several orders of magnitude according to different distances
origin or different spacing between magnetic profiles.
to the magnetic origin or different spacing between magnetic profiles.
The recently
The recently emerging
emerging UAV UAV is is an
anideal
idealsolution
solutionfor forthis
thisproblem.
problem.AsAs UAVs
UAVs cancanflyfly
at
thethe
at height
heightbetween
between ground
ground andand 100100m, m,
it effectively
it effectively fillsfills
the the
gapgap of traditional
of traditional ground
ground and
airborne magnetic surveying. Generally, the UAV can be divided
and airborne magnetic surveying. Generally, the UAV can be divided into two types: fixed into two types: fixed wing
and rotary
wing wing. wing.
and rotary The fixed Thewing
fixedUAVs winghave UAVs higher
havespeed higher and larger
speed andrange.
largerButrange.
they needBut
larger plate to take off and land. On the other hand, the rotary
they need larger plate to take off and land. On the other hand, the rotary wing UAVs wing UAVs is a new member is a
of themember
new family of of UAVs
the familyusedoffor airborne
UAVs usedmagnetism.
for airborneIt magnetism.
is smaller and more
It is maneuverable
smaller and more
comparing withcomparing
maneuverable the fixed wingwith the UAVs. fixedIt wing
only requires
UAVs. Itaonly veryrequires
small plate to take
a very small offplate
and
land. But at the same time, the spatial range of rotary wing
to take off and land. But at the same time, the spatial range of rotary wing UAV is also UAV is also smaller (several
kilometers)
smaller and the
(several speed is and
kilometers) lower the(typically
speed is 10 m/s).
lower In this work,
(typically as the
10 m/s). Inrotary wingasUAV
this work, the
rotary wing UAV is used, the smaller and lighter fluxgate vector magnetometer isAs
is used, the smaller and lighter fluxgate vector magnetometer is more preferrable. morethe
fluxgate vector magnetometer does not measure the absolute
preferrable. As the fluxgate vector magnetometer does not measure the absolute magnetic magnetic field, it needs to be
calibrated
field, before
it needs to beusing. In this before
calibrated work, the using. noiseIn isthis
mainly
work,from the intrinsic
the noise is mainly andfrom
inducedthe
magneticand
intrinsic fieldinduced
of UAV.magnetic field of UAV.
work is
The work is performed
performed in in the
the Northern
Northern VosgesVosgesMountains.
Mountains. The The geological
geological context
context is is
complex and and many
manyanthropogenic
anthropogenicobjects, objects,suchsuch asas houses,
houses, pipelines
pipelines andand various
variousburied fer-
buried
rous objects,
ferrous objects, may
may affect
affectthe
thelocal
localmagnetic
magneticfield.field.ThisThisplace
place hashas been widely investigated
investigated
because it is the deep deep drilling
drilling project
project forfor geothermal
geothermal resource
resource prospecting.
prospecting. In In this
this work,
work, thethe
anomaly map
magnetic anomaly map of of ground
ground (0.8 (0.8 m),
m), 1.21.2 m,
m, 3030 m m and
and 100100 mm areare drawn.
drawn. The The results
results ofof
100 m
100 m after
after reduction
reduction to the pole of ground survey in the south is shown in Figure 13 [58].
It is superimposed
superimposedon ona asatellite
satellite image.
image. A Matrice
A Matrice 210210 RTKRTK quadcopter
quadcopter designed by DabyJiang
designed Da
Jiang Innovation
Innovation (DJI, Shenzhen,
(DJI, Shenzhen, China)China)
is usedisasusedshownas shown
in Figure in Figure
14 [58].14 The [58]. The of
results results
ground of
ground survey and UAVs are compared and the comparison
survey and UAVs are compared and the comparison with upward continuation is also per- with upward continuation
is also performed.
formed. It is found that It is both
found thethat both the and
wavelength wavelength
amplitude and amplitude
of the magnetic ofanomaly
the magneticmaps
anomaly
are differentmaps forare different
different for different
altitudes. altitudes.
The results The results
are consistent with are consistent
former studieswith
both former
in the
studies both (e.g.,
crustal scale in theidentification
crustal scale of (e.g.,
majoridentification of major contacts)
faults or geological faults or geological
and local scale contacts)
(e.g.,
and local scaleof(e.g.,
identification identification
anthropic pipes orof anthropic pipes
archaeological or archaeological remains).
remains).
Figure 13. The

The magnetic
magneticmapmapobtained
obtainedbybythe
thefluxgate
fluxgatemagnetometer
magnetometeronon
a UAV at at
a UAV thethe
height of of
height
100 m
100 m with
with aa satellite
satellite image
image as
as the
the background.
background.
s 2020, 20, xSensors 21, 1500
2021, REVIEW
FOR PEER 13 of 18 13 of 18
Figure 14. (a) The Matrice 210 RTK quadcopter designed by Da Jiang Innovation (b) and the Bar-
Figure 14. (a)
Figure (a)The
TheMatrice
Matrice210 RTK
210 quadcopter
RTK quadcopterdesigned by Da
designed by Jiang Innovation
Da Jiang (b) and
Innovation (b)the
andBar-
the
tington MAG03-MC fluxgate magnetometer (c). The overall weight of the magnetic equipment is
tington MAG03-MC
Bartington MAG03-MC fluxgate magnetometer
fluxgate (c).
magnetometer The
(c). overall
The weight
overall of
weight the
of magnetic
the equipment
magnetic equipment isis
484 g.
484 g.
484 g.
3.3. Other Related
3.3.Applications
3.3. Other
Other Related
Related Applications
Applications
Schoinas et al.Schoinas
fabricated
Schoinas etand
et al. characterized
al. fabricated
fabricated andacharacterized
and flexible fluxgate
characterized sensorfluxgate
aa flexible
flexible with pad-printed
fluxgate sensor
sensorwith withpad-printed
pad-printed
solenoid coils [59].
solenoidRecently,
solenoidcoils wearable
coils[59].
[59]. Recently, intelligent
Recently,wearable devices
wearableintelligent are a new
intelligentdevices trend
devicesare areaaconsumer
in new
newtrendtrend daily
in
inconsumer
consumerdaily daily
electronic devices. In
electronic this trend, the flexible sensor is the indispensable
electronic devices. In this trend, the flexible sensor is the indispensable component.The
devices. In this trend, the flexible sensor is the component.
indispensable The
component. The
fluxgate magneticfluxgatesensor
fluxgate is well sensor
magnetic
magnetic knownis
sensor isfor
wellits known
well high
known sensitivity
for
for its
its high
highandsensitivity
resolutionand
sensitivity for resolution
and the low for
resolution for the
thelow
low
magnetic field.magnetic
However,
magnetic in consumer
field.
field. However,
However, electronic
in
inconsumer
consumer devices, the high
electronic
electronic sensitivity
devices,
devices, the
thehigh andsensitivity
high resolutionand
sensitivity andresolution
resolution
are not necessary,
are
are notso it
not is replaced
necessary,
necessary, soby
so other
ititisisreplaced kindsby
replaced byofother
magnetic
other kinds
kinds sensors
ofofmagnetic such as
magnetic anisotropic
sensors
sensors such
suchas asanisotropic
anisotropic
magnetoresistance (AMR)
magnetoresistance sensors.
magnetoresistance (AMR) The main
(AMR)sensors. obstacle
sensors.The for
Themain wider
main application
obstacle
obstacle forforwider of
wider fluxgate sen-of fluxgate
application
application of fluxgatesen-
sor is their complex
sensor and
is expensive
their complex fabrication
and method,
expensive so a method
fabrication
sor is their complex and expensive fabrication method, so a method that can easily fabricate that
method, can easily
so a fabricate
method that can easily
fluxgate sensors in largesensors
fabricate
fluxgate numbers
fluxgate is urgently
insensors
large in large
numbers needed,
numbers evenisthough
is urgently needed,ineven
urgently this process
needed, though evenin the sensi-
though
this in thisthe
process process
sensi-
tivity and resolution
the may be lowered. In this work, a pad-printing
tivity and resolution may be lowered. In this work, a pad-printing technique is applied is
sensitivity and resolution may be lowered. In thistechnique
work, a is applied
pad-printing to technique to
fabricate the solenoid
applied
fabricateto coil
the of
fabricate the the
solenoid sensorsolenoid
coil [60–63].
of thecoil The
of the
sensor schematic
sensor [60–63].
[60–63]. diagram
The The
schematic and the
schematic photo-
diagram diagram
and theand the
photo-
graphic view photographic
of the printed
graphic view view sensor
of are printed
theofprinted
the shown sensorin Figure
sensor
are areshown 15
shown[59]. The
in
in Figure synthesis
Figure 15 15 [59].
[59]. process
The The is
synthesis
synthesis processis
process
schematically shown
is in
schematicallyFigure 16
shown[59]. After
in Figuresynthesis,
16 [59].the performance
After synthesis,
schematically shown in Figure 16 [59]. After synthesis, the performance of the sensor is char- of the
the sensor
performance is char- of the sensor is
acterized. The characterized.
corresponding results
The include
corresponding the waveform
results of
includethe output
the
acterized. The corresponding results include the waveform of the output voltage of the sens- voltage
waveform of
of the
the sens-
output voltage of
ing coil, the magnitude
the
ing sensing
coil, theof the
coil, sensor’s
the magnitude
magnitude second
of harmonic
of the second
the sensor’s response
sensor’s second
harmonic and the sensor and
harmonic
response sensitivity.
response and the
the sensor sensor
sensitivity.
All the above sensitivity.
results are measured
All the aboveunder different
results are excitation
measured currents.
under
All the above results are measured under different excitation currents. It is worth noting It is
different worth noting
excitation currents. It is
that the noise of the
worth sensor
noting is at
that a high
the level.
noise ofThis
the is due
sensor toisthe
at ashape
high of the
level.
that the noise of the sensor is at a high level. This is due to the shape of the bar sensor which bar
This sensor
is due which
to the shape of the
is similar to thebar
casesensor
of which
linear is similar Additionally,
transformer. to the case of linear the transformer.
temperature
is similar to the case of linear transformer. Additionally, the temperature of the sensor is also of Additionally,
the sensor is the temperature
also
measured. It isof the sensor
found
measured. thatItthe is temperature
also measured.
is found
It is found
that theistemperature
dependent on that the temperature
the strength
is dependent onand thefrequency
is dependent
strength and of frequency on the
of
strengthThe andhighest
frequency of the excitation current. The highest temperature ◦
is 67.2 C which
the excitation current.
the excitation current. temperature
The highest istemperature
67.2 °C which appears
is 67.2 °C whichnear the excitation
appears near the excitation
appearsp-p
coils under a 700-mA near the excitation coils
at under a 700-mA p-p excitationofcurrent at 100 kHz and the
coils under excitation
a 700-mA current p-p excitation 100 kHz
current andatthe
◦ C under 100temperature
kHz and the temperature the sensing of the sensing
coil is 32.6 °C temperature
under the of the
same sensing coil
condition. It canis 32.6
be concluded the
that same
the
coil is 32.6 °C under the same condition. It can be concluded that the printing technique is
condition.
printing It can beisconcluded that
technique
imperfect becausethe printing
the temperaturetechnique is imperfect
distribution because the temperature
is unsymmetric distribution is unsymmetric
imperfect because the temperature distribution isunder the same
unsymmetric current.
under theThe
same current. The
under
correspondingcorresponding the same
results are shown current.
in Figure The corresponding
17 [59]. results are shown in Figure 17 [59].
results are shown in Figure 17 [59].
Figure 15.
Figure 15. Structure of Structure offluxgate
the printed the printed fluxgate magnetometer
magnetometer on wearable on wearable
intelligent intelligent
device device
(a) and (a) and
the experimental picture
Figure 15. Structure of the printed fluxgate magnetometer on wearable intelligent device (a) and
(b). the experimental picture (b).
the experimental picture (b).

Sensors 2021, 21, 1500 14 of 18
Figure
Figure 16. Theproducing
16. The producingprocess the
processofofthe printed
printed
the printed fluxgate
fluxgate
fluxgate magnetometer.
magnetometer.
magnetometer. Printing
(a) Printing the bottom
the bottom
(a) Printing the bottom
conductive layer;
conductive layer;(b)
(b)Printing
Printingthe
theconductive
conductive vias; (c) (c)
vias; Printing thethe
Printing bottom insulating
bottom layer;
insulating (d) The
layer; The
(d) The
mounting
mounting and
and attachment
attachment of magnetic
of magnetic core; (e)
core; Printing
(e) Printingthe insulating
the walls;
insulating (f)
walls; Printing
(f)
mounting and attachment of magnetic core; (e) Printing the insulating walls; (f) Printing the top the
Printing top
the top
insulating layer;
insulating layer;(g)
(g)Printing
Printingthe top
the topconductive
conductive layer.
layer.
insulating layer; (g) Printing the top conductive layer.
Figure 17. The temperature distribution of the printed fluxgate magnetometer under a certain
working17.
Figure condition.
17. The
Thetemperature
temperaturedistribution of of
distribution thethe
printed fluxgate
printed magnetometer
fluxgate under
magnetometer a certain
under a certain
working condition.
Apart from the fluxgate magnetometer which needs the AC or DC excitation current,
Zhou et al. applied a fluxgate magnetometer based on weak magnetic detection technology
Sensors 2021, 21, 1500 15 of 18
Apart from the fluxgate magnetometer which needs the AC or DC excitation current,
Zhou et al. applied a fluxgate magnetometer based on weak magnetic detection technology
to
to probe
probe thethe defects
defectsofofarbitrary
arbitraryorientations
orientations in coiled
in coiled tubingtubing(CT)(CT)
[64].[64]. Traditionally,
Traditionally, mag-
magnetic flux leakage (MFL) testing is one of the non-destructive
netic flux leakage (MFL) testing is one of the non-destructive testing (NDT) methods used testing (NDT) methods
used for detection
for detection CT failures
CT failures [65–67]. [65–67].
However, However, it issensitive
it is only only sensitive to circumferentially
to circumferentially distrib-
distributed defects and cannot detect axially distributed
uted defects and cannot detect axially distributed defects. The method defects. The method
proposedproposed
in this
in thiscan
work work can effectively
effectively detect the detect theindefects
defects in any direction.
any direction. It can also between
It can also distinguish distinguishdif-
between different types of defects such as axial, circumferential
ferent types of defects such as axial, circumferential and pore type defects. Additionally, as and pore type defects.
Additionally,
it does not requireas it doesthenot require
rotation ofthe rotationfields,
magnetic of magnetic
the size fields, theequipment
of the size of the is equipment
relatively
issmall.
relatively small.
The
The working mechanism of
working mechanism ofthe
theweak
weakmagnetic
magneticfield fielddetection
detection technology
technology in defect
in defect de-
detection is schematically shown in Figure
tection is schematically shown in Figure 18 [64]. The mechanism 18 [64]. The mechanism of of
the the technology
technology is is
that
that the permeabilities of the workpiece (µ) and the defect (µ0 ) are usually different. If the
the permeabilities of the workpiece (µ) and the defect (µ′) are usually different. If the per-
permeability of the defect is higher (µ0 > µ), the curve of magnetic induction intensity B will
meability of the defect is higher (µ′ > µ), the curve of magnetic induction intensity B will be
be concave as shown on the left bottom panel of Figure 18. If the permeability of the defect
concave as shown on the left bottom panel of Figure 18. If the permeability of the defect is
is lower (µ0 < µ), the curve of magnetic induction intensity B will be upward as shown on
lower (µ′ < µ), the curve of magnetic induction intensity B will be upward as shown on the
the right bottom panel of Figure 18. The magnetic induction intensity of every position
right bottom panel of Figure 18. The magnetic induction intensity of every position around
around the workpiece can be measured by passing a three-dimensional magnetic sensor
the workpiece can be measured by passing a three-dimensional magnetic sensor above the
above the workpiece. Then, the gradient of magnetic induction intensity with space can be
workpiece. Then, Bthe ( x +gradient
∆x )− B( x ) of magnetic induction intensity with space can be obtained
obtained by ∂B ∆ ≈ ∆x . As ∆x is a constant, ∂B and B( x + ∆x ) − B( x ) should have
by ∂x . As ∆𝑥 is a constant, and 𝐵 𝑥 + ∆𝑥
∂x 𝐵 𝑥 should have the same
the same shape ∆ but different amplitudes, so the interference between adjacent magnetic
shape but different amplitudes, so the interference
anomalies will be reduced and this is helpful to distinguish the superimposed between adjacent magnetic magnetic
anomalies
will be reduced and this is helpful to distinguish the superimposed
anomalies. In addition, comparing with the gradient of magnetic induction intensity of the magnetic anomalies. In
addition, comparing
workpiece, the gradient withofthethegradient
geomagneticof magnetic
field isinduction
much smaller, intensitysoof
it the
canworkpiece,
suppress the the
gradient
local of the geomagnetic
background gradient field. fieldIfiswemuch smaller,
calculate the so it can suppress
gradient the components
of the three local backgroundof B
gradient
(B field. If we calculate the gradient of the three components of B (Bx, By, Bz) in three
x , By , Bz ) in three directions (x, y, z), then the magnetic gradient tensor G can be obtained
as Equation(x,(6):
directions y, z), then the magnetic gradient tensor G can be obtained as Equation (6):
  ∂⎡2 ϕm ∂2 ϕm ∂2 ϕm  ⎤
⎡∂Bx ∂Bx ⎤
 ∂B
x
⎢∂x2 ⎥ 𝐵 B 𝐵 B 𝐵 B 

⎢ ⎥
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x∂y ∂x∂z  xx xy xz
 = ⎥= ⎢ ⎥ ==  𝐵 Byx𝐵 Byy𝐵 Byz
 ∂By ∂By ∂By   ∂2 ϕm ∂2 ϕm ∂2 ϕm 

G= 𝐺=⎢ , , (6)
(6)
⎢ 2
⎥
 ∂x ∂y ∂z  ∂y∂x ∂y∂z  
𝐵 𝐵 𝐵
∂y
∂Bz ⎢∂Bz ∂Bz ⎥ ∂⎢ ϕm ∂ ϕm ∂ ϕm ⎥
 2 2 2 Bzx Bzy Bzz
∂x ⎣∂y ∂z ⎦ ∂z∂x⎣ ∂z∂y ∂z2 ⎦
where is the
whereϕφmm is themagnetic
magneticscalar
scalarpotential
potentialand
andits
itsdifferential
differentialwith withspace
spaceisisthe
thecorresponding
corresponding
magnetic
magnetic induction intensity in that direction. B ij (i, j = x, y, z) are the components
intensity in that direction. Bij (i, j = x, y, z) are the components of the
of
tensor
the in the
tensor j direction
in the along
j direction the ithe
along axis. The magnetic
i axis. The magnetic gradient tensor
gradient contains
tensor the infor-
contains the
mation of theofdefects.
information In Zhou’s
the defects. work,work,
In Zhou’s three magnetometers
three magnetometers which which
are responsible for one
are responsible
direction
for (x, y and
one direction (x,z), respectively,
y and are composed
z), respectively, are composedorthogonally together
orthogonally and form
together andthe tri-
form
the triaxial
axial fluxgatefluxgate
sensor.sensor.
SimilarSimilar to Section
to Section 2.2review,
2.2 of this of thisthey
review,
also they also the
calibrate calibrate the
zero error,
zero
scaleerror,
error scale error and orthogonal
and orthogonal error of theerror of the
triaxial triaxial
system. At system.
last, theyAt last, they
applied thisapplied
method
this
in experiment and found that different forms and directions of defects can be can
method in experiment and found that different forms and directions of defects be
distin-
distinguished effectively.
guished effectively.
Figure 18. The working principle of the weak magnetic detection technology.
Sensors 2021, 21, 1500 16 of 18
4. Summary and Outlook

In the past two years, much progress has been made about lowering the noise, new
calibration methods and increasing the sensitivity of fluxgate magnetometers. Fluxgate
magnetic sensors have been applied in many new fields and many practical problems
solved. In the future, we believe that the following research fields will be productive.
Firstly, the work about lowering the noise should focus on the type of noise apart from
the Barkhausen noise because after years of effort, the Barkhausen noise has been reduced
to a low level. More attention should be paid to the quality of the alloy core because the
remanent noise may be due to the magnetostrictive effect of the alloy core. Additionally, the
offset drift is also dependent on it. Secondly, due to the lower noise and wider bandwidth,
the fundamental mode is a more popular trend comparing with the second harmonic
mode. Thirdly, time domain magnetometers such as residence time difference fluxgate
magnetometers are a new trend of this field. Fourthly, the most important problem of
fluxgate magnetometers in consumption applications is their high cost, so the main target
of this field is to reduce the production cost, even though in this process, the sensitivity
may be reduced and the noise may be increased to some extent.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization and methodology, Y.Z. and J.P.; writing—original draft
preparation, S.W. and X.L.; writing—review and editing, Y.Z., J.P. and H.Z. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: Y.Z. acknowledged the support by Guangdong Special Support Project (2019BT02X030),
Shenzhen Peacock Group Plan (Grant No. KQTD20180413181702403), Pearl River Recruitment
Program of Talents (2017GC010293) and National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No.
11974298, 61961136006). This work is supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China
(No. 61961136001); Innovation Team Project of Department of Education of Guangdong Province (No.
2018KCXTD026). Natural Science Basic Research Program of Shaanxi (No. 2020JQ-344); Fundamental
Research Funds for the Central Universities, CHD (No. 300102129302).
Data Availability Statement: No new data were created as it is a review paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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1 Institute of Microscale Optoelectronics, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China;

Academic Editor: Guo-Hua Feng

Sensors 2021, 21, 1500. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21041500 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

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Figure 1. TheFigure 1. Thediagram

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Figure 11. The Figure

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Figure 13. The

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4. Summary and Outlook

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