MEANING OF RESEARCH

◦ Research simply seeks the answer of certain questions which have not
been answered so far and the answers depend upon human efforts.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
1.It gathers new knowledge or data from primary or first-hand sources.
2. It places emphasis upon the discovery of general principles.
3. It is an exact systematic and accurate investigation.
4. It uses certain valid data gathering devices.
5. It is logical and objective.

Levels of measurements

◦ Nominal Scale, also called the categorical variable scale, is defined as a

scale used for labeling variables into distinct classifications and doesn’t
involve a quantitative value or order. This scale is the simplest of the four
variable measurement scales. Calculations done on these variables will
be futile as there is no numerical value of the options.
Example- categories like Hindu, Muslim, boy, girls.
◦ Ordinal Scale is defined as a variable measurement scale used to simply
depict the order of variables and not the difference between each of the
variables.
Example- Coach asks players to assemble in increasing order of height.
◦ Interval Scale is defined as a numerical scale where the order of the
variables is known as well as the difference between these variables.
Variables that have familiar, constant, and computable differences are
classified using the Interval scale. It does not have a true zero
Example- temperature scale which has different meanings on different
scales.
 #very important folks
◦ A ratio scale is a quantitative scale where there is a true zero and equal
intervals between neighboring points. Unlike on an interval scale, a zero
on a ratio scale means there is a total absence of the variable you are
measuring.
Example- Length, area, and population are examples of ratio scales.

Two important terms

◦ Item difficulty index- Item difficulty is an estimate of the skill level
needed to pass an item. It is frequently measured by calculating the
proportion of individuals passing an item. Calculated by dividing the
number who got it correct by the total number of students.
◦ Item discrimination index- The discrimination index of an item is the
ability to distinguish high and low scoring learners. Discrimination
Index by subtracting the number of students in the lower group who got
the item correct from the number of students in the upper group who
got the item correct.
#dont be confused in these terms,

Reliability Range 0-1

The term reliability in psychological research refers to the consistency of

a research study or measuring test. #just like your reliable friend
For example, if a person weighs themselves during the course of a day, they
would expect to see a similar reading.
Types of reliability or methods
The split-half method assesses the internal consistency of a test, such as
psychometric tests and questionnaires. There, it measures the extent to which
all parts of the test contribute equally to what is being measured.
The test-retest method assesses the external consistency of a test. Examples
of appropriate tests include questionnaires and psychometric tests. It
measures the stability of a test over time. A typical assessment would involve
giving participants the same test on two separate occasions.
The inter-rater method assesses the external consistency of a test. This refers
to the degree to which different raters give consistent estimates of the same
behavior. Inter-rater reliability can be used for interviews.
Parallel form’s reliability measures the correlation between two equivalent
versions of a test. You use it when you have two different assessment tools or
sets of questions designed to measure the same thing.

Validity
#just like your real true friend
Validity tells you how accurately a method measures something. If a method
measures what it claims to measure, and the results closely correspond to real-
world values, then it can be considered valid.
◦ Face validity- Face validity considers how suitable the content of a test
seems to be on the surface. It’s similar to content validity, but face
validity is a more informal and subjective assessment.
◦ Content validity or circular or intrinsic-To produce valid results, the
content of a test, survey or measurement method must cover all
relevant parts of the subject it aims to measure. If some aspects are
missing from the measurement (or if irrelevant aspects are included),
the validity is threatened.
◦ Criterion validity evaluates how well a test can predict a concrete
outcome, or how well the results of your test approximate the results of
another test.
➢ Predictive Validity: if the test accurately predicts what it is supposed to
predict. For example, the aptitude test exhibits predictive validity for
performance in college. It can also refer to when scores from the
 predictor measure are taken first and then the criterion data is collected
later.
➢ Concurrent Validity: when the predictor and criterion data are collected
at the same time. It can also refer to when a test replaces another test
(i.e., because it’s cheaper). For example, a written driver’s test replaces
an in-person test with an instructor.
◦ Construct validity- Construct validity evaluates whether a measurement
tool really represents the thing we are interested in measuring. It’s
central to establishing the overall validity of a method. Content validity
assesses whether a test is representative of all aspects of the construct.
Or the degree to which a test or instrument is capable of measuring a
concept, trait, or other theoretical entity
#read them twice….no wait…..thrice…I know your cofused
➢ Convergent validity refers to the degree to which two measures of
constructs that theoretically should be related, are in fact related.
➢ Discriminant validity tests whether concepts or measurements that are
supposed to be unrelated are, in fact, unrelated.

Norms

 Standard/Average performance.
 Methodology – to understand psychology tests and proper
interpretation of scores.
 Norms, Reliability, Validity, Item Analysis and Test Design.
 Raw Scores - 35 in English. 20 in math???? They don’t convey any
meaning to us
 It can only interpret in clearly defined and uniform frame of references.

Definition:
“Norms may be defined as the average performance on a particular test made
by a standardization sample.”
 Uses of norms
1. To indicate the individual’s relative standing in the normative sample
and thus permit an evaluation of her/his performance in reference to
other persons.
2. To provide comparable measures that permits a direct comparison of
the individuals performance on different tests.

 Steps in developing Norms:

1. Defining the target population
2. Selecting the sample from the target population
3. Standardizing the conditions

#this is pretty easy topic

There are two types of norms-
Developmental norms-

1. Age equivalent norms:

✓ Criteria – Ave. performance of standard sample at certain age level.
✓ Most suitable for trait or ability which increases systematically.
✓ e.g., Height, weight, Cog. Abilities, intelligence etc.

2. Grade Equivalent norms

➢ Like age equivalent norms – criterion –Grade/Standard
➢ In field of educations. Achievement test & educational test.
 ➢ Ex -4th grade performance in math, language skill.
➢ The average no. of problems solved correctly on a math test by the 4th
Grader in a standardization sample is 23, the raw score of 23
corresponds to grade equivalent of 4

Withing group norms-

 Almost all psychological test provides it.
 Within group scores / norms have uniform and clearly defined
quantitative meaning.
 Used in most of statistical analysis.
#this is lil tricky but I know You will do it

1. Percentiles:
✓ Most common and popular
✓ Percentile -% of persons (standard sample) fall below a given point.
✓ Percentile and Percentile Rank are two different concepts.
✓ ex – if the 30% of the person obtain fewer than 18 problems correct on
math then raw score of 18 corresponds to 30th percentile (P30) i.e.,
percentile rank is 30 and percentile score is 18

 Standard scores :
✓ Increasing trend . most satisfactory derived score.
✓ a SS is a score that has been converted from one scale to another scale.
 Raw scores may be converted to standard scores to easily interpret.
 With a standard score, the position of a test taker’s performance relative
to other test takers is readily apparent.
✓ Ex -z scores, T scores, stannines, and some other standard scores.
Z scores
 The Z-Score, also known as a Standard Score, is a statistic that tells us
where a score lies in relation to the population mean.
 A positive Z-Score means that the score is above the mean, while a
negative Z-Score means that the score is below the mean.
 In addition, the Z-Score also tells us how far the score is from the mean.
 It is a very useful statistic because it allows us to compare two scores
coming from two different distributions.
 z=(X-M)/SD
#these two are same like Ram and Lakhan
T Scores
 type of standardized score based on a score distribution that has a
mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10.
 . Devised by W. A. McCall (1922, 1939) and named a T score in honor of
his professor E. L. Thorndike,
 T= 10z + 50

Stanines
▪ Standard nine.
▪ Distribute entire scores into 9 units
▪ It has mean @ 5 and SD at 1.96
▪ Useful to counselor, educational psychologist, selection & recruitment
process.ad

Deviation IQ
 IQ
 Deviation IQ is a Normalized standard score has M=100 & SD 16 for
Stanford Binet Scale
 Deviation IQ is a Normalized standard score has M=100 & SD 15 for
Weschler’s intelligence test.
  Variance- a measure of the spread, or dispersion, of scores within a
sample or population, whereby a small variance indicates highly similar
scores, all close to the sample mean, and a large variance indicates more
scores at a greater distance from the mean and possibly spread over a
larger range
 Standard deviation is a statistical measurement that looks at how far a
group of numbers is from the mean. Put simply, standard deviation
measures how far apart numbers are in a data set.

Normal probability curve

The Normal Probability Curve (N.P.C.) is symmetrical about the ordinate of the central point of
the curve. It implies that the size, shape and slope of the curve on one side of the curve is
identical to that of the other.

Characteristics of NPC
#characteristice are important
 • The normal curve is symmetrical
It implies that the size, shape and slope of the curve on one side of the curve is
identical to that of the other. That is, the normal curve has a bilateral
symmetry.
. The normal curve is unimodal:
Since there is only one point in the curve which has maximum frequency, the
normal probability curve is unimodal, i.e., it has only one mode.
• Mean, median and mode coincide:
The mean, median and mode of the normal distribution are the same and they
lie at the center.
• The normal curve is asymptotic to the X-axis
: The Normal Probability Curve approaches the horizontal axis asymptotically
i.e.; the curve continues to decrease in height on both ends away from the
middle point (the maximum ordinate point); but it never touches the
horizontal axis.

#do not forget these values

 skewness is a degree of asymmetry observed in a probability
distribution that deviates from the symmetrical normal distribution (bell
curve) in a given set of data.
Types of skewness
◦ 1. Positive skewed or right-skewed
In statistics, a positively skewed distribution is a sort of distribution where
more data is plot on left side of the curve or tail is present on the right side of
the curve

◦ 2. Negative skewed or left-skewed

A negatively skewed distribution is the straight reverse of a positively skewed
distribution. In statistics, negatively skewed distribution refers to the
distribution model where more values are plots on the right side of the graph,
and the tail of the distribution is spreading on the left side
If the skewness is between -0.5 & 0.5, the data are nearly symmetrical.
 Kurtosis- Kurtosis refers to the degree of presence of outliers in the
distribution. Or Kurtosis is a statistical measure, whether the data is
heavy-tailed or light-tailed in a normal distribution.

Types of Kurtosis
1. Leptokurtic or heavy-tailed distribution (kurtosis more than
normal distribution). K>3
2. Mesokurtic (kurtosis same as the normal distribution). K=3
3. Platykurtic or short-tailed distribution (kurtosis less than
normal distribution).k<3

Hypothesis testing
#now this is the most difficult part for others, for you,,,, its easy
A hypothesis is a statement that introduces a research question and proposes
an expected result.
Types of hypothesis Alternative Hypothesis
• The alternative hypothesis states that there is a relationship between
the two variables being studied (one variable has an effect on the other).
• The null hypothesis states that there is no relationship between the two
variables being studied (one variable does not affect the other).
• A nondirectional hypothesis predicts a change, relationship, or
difference between two variables but does not specifically designate
the change, relationship, or difference as being positive or negative.
• A directional hypothesis is a prediction made by a researcher regarding
a positive or negative change,

WHAT IS THE SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL (ALPHA)?

The significance level, also denoted as alpha or α, is the probability of

rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true. For example, a significance
level of 0.05 indicates a 5% risk of concluding that a difference exists
when there is no actual difference.
#you while reding this –
ayee mujhe chakkar aa rhe hai (Akshay Kumar in Hera Pheri)
Concept of P value
• A p-value, or probability value, is a number describing how likely it is
that your data would have occurred by random chance (i.e., that the null
hypothesis is true).
• P values evaluate how well the sample data support the argument that
the null hypothesis is true. It measures how compatible your data are
with the null hypothesis.
• The level of statistical significance is often expressed as a p-value
between 0 and 1. The smaller the p-value, the stronger the evidence
that you should reject the null hypothesis.
• A p-value less than 0.05 (typically ≤ 0.05) is statistically significant
• High P values: your data are likely with a true null.
• Low P values: your data are unlikely with a true null.
• For example, suppose that a vaccine study produced a P value of 0.04.
This P value indicates that if the vaccine had no effect, you’d obtain the
 observed difference or more in 4% of studies due to random sampling
error.

• Type I error means rejecting the null hypothesis when it's actually true.
• Type II error means failing to reject the null hypothesis when it's
actually false.
Some important terms in this topic:
• Z-test is used when sample size is large (n>50), or the population
variance is known.
• t-test is used when sample size is small (n<50) and population variance is
unknown.

# alright tough part is over

Research Designs
Between-subjects
is a type of experimental design in which the subjects of an experiment are
assigned to different conditions, with each subject experiencing only one of
the experimental conditions.
This is a common design used in psychology and other social science fields. At
its most basic level, this design requires a treatment condition and a control
condition, with subjects randomly assigned to one of the two conditions.
An experiment with three treatment conditions would have three groups of
subjects, with each group receiving one of the three treatment conditions, and
so on.
Degree of freedom is K-1

Within subject design

◦ where each participant experiences all conditions. Researchers test the
same participants repeatedly to assess differences between conditions.
◦ There are no control groups in within-subjects designs because
participants are tested before and after independent variable
treatments.
◦ The pretest is similar to a control condition where no independent
variable treatment is given yet, while the posttest takes place after all
treatments are administered.
◦ Degree of freedom for this is N-k
SAMPLING METHODS
• A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully representative) collection of
units from a population used to determine truths about that
population” (Field, 2005)
• The sampling frame is the list from which the potential respondents are
drawn .Registrar’s office, Class rosters.

PROBABILITY SAMPLING
 A probability sampling scheme is one in which every unit in the
population has a chance of being selected in the sample, and this
probability can be accurately determined.
 . When every element in the population does have the same probability
of selection, this is known as an 'equal probability of selection' (EPS)
 design. Such designs are also referred to as 'self-weighting' because all
sampled units are given the same weight.

Types of Probability sampling

 Probability sampling includes:
 Simple Random Sampling,
 Systematic Sampling,
 Stratified Random Sampling,
 Cluster Sampling
Simple random sampling

• Applicable when population is small, homogeneous & readily available

• All subsets of the frame are given an equal probability. Each element of
the frame thus has an equal probability of selection.
• It provides for greatest number of possible samples. This is done by
assigning a number to each unit in the sampling frame.
• A table of random number or lottery system is used to determine which
units are to be selected.

Systematic sampling
 Systematic sampling relies on arranging the target population according
to some ordering scheme and then selecting elements at regular
intervals through that ordered list.
 Systematic sampling involves a random start and then proceeds with the
selection of every kth element from then onwards. In this case, k=
(population size/sample size).
 It is important that the starting point is not automatically the first in the
list, but is instead randomly chosen from within the first to the kth
element in the list.
  A simple example would be to select every 10th name from the
telephone directory (an 'every 10th' sample, also referred to as
'sampling with a skip of 10').

Stratified Sampling
Where population embraces a number of distinct categories, the frame can
be organized into separate "strata." Each stratum is then sampled as an
independent sub-population, out of which individual elements can be
randomly selected.
 Every unit in a stratum has same chance of being selected.
 Using same sampling fraction for all strata ensures proportionate
representation in the sample.
 Adequate representation of minority subgroups of interest can be
ensured by stratification & varying sampling fraction between strata as
required.
Cluster sampling
 Cluster sampling is an example of 'two-stage sampling’.
 First stage a sample of areas is chosen;
 Second stage a sample of respondents within those areas is selected.
 Population divided into clusters of homogeneous units, usually based on
geographical contiguity.
 Sampling units are groups rather than individuals.
 A sample of such clusters is then selected.
 All units from the selected clusters are studied.

Difference Between Strata and Clusters

 Although strata and clusters are both non-overlapping subsets of the
population, they differ in several ways.
 All strata are represented in the sample;
 #do not get confused in these two
 With stratified sampling, the best survey results occur when elements
within strata are internally homogeneous. However, with cluster
sampling, the best results occur when elements within clusters are
internally heterogeneous

Non probability sampling

Any sampling method where some elements of population have no chance
of selection, or where the probability of selection can't be accurately
determined. It involves the selection of elements based on assumptions
regarding the population of interest, which forms the criteria for selection.
Hence, because the selection of elements is nonrandom, nonprobability
sampling not allows the estimation of sampling errors.
Quota sampling
 The population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-groups,
just as in stratified sampling.
 Then judgment used to select subjects or units from
 Example if the person wants to select a sample of 10000 people from a
category of SES which contains 1000 high, 7000 middle and 2000 low.
Then he selects 100 from high, 700 from low, and 200 from low.
Convenience sampling
 Sometimes known as grab or opportunity sampling or accidental or
haphazard sampling.
 A type of nonprobability sampling which involves the sample being
drawn from that part of the population which is close to hand. That is,
readily available and convenient.
 The researcher using such a sample cannot scientifically make
generalizations about the total population from this sample because it
would not be representative enough.
  For example, if the interviewer was to conduct a survey at a shopping
center early in the morning on a given day, the people that he/she could
interview would be limited to those given there at that given time, which
would not represent the views of other members of society in such an
area, if the survey was to be conducted at different times of day and
several times per week.
 This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing.
 In social science research, snowball sampling is a similar technique,
where existing study subjects are used to recruit more subjects into the
sample.

Judgmental sampling or Purposive sampling

The researcher chooses the sample based on who they think would be
appropriate for the study. This is used primarily when there is a limited
number of people that have expertise in the area being researched.
Saturation sampling
The researcher chooses those samples which have the characteristics required
for the study

#thats all for today…..