Name – Anurakti Vajpeyi

Roll no. 212405

Submitted to – Mr. Aditya Kaushal

Describe the nature of Tokugawa state and society. Which historical forces and factors led to
their decline?

Introduction

The last name Tokugawa literally meaning a virtuous river is indeed an appropriate surname
for the empire. The “economic miracle” that Japan is today was at a time induced with feudal
tendencies, authoritarian regimes and wars. “One who looks beneath the surface of things can
see, in spite of her modern garb that the heart of Old Japan is still beating.” These words of
Okakura Tenshin indicate the nature of the society of Japan, which is still influenced by
traditional institutions, attitudes, and cultural patterns.

One of the main features of the Tokugawa was feudalism which dates back to the 17th
century. The hegemony of the Tokugawa state and family was established by Tokugawa
Leyasu who asserted indirect control over the three islands of Honshu, Kyushu and Shikoku.
Hierarchal structures and respect for rank has always been emphasised. These rigid divisions
are a feature of the Neo-Confucious doctrine which divides the society into four classes
which own functions and contributions in the society. These classes were samurai, peasants,
artisans and merchants. These hierarchies were based on religion, age, sex etc. rigid rules and
regulations for each of the hierarchy were maintained.

In Plato’s theory of the philosopher kings, we see ranks/divisions based on the factor of utility
of a specific class. In Japan’s case the most important class was of the samurais. The samurais
were supposed to be more virtuous than any other class A sharp distinction between the
samurais (the warrior class) and the commoners was present in the Tokugawa state. This
distinction was constantly emphasized by the state. The commercial class was often ignored
while feudalism was given heed to by the Tokugawa rulers. Resembling the feudal system,
samurais held some fiefs and tax was drawn out from these lands to fulfil their military needs.
Many of the samurais stayed in towns/cities and became dwellers after unification. Their
lands were taken care of by the shogun or daimyos. They were allowed to keep two swords in
the city. They adopted the duty to maintain peace and order in the society.

In the past, historians studying the Tokugawa period focused on their rigid social system with
four inherited classes. This made samurai seem like the most important figures, but also
painted a picture of a stagnant and oppressive society. This was especially true for Marxist
scholars who saw "feudal" as a society with powerless farmers paying taxes to a warrior elite.

After World War II, the term "feudal" in Japan took on a new meaning. It described social and
political aspects from the Tokugawa era that still existed, like strict hierarchies, loyalty to
superiors, and societal divisions. Historians used it to criticize aspects of modern Japanese
society they felt hadn't modernized enough

Daimyos, the feudal lords of Japan were given limited castles one per domain. There were
two kinds of Daimyos, those who were with the Tokugawa ruler from the beginning and
owed hereditary vassalage to the ruler were known as fudai daimyo. Those who joined the
ruler after the battle of Sekigahara were known as Tozama. They were given partial autonomy
to govern their clans but were not included in any governmental responsibilities. The daimyos
were not allowed to form alliances among themselves and had to comply with the rulers. The
only kind of tax which was imposed on them was in the form of gifts and periodic
contributions for building purposes. A compromise between feudal fragmentation and central
unification was seen. The powers of daimyos were stripped away by Lemitsu who introduced
a method to limit the autonomy and authority of daimyos.

In the system of sankin ko ̄tai, the shoguns were in-charge of maintaining a regularized
attendance. They were required to maintain two households, one in Edo where they had to
attend upon the Shogun. Maintaining two or more estates proved to weaken the daimyos.
Two significant results of the sankin kotai system were that one; the daimyo were turned into
free-spending courtiers of the shogun, and their wealth got drained in order to maintain
military expenditure. In the late 18th century, in terms of monetisation, a shift from natural
economy to money economy was seen. The shoguns issues coins and at the same time
urbanization was starting to grow.

According to EH Norman, the Tokugawa era was marked by “the most conscious attempt in
history to freeze society in a rigid hierarchal mold.”
At a political level, there were two authorities. One was Tenno (the emperor) who was
perceived as a semidivine civil monarch. The other group was called the Shogun (military
monarch). The emperor lived in Kyoto while the Shogun resided in Edo. This implies that the
main functioning of the state was under the shogun. Shogun also served as the feudal suzerain
of the daimyo. The power to make court appointments and laws for nobles was also with the
shogun. Shogun derived legitimacy through the emperor who had a limited political role to
play. However, shoguns did not have absolute powers. In the political fragmentation, local
daimyos had the powers to raise taxes, issue laws, raise military forces, and dispense justice.
The Bakuhan system was the political system of the Tokugawa. Baku meaning the shoguns
and hans referring to the local daimyo’s domain, both administrative and psychological
sectionalism was continually a factor in Tokugawa politics. the daimyo had been divided into
three main groups since the 17th century. They were: the fudai or vassal daimyo, the shimpan
or collateral daimyo, and the tozama or allied daimyo. Bakufu's view of his political
reliability were reflected in this division and not wealth, strength, or prestige of the individual
daimyo.

The shogunates had restricted foreign trade and closed the country in order to limit the
revenues of daimyos and to also avoid threats from Spanish and Portuguese missionaries.

Religion:

Christianity was completely destroyed by Lemitsu who formally banished the religion. Zen
Buddhism and Neo-Confucian played a major role in aiding the feudal government. Christian
sectarianism and Spanish Rey were considered as major threats and eliminating their
population was needed. Tokugawa Hidetada in 1614 passed an official law that all
missionaries must leave the country. Any who remained would be executed. Buddhism
continued to be the state religion and the zen sect due to the relevance of samurais and
military, gained importance.

All births and deaths were to be recorded at the local Buddhist temple. Buddhism was used to
unite people and at the same time eliminate dissension. Due to the rigid enforcement of
Buddhism, it became more of a mere ritual obligation. The priests obtained government
offices and were not just religious advocates anymore.

While historians like Herman Ooms have shown that Neo-Confucianism wasn't the only
dominant philosophy as once thought, it undeniably shaped both the political and social
structures of Japan. Unlike a religion, Neo-Confucianism offered a code of ethics that tied
good social behavior to effective government. It emphasized ethical, cultured leaders and
benevolent rule. This philosophy proved useful in transforming the samurai class from
warriors into a peacetime bureaucracy.

Religion in feudal states becomes a source to derive legitimization from. This was done in
Japan through neo-Confucian ideas of loyalty and obedience. According to Byron Earhart
perhaps, "the Confucian notions of social harmony and respect for one's superiors were
translated to mean that the Japanese people should unite in unquestioning loyalty to the
political state and its aims.”

Bushido, the combination of the two religions became the warrior code for samurais. The
responsibility to set an example of a moral and ethical life was taken by the samurais. Rules
regarding Greetings, farewells, sword handling, and even suicide rituals were strictly
outlined.

According to Englebert Kaempfer, many people still followed the Shinto tradition of
worshiping their local deities in a private sphere. It was still regarded with the highest respect
and esteem. Their festivals were also celebrated with enthusiasm and a good number of
participations.

The chonin class:

The government was dependent on peasants for tax which was paid in rice and other
agricultural products. Due to the feudal and hierarchal nature of the Tokugawa state, it
became possible in future to lay foundations of industrialization and modern economic
growth. The segregation of peasants and samurais led to socio economic changes in the
feudal state. Samurais did not reside in the villages anymore and settled in towns. The castle
towns which had a major population of the Han samurais got a military character.

However, this segregation was not as practical as it was in theory. 17th century saw a rise in
the merchant class. Kyoto and Osaka which were the earlier economic and cultural centres of
Japan were replaced by Edo due to migration. The segregated class lines got blurred and chon
ins, who were earlier looked down at, gained importance and worked with samurais. A
bureaucratic nature of aristocracy emerged.
The intellectual class:

According to Ambedkar, “In every country the intellectual class is the most influential class.
This is the class which can foresee advice and lead. In no country does the mass of the people
live the life for intelligent thought and action. It is largely imitative and follows the
intellectual class. There is no exaggeration in saying that the entire destination of the country
depends upon its intellectual class.”

Tokugawa Japan needed not only coercive power of hegemon and henchmen. To legitimize
the rule from above, an intellectual class is also needed to propagate the ideas of the state into
the masses. Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi had used coercion extremely and needed
to convince people of the legitimacy of their rule. Both of these men, as well as Tokugawa
Ieyasu, sought to ground their authority upon religious as well as secular symbols and ideals.
The notion of divinity and the divine rule was used by them. The neo-Confucian synthesis
was developed by these thinkers became principle of reason, or ri. This immutable natural
law was said to be the basis of all learning and conduct

These personal deification initiatives, which challenged the imperial court's hallowed
pretensions, were carried out by the Tokugawa family. Even the court families' little
mannerisms were governed and prescribed by Ieyasu, who also hosted foreign embassies in
their presence. For his part, Iemitsu led a great parade of 309,000 troops to the emperor's
residence in Kyoto in 1634.

Transformations and results:

Due to the shankin- kotai system, the interaction between classes started taking place which
would not have been done otherwise resulting in local self-sustaining economy. The alternate
attendance system it led to expanded interregional trade and specialized local production for
distant city markets, above all those of Edo and Osaka.

An extensive road network facilitated transit and overland transport. Two major routes
connected Edo with Kyoto and subsequently Osaka: The Nakase do trail wound through the
mountains of central Japan and the Tokaido route that followed the sea. When daimyo
attendance processions encountered several commoners on different commercial. The noise
was loud, whether people were running errands or making pilgrimages to shrines.
Approximately 5 or 6 percent of Japanese people were overall inhabitants of cities with a
population of 100,000 or more by 1700. By this criterion, Europe was less than half as urban
at the time; only 2% of Europeans resided in cities of this size. The degree of urbanization,
from larger cities to smaller locations, is similarly astounding. Approximately three million
people, or 10% of Japan's population, resided in towns or cities with a population of 10,000
or more by 1700. With a million residents, Edo was the biggest worldwide city. With over
350,000 inhabitants apiece, Kyoto and Osaka were comparable to London or Paris. Japan was
among the most urbanized societies by any standard in the year 1700.

Cities were the centres of business in this ever-more-complex and productive economy, while
towns, highways, and seaports served as the nodes and arteries of economic activity. In turn,
the communities supplied the majority of the raw resources that were consumed and
processed.

Samurais lost their status of the most elite class. Economic changes as well as the
bureaucratization of samurais resulted in changes in both, social and political structures. The
system of hereditary rank had also changed the nature of loyalty and the lord-vassal
relationship. Earlier samurai had chosen to follow a lord because of his demonstrated
effectiveness as a leader, but since daimyo ̄ had become hereditary leaders, oaths of
allegiance became unconditional and impersonal declarations of loyalty to the office, not the
individual.

Consequences

The lack of response and initiative of the Tokugawa rulers regarding the above-mentioned
events led to Meiji restoration. The Tempo crisis (1830 to 1843) is the background factor to
the regime’s collapse when Commodore Perry arrived at Edo Bay. There is a debate regarding
the impact or influence of internal factors (socio economic problems) and external
factors/western threat (represented by Perry’s arrival).

Marxist historians argue about the feudal nature of Tokugawa state and the discontent for it in
the peasant class which was oppressed by the socio-political system. Frequent rebellions were
taken place against feudalism by the lower ranking samurai class. For non-Marxist historians,
nationalism which emerged due to Perry’s ultimatum to open Japan was the primary reason
for Meiji restoration. According to them, the attack was not on feudalism.

Internal issues:
Cities in the economically advanced southwestern provinces suffered the most severe
population loss after the 17th century boom. Large cities shrank. In the late 17th century,
famines resulted in a shortage of population. Bad weather caused bad harvest and food
scarcity. The moral and ethical claims of the Tokugawa rulers was challenged by samurais
when the cases of infanticide rose up.

Daimyos and samurais were unable to pay the loans they took from the merchant class. The
resistance hence came from top to bottom. Proto industrialization in the country side and new
monopoly of city artisans or urban markets caused problems for the rural population who
now worked in cities. Less wealthy peasants lacked many effective legal protest options.
They might easily flee to another kingdom if taxes or debts were too great, and some of them
actually did. However, this was a financially and legally dangerous decision.
There was an obvious tendency toward increased protests. Among them were widespread
petitions and protests in addition to targeted attacks on powerful people or the affluent. There
was a significant change over time toward more forceful behaviour. Between 1600 and 1650,
the modest act of presenting a petition or the comparatively passive act of simply running
away accounted for approximately half of all peasant "protests."

External factor:

American advances in Japan for trading purposes were put forward by Commodore Matthew
Perry in 1853when he arrived in Japan. Similar advances were earlier made by Russia,
Britain and the Dutch. The first American consul was Townshend Harris. When Harris
arrived in Shimada in late 1856, he nearly immediately began talks to convince the to consent
to a trade by bakufu.

Perry who was very determined gave a simple message to either agree to trade in peace, or
suffer the consequences in war. Perry wanted the Japanese to sell coal to naval ships and
allow provisioning stops to whalers. America was keen to expand their trade in the pacific
regions as the Atlantic water were almost exhausted. Perry wanted an answer within a year.
The answer if no, would lead to war according to him. Perry returned to Japan in early 1854
with nine ships, and three steam frigates. These “unequal treaties” were humiliating in theory
and in practice.

Japan agreed to let them stay in the regions of Shimoda and Hakodate. Soon after, a consul
was set up in Shimoda. The Treaty of Kanagawa was signed which also extended to European
powers. Another treaty was signed by the bakufus in February 1858, according to which trade
was allowed at eight ports. The legal authority and their tariff autonomy was taken away. The
pact established tariffs on products coming into or going out of Japan. The Japanese
government was powerless to alter them. A clause of extraterritoriality was applied, which
meant that the Consular courts would be utilized to try foreign nationals accused of crimes in
Japan overseen by foreign judges in accordance with foreign legislation. The bakufu made
such deals with the other Western abilities.

The Tokugawa Shogunate (bakufu) agreed to foreign demands partly to gain allies and partly
out of fear of a growing movement called Sonnō Jōi (Revere the Emperor, Expel the
Barbarians). This anti-foreigner movement started in the late 1850s. Some members saw the
emperor as a symbol of Japan's purity and feared foreign "contamination." Others saw him as
the ultimate authority, and his opposition to foreign treaties overruled the Shogun. By the
1860s, these two ideas (anti-foreignism and reverence for the emperor) became one.

Yoshida Shoin, a young samurai, is a good example of a Sonnō Jōi member. He worried
about foreign threats and even tried to travel to the West to learn more. He grew frustrated
with both the Shogun and local lords for giving in to foreign demands. By the time he was
executed in 1859, he only trusted the emperor. He called for a rebellion of lower-ranking
samurai who would be loyal directly to the emperor, fighting both foreigners and corrupt
leaders.

Popular views often portray Japan's modernization as a clear success story. News media
frequently talks about Japan's "economic miracle" that made them a global industrial leader.
There's truth to this perspective. Modern Japanese enjoy a level of comfort and security their
ancestors and neighbours in Asia could only dream of. Their success is measured against
Western standards, and some even suggest developed nations could learn from Japan.

However, younger generations offer a more critical view. They acknowledge the economic
boom, but argue it came with downsides. These include lingering feudalistic mindsets, an
authoritarian government, aggressive foreign policy, and ultimately, the devastation of war.
They point beyond economic success to the events leading to the atomic bombings. While
some Americans optimistically predicted a "Japanese century," some Japanese feared a return
of imperialism, disguised but still dangerous. For them, the key lesson of Japan's
modernization is how to avoid its pitfalls.
References

 Gordon, A. (2019). A modern history of Japan: From Tokugawa Times to the Present.

Oxford University Press, USA.

 Duus, P. (1976). The rise of modern Japan. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

 Norman, E. H. (2000). Japan’s emergence as a modern state: Political and Economic

Problems of the Meiji Period. UBC Press.

 Tipton, E. K. (2008). Modern Japan: A Social and Political History. Routledge.

 Borton, H. (1940). Japan since 1931: Its Political and Social Developments. New

York: International Secretariat, Institute of Pacific Relations.