COURSE

GUIDE

PHY492
LABORATORY PHYSICS III

Course Team Prof. Godwin A. Agbo (Course Developer)-Ebonyi

State University Abakaliki
Dr. N. P.Komolafe (Content Editor)
Obafemi Awolowo University Ile Ife
Dr. M. Ohakwere-Eze (Course Reviewer) -NOUN

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

© 2023 by NOUN Press

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or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher

Reviewed and printed 2023

ISBN: 978-978-058-966-0

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PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

MAIN
COURSE

CONTENTS

General Information ……………………………… iii

Guidelines for Assessing the Experiments………………….. iii

Experiment 1 Determination of magnification produced by a

convex lens through the variation of the distance of
the image from the lens (b) Determination of the
focal length of the lens graphically…..…. 1

Experiment 2 Determination of the focal length of a

concave lens using a concave mirror………. 1
Experiment 3 Determination of the focal length of a concave lens
using a convex lens ……………………….. 6
Experiment 4 Measurement of d.c. voltages………………. 9
Experiment 5 Measurement of the thickness of paper or tinfoil by
means of interference fringes in an air wedge. 10
Experiment 6 Boys’ method for the radii of curvature of the
surfaces of a convex lens and hence the refractive
index of the lens…………………………….. 13
Experiment 7 Determination of the refractive index of a glass and
liquid by real and apparent depth method using a
travelling microscope……………………… 16
Experiment 8 Determination of the characteristic of a junction
diode. ………………………………………. 19
Experiment 9 Measurement of a.c. voltages……………… 21
Experiment 10 Demonstration of the action of a junction diode as
(1) a half-wave rectifier (2) a full-wave rectifier.25
Experiment 11 Investigation of the properties of a series resonance
circuit………………………………………. 24
Experiment 12 Investigation of the properties of a parallel
resonance circuit………………………….. 26
Experiment 13 Determination of the characteristics of an npn
transistor in a common-emitter configuration.. 28
Experiment 14 Determination of the characteristics of an
operational amplifier (OP-AMP) by measuring the
voltage gains and bandwidths.
References 32

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PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

GENERAL INFORMATION

1. You are expected to carry out all the experiments only. Only ten
(10) experiments will be assessed.
2. It is expected that you plan your practical work before carrying
out the experiment.
3. The experiments may be carried out individually or in groups.
4. In the event of being absent in any of the fixed practical period,
try as much as possible to have another period fixed fro you by
the instructor.
5. You should ensure that the result generated at the end of the
experiment is endorsed by the instructor before leaving the
laboratory.
6. The practical work when completed should be submitted to the
instructor within the number of days given to you by the
instructor. Failure to submit your report at the appropriate day as
required by the instructor attracts some loss of marks.
7. Practical work report not submitted at all should be awarded zero
(0) mark.

GUIDELINES FOR ASSESSING THE EXPERIMENTS

The areas of the practical work report to be assessed are as follows

1. Procedure or Method: This should be assessed based on

observing the student carryout the actual practical as well as the
description of the method in the practical work.
2. Observation and Measurements: This should be assessed based
on the followings
a. Relevant observation without assistance.
b. Readings recorded to reasonable accuracy.
c. Have good distribution of readings.
d. Present derived data to appropriate significant figures.
e. Form composite table with correct symbols and units
correctly.
3. Processing and Analysis of Data: This should include
a. Choosing suitable graph for the data.
b. Choosing suitable scales on the graph for the data.
c. Plotting points correctly.
d. Drawing the best line of fit.
e. Calculate the slope correctly.
f. Stating the calculated slope with correct significant figure
as well as the units.
g. Reading intercept on the graph correctly.
h. Make correct deduction from the graph.

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PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

4. Results: This should be assessed under the following.

a. Obtain the physical relations of the results from the slope
or intercept calculated.
b. Draw the conclusions consistent with the analyzed data.
c. State appropriate precautionary measures taken during the
experiment.
d. State appropriate sources of errors.
e. State useful comments.

5. General Comments
a. Completion and submission of the practical work report on
time.
b. Done the required number of experiments by the
instructor.
c. Used good language in reporting the experiments.
d. Shown good moral behavior.

The marks awarded to each of the above vital assessment areas is left at
the discretion of the course lecturer.

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PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

EXPERIMENT 1

(a) Determination of magnification produced by a convex lens

through the variation of the distance of the image from the lens
(b). Determination of the focal length of the lens graphically

Aim: (a) To determine the magnification produced by a convex lens

through the variation of the distance of the image from the lens. (b) To
determine the focal length of a lens graphically

Apparatus: Convex lens and holder: illuminated object consisting of

three vertical slits, 10mm, 15mm and 20mm in length, cut in stiff
cardboard and illuminated by an electric light bulb placed close behind
image screen of stiff white cardboard.

Method First find the appropriate focal length of the lens by the usual
method of focusing the image of the window panes on a sheet of paper.
Put the lens at rather more than its focal distance from the illuminated
object.

Adjust the position of the image screen until the images of the three
object slits for the image of the illuminated scale appear most clearly in
focus. Selecting the image whose size can be most conventionally and
accurately measured (dividers are useful here) measure the size of the
image.

Record the corresponding size of the object. Measure also the image and
object distances from the lens.

Gradually increase the distance of the object from the lens and take
further sets of readings

Remember that in the experiment, as in nearly all other graphical

problems in optics, one set of readings is in reality two sets, yielding two
different points on the graph. Thus, 𝑣, 𝑢, 𝑚, represent the image
1
distance, the object distance and the magnification, then 𝑢, 𝑣, are also
𝑚
values of image distance, object distance and magnification respectively.
It is for this reason that a space for 𝑢 has been allotted in the table of
results

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PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

Tabulate the readings as shown in the table below:

Distance of Distance of Size of Size of Magnification

image from object from image object ℎ
=𝑚
ℎ𝑜
lens 𝑣/𝑐𝑚 lens 𝑢/𝑐𝑚 ℎ/𝑐𝑚 ℎ0 /𝑐𝑚

Plot a graph with values of 𝑚 on the vertical axis v on the horizontal

axis.

Theory
1 1 1
+ =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓
𝑣 𝑣
∴ +1=
𝑢 𝑓
𝑣 𝑣
Putting =m we then have 𝑚 = − 1
𝑢 𝑓
1
Thus, the graph of m against 𝑣 is a straight line whose slope, obtained
1
from two well-separated points on the graph, is numerically equal to
𝑓
It is interesting to note that this method of measuring 𝑓 does not depend
on the accuracy of any measurement involving the optical centre of the
lens.
By writing 𝑣 + 𝜀 (where 𝜀 is an error in measurements, supposed
constant) for, equation (1) above becomes
𝑣+𝜀
𝑚= −1
𝑢
𝑣 𝜀
i.e. 𝑚 = − (1 − )
𝑢 𝑓
1
which still yields a straight line slope /𝑐𝑚
𝑓

Alternative methods of deducing the focal length from the graph are:

(a) To read off the value of 𝑣 corresponding to 𝑚 = 1. Half of this is

the numerical value of 𝑓. This follows from the fact that 𝑚 =
1when 𝑣 = 𝑢 = 2𝑓.
(b) To measure the intercept made by the straight line graph on the 𝑣
axis. When m = 0, 𝑣 = 𝑓. Hence, this intercept is numerically
equal to 𝑓.

It should be clear that both of these methods depend for their deduction
of 𝑓 on a particular value of 𝑣 and they have not the advantage of
calculation of 𝑓from the slope of the graph.

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PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

Errors and accuracy

Besides the usual errors in reading the scale positions of object, image
and lens, and also in judging the position of maximum sharpness of the
image on the screen, there are also the errors measuring the lengths of
the small object and its image.

From the graph estimate the likely error in 𝑓 from the difference
between the slope of the chosen best straight line and the slopes of other
possible straights lines drawn through the points.

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PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

EXPERIMENT 2

Determination of the focal length of a concave lens using a concave

mirror

Aim: To determine the focal length of a concave lens using a

concave mirror

Apparatus Concave lens and holder, concave mirror and holder,

mounted pin, metre rule or optical bench.

r
Diagram

P
C
Fig. a

u d

O C L P

Fig. b
Method

Find the radius of curvature 𝑟 of the concave minor by the simple

method of finding the position of the mounted pin so that it coincides
with its own image in the mirror as in fig. a above.

Measure the distance CP of the pin from the mirror. Repeat the
observations and obtain a mean value for 𝑟 the first column in the table
of results.

Insert the concave lens between the pin and the minor and quite close to
the pin. Move the pin farther away from the lens until it again coincides
with its own image as in fig. b above.

Measure the distance 𝑢 of the pin from the lens and the distance 𝑑
between the lens and the mirror.
1 1 1
Calculate the focal length 𝑓 from the equation = −
𝑓 𝑢 𝑟−𝑑

Moving the lens towards the mirror by about 2 cm each time, obtain
several sets of readings of 𝑢 and 𝑑.

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PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

Tabulate the readings:

𝐶𝑃/𝑐𝑚 𝑢/𝑐𝑚 𝑑/𝑐𝑚 (𝑟 − 𝑑)/𝑐𝑚 𝑓/𝑐𝑚 from

Mean Mean
(𝑟/𝑐𝑚) (𝑓/𝑐𝑚)

Experimental details

When the lens L is increased between C and P, it is no use inserting it in

such a position that its distance CL from C is greater than its focal
length. Any difficulty in locating the position O where object and image
coincide will probably be due to the fact that this distance CL is too
great, hence the advisability of starting with the lens quite near C.

Theory and calculation

Referring to the fig. b, if rays from O finally return to O, then, after

leaving the lens, they must strike the mirror normally. That is, the virtual
image formed by the lens must be at the centre of curvature C of the
mirror.

For the concave lens and with the usual notation,

1 1 1
+ −
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓
But 𝑟 = −(𝑟 − 𝑑 ) since the image at C is virtual
Hence,
1 1 1
− =
𝑢 𝑟−𝑑 𝑓
From which 𝑓 may be calculated.

Errors and accuracy

Errors occur in reading the scale positions of the mirror, lens and pin
and in judging the position of no parallax.

From the variation in the values obtained for f in the final column of the
table estimate the likely error in 𝑓 and state your result accordingly.

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PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

EXPERIMENT 3

Determination of the focal length of a concave lens using a convex lens

Aim: The focal length of a concave lens using a convex lens

Apparatus: Concave lens and holder, convex lens and holder, plane
minor, two mounted pins, metre rule or optical bench, illuminated object
and screen.

Part A: This method can only be used if the convex lens is stronger than
the concave lens.

Find the focal length 𝑓1 of the convex lens by the plane mirror method
of experiment 1.

Combine the two lenses together by placing them in the same lens
holder and find the focal length of the convex combination by the same
method.

Deduce the focal length 𝑓2 of the concave lens from

1 1 1
+ −
𝐹 𝑓1 𝑓2

Part B: Although this experiment may be performed using a mounted

pin as the object and another to locate the image, it is much quicker to
employ an illuminated object and screen.

Illuminated Screen
object

O I1
𝑣1
Fig. a

O
𝐼1 𝐼2

Fig. b
d 𝑣2

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PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

Place the screen about 40cm from the convex lens and adjust the
position of the illuminated object O until a sharply focused image 𝐼1 is
seen on the screen (fig. a). Measure the image distance 𝑣1 from screen to
lens.

Insert the concave lens between the convex lens and the screen and
fairly near the screen. Move the screen farther away (fig. b) until the
image 𝐼2 is again sharply focused on the screen. Measure the distance 𝑣2
of the new image from the concave lens and also the distance 𝑑 between
the lenses.

Moving the illuminated object to a slightly different position each time

obtain several further sets of readings for 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 and 𝑑.

Tabulate the readings:

𝑣1 /𝑐𝑚 𝑣2 / 𝑑/𝑐𝑚 (𝑣1 Focal length of concave lens

𝑐𝑚 − 𝑑)/𝑐𝑚 𝑓/𝑐𝑚 from
1 1 1
= −
𝑓 𝑣2 𝑣1 − 𝑑

Mean

Experimental details

1. The second real image 𝐼2 (i.e. after the insertion of the concave
lens) will only be formed if the distance between the concave lens
and the first position of the image 𝐼1 , is less than the focal length
of the concave lens. If, therefore, the second real image 𝐼2 cannot
be located, the concave lens must be moved nearer to the first
position of the image pin 𝐼1
2. Adjust the distance 𝑑 so that 𝐼2 is sufficiently removed from 𝐼1 , to
give reliable readings.

Theory and calculation

For the concave lens and with usual notation

1 1 1
= −
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣
Now 𝐼2 is the real image of the virtual object 𝐼1 ∴ 𝑢 = −(𝑣1 − 𝑑)

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PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

and 𝑣 = 𝑣2
1 1 1 1 1 1
∴ = + or = +
𝑓 −(𝑣1 −𝑑) 𝑣2 𝑓 𝑣2 𝑣1 −𝑑

Errors and accuracy

Errors are due to reading the positions of the lenses and the screen and
in judging the position of maximum sharpness of the image on the
screen.

From the variations in the values obtained for 𝑓 in the final column of
the table estimate the likely error in 𝑓 and state your result accordingly.

Part C

Part B may be adapted to measure the focal length of the concave lens
(diverging lens) directly.

If the concave lens (diverging lens) is placed at a distance from 𝐼1 equal

to its focal length, the rays of light after leaving the lens will be parallel
to the principal axis. If, therefore, they fall normally on to a plane mirror
they will be turned back and, after re-traversing their original paths, they
will combine to form a real image coincident with the object at O.

I1
O

When this is obtained the distance of the first image 𝐼1 from the concave
lens must be the focal length of the concave lens.

Moving the illuminated object to a slightly different position each time,

obtain several measurements for 𝑓 and take the mean.

Experimental details

The plane mirror in the diagram is placed at a fairly large distance

(exceeding 𝑓) from the concave lens so that the diagram may show
clearly what is happening. In the actual experiment, the plane mirror
may be placed immediately behind the concave lens and the two moved
about together.

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PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

EXPERIMENT 4

Measurement of d.c. voltages

Aim: To measure the d.c voltage using cathode ray oscilloscope

Diagram:

Method: Switch off cathode ray oscilloscope (C.R.O.) time-base to

obtain a stationary spot of light on the screen. In this and all experiments
where deflection of the C.R.O. spot is measured, turn down the
brightness control until the actual movement of the measurement has
arrived. Then turn the brightness up, make measurement and reduce the
brightness.

For a given setting of the Y sensitivity control (the Y-amplifier) apply

suitable d.c. voltage to the Y-plates by means of the above circuit (R
being 20 - 50kΩ) and measure the corresponding deflection of the spot
of light. Plot a graph with values of d/mm on the vertical axis against the
corresponding values of applied voltage on the horizontal axis. The
straight line observed confirms that the deflection is proportional to the
p.d. applied. Calculate the slope of the graph. What is the physical
significance of the slope in mm per volt (mmV-1)

Additional experiment

Check the Y-sensitivity control indications by using small input

voltages, a voltmeter of smaller range and the next highest Y-sensitivity
setting.

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PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

EXPERIMENT 5

Measurement of the thickness of paper or tinfoil by means of

interference fringes in an air wedge.

Aim: To measure the thickness of paper or tinfoil by means of

interference fringes in an air wedge

Apparatus: Glass block, microscope slide, thin glass plate, sodium

burner or flame, travelling microscope, stand and clamp, convex lens
and holder, methylated spirit and clean rag.

Diagram
𝑀

Sodium
source

𝐴 𝑃
Paper or
𝐵 tin foil

Glass block
Microscope
slide

Method

First clean the glass block and microscope slide with methylated spirit
and a clean rag. Make an air wedge as shown in the diagram by inserting
the piece of paper or tinfoil under one end B of the microscope slide the
other end A resting on the glass block.

By means of the glass plate P held in a clamp at 450 to the horizontal

shine a parallel beam of monochromatic light, obtained by placing the
sodium source at the focus of the convex lens L, vertically down on to
air edge.

Put the microscope, M immediately above the reflecting plate and focus
it on the air wedge when interference fringe should be seen. These
should be straight fringes parallel to the line of contact between the slide
and the glass block, and the position and tilt of the reflecting plate P
should be adjusted until the fringes appear as bright and clear as
possible.

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PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

Using the horizontal traverse of the microscope adjust the microscope so

that its cross-hairs coincides with the centre of a bright (or dark) fringe
near A. Read and record the vernier reading 𝑑1 .

Traverse the microscope across a counted number of fringes N and again

read and record the vernier reading 𝑑2 . The fringe separation 𝜔 is thus
𝑑2 −𝑑1
𝑁
Still using the microscope measure the length L of the air film from the
common line of contact A to the inner edge of the paper or foil.

Theory and calculation

The generally exaggerated diagram above shows two adjacent fringes 𝐹2

and 𝐹1 separated by a distance, 𝜔. As the microscope moves from one
1
fringe to the next, the thickness of the air film must increase by 𝜆 in
2
order that the path difference (twice the thickness of the air film)
between reinforcing (or interfering) coherent rays increase by 𝜆 .
From the geometry of the diagram
1
𝜆 𝑡
2
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 = −
𝜔 𝑙

where t is the thickness of the paper or tinfoil.

𝜆𝑙 𝜆𝑙𝑁
Hence, 𝑡= =
2𝜔 2(𝑑2 −𝑑1 )
Convert the microscope readings for l and 𝑑2 − 𝑑1 to metres
take 𝜆𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 = 5.89 × 10−7 𝑚

Hence t in metres.

Further, if the image 𝛼 of the air wedge is required, since 𝛼 is small

1
𝜆 𝜆𝑙𝑁
2
∴ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 = 𝛼 = =
𝜔 2(𝑑2 −𝑑1 )

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PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

Errors and accuracy

The errors involved are those of setting the cross-hairs on the centre of a
bright (or dark) fringe and on the extreme ends of the distance L and in
reading the vernier. The error may be estimated by setting the vernier on
the same fringe (or end of l) several times and reading the vernier each
time. Estimate this likely error 𝜀. The error in both l and 𝑑2 − 𝑑1 is 2𝜀
as both are different measurements.

From (1) % error in t = %error in l + % error in 𝑑2 − 𝑑1

Evaluate this and state your result for t accordingly.

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PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

EXPERIMENT 6
Boys’ method for the radii of curvature of the surfaces of a convex lens
and hence the refractive index of the lens

Aim: To determine the radii of curvature of the surfaces of a convex

lens and hence the refractive index of the lens using Boy’s method.

Apparatus: Convex lens and holder, mounted pin and plane mirror.

Diagram:

𝐶 𝑂

𝑥
𝑟

Method

First find the focal length 𝑓of the lens by the plane mirror method of
experiment 1.
Now place the lens in front of a dark background and the mounted
object pin O in front of the lens.

Look from the object side of the lens towards the lens and, especially if
the pin is moved backwards and forwards across the field of view, you
will be able to discern two faint images. One of these, the stronger one
will be erect and behind the lens. It is formed by reflection in the surface
of the lens which is acting as a convex mirror. The other image, which
may be either inverted or erect, is formed by light which has been
internally reflected from the back surface of the lens acting as a concave
mirror.

Move the object pin about until it coincides with its images by reflection
in the second surface. In this position the image will be real, inverted
and of the same size as the object.
Measure the distance x of the object pin from the lens.
Displacing the object pin each time take three or four determinations of
x and calculate the mean value.
Calculate the radius of curvature r of this surface from the equation.
1 1 1
+ =
𝑥 𝑟 𝑓

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PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

Turn the lens round and repeat to find the radius of curvatures of the
other surface.
1 1 1
= ( 𝑛 − 1) ( + )
𝑓 𝑟 𝑥

Experimental details

When the experiment is first performed it is often difficult to locate the

required image formed by reflection in the back surface of the lens, so
the following hints might prove useful.

1. First guess the approximate radius of curvature of the back

surface and place the object pin nearer to the lens than this.
2. A paper flag on the object pin is often seen by reflection much
more clearly than the pin itself. When the required image has
been discerned, the final adjustment to coincidence may be made
with the flag removed.
3. Whitening the object pin with chalk is also useful.
Note: Floating the lens on a horizontal mercury surface greatly
improves the reflecting power of the second surface of the lens
and the image required is consequently much more easily found.
On the other hand, vertical distances are more difficult to
measure than horizontal ones and the method is not
recommended.

Theoretical calculation

Let O be position of the object pin when it coincides with its own image
by reflection in the back surface. Rays of light, originally starting from
O, must be striking normally, for some of this light is reflected back to
form an image coincident with the object. A lot of this light pass out
through the lens and C, the centre of the back surface, is therefore the
virtual image of the object O.
1 1 1
Hence in the lens equation + =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓
𝑢 = 𝑥 (real and positive)
𝑣 = 𝑟 (virtual and negative)
Since 𝑓 and 𝑢 are known 𝑣(𝑟) may now be calculated.

Errors and accuracy

Errors occur in measuring the distance x and the focal length f and in
judging the position of parallax between object and image.
Estimate the % error 𝛿𝑓 in 𝑓.

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PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

The % error in r is unlikely to be less than the sum of these % errors in x

and 𝑓.

Since 𝑛 depends on 𝑟, 𝑥 and 𝑓, the % error in 𝑛 is unlikely to be less

than the sum of the % errors in 𝑟, 𝑠 and 𝑓 .

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PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

EXPERIMENT 7

Determination of the refractive index of a glass and liquid by real and

apparent depth method using a travelling microscope.

Aim: To determine the refractive index of a glass and liquid by real and
apparent depth method using a travelling microscope.

Apparatus: Travelling microscope, two slabs of glass, lucopodium

powder, liquid (e.g. water) vessel with a plane base to hold the liquid
and some fine sand.

Part A: To measure the refractive index of glass

Diagram

Method: Place one of the glass slabs on the bench to serve as a base and
sprinkle some lycopodium on its upper surface

Adjust the cross-hairs of the microscope so that they can be clearly seen
without strain. Place the microscope vertically above the lycopodium
powder and adjust the length of the instrument until the grains are in
sharp focus with no parallax between their image and the cross-hairs.
Read the vertical vernier scale of the microscope (𝑑1 ).

Place the second glass slab on top of the first one without removing the
powder and raise the microscope slowly until the grains are again in
focus. Read vernier (𝑑2 ).

Sprinkle some lycopodium on the upper surface of the second slab and
raise the microscope again until these grains are clearly focused. Read
the vernier (𝑑3 ).

Turn the upper glass slab on its side and repeat the measurement to
obtain a second set of readings:

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PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

Microscope readings Real Apparent 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ

𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3 depth depth 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
/𝑚𝑚 /𝑚𝑚 /𝑚𝑚 𝑑3 − 𝑑3 −
𝑑1 /mm 𝑑1 /mm
1st
set
2nd
set
Mean………………

Part B: To measure the refractive index of water

Method:

Sprinkle some grains of fine sand on the bottom of flat-bottomed vessel

and focus the microscope on them. Read vernier scale (𝑑1 )

Pour some water to a depth of about 10mm into the vessel. Raise the
microscope until the grains of sand are again in focus. Read vernier
scale (𝑑2 )

Sprinkle lycopodium on the water surface. Raise microscope farther still

until the lycopodium on the surface is in focus. Read vernier scale (𝑑3 ).
Continue the experiment with increasing depths of water and tabulate
the readings:

Microscope readings Real Apparent 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ

depth depth 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
𝑑2 /𝑚𝑚 𝑑3 /𝑚𝑚 𝑑3 − 𝑑3 − =n
𝑑1 /mm 𝑑1 /mm

Mean
………………

Experimental details

1. For those who are unfamiliar with the use of the microscope it is
suggested that the instrument is first focused on the printed page
of an open book placed approximately at the height of the grains
of lycopodium which are presently to be focused. By this means
the observer becomes familiar with the very small range of travel
of the instrument over which the object being focused can be seen

17
PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

2. When a travelling microscope is used, or any instrument which is

moved by means of screw, the last movement of the screw should
always be in the direction which moves the instrument forward
through the nut of the screw.
3. It will be obvious that the underneath glass slab is merely a rigid
base on which to rest the slab whose refractive index is being
measured.
4. The actual thickness of the upper slab is measured by the
difference between the two vertical positions of the microscope.
This method is superior to the use of calipers or micrometer
guage as it renders all necessary lengths difference
measurements.
5. If the microscope is not provided with an eyepiece with which to
read the vernier, use a short-focus convex lens.
6. Finally ground chalk can be used if lycopodium is not available.

Error and accuracy

Any microscope reading is subject to error due to focusing and to error

in reading the scale and vernier. The error may be estimated by focusing
on the same object several times and reading the vernier each time.
Estimate this likely error ε.

Both the real and apparent depths are different measurements and the
total error in each is therefore 2ε. Express both errors as percentage

2ε 2ε
( × 𝑎𝑛𝑑 )
𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ

The % error in n is the sum of these % errors.

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PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

EXPERIMENT 8

Determination of the characteristic of a junction diode

Aim: To determine the forward and reverse bias characteristic of a

junction diode

Apparatus: Junction diode (e.g. Mullard OA70 or Mullard AAZ15), 9V

dry battery, 2kΩ rheostat R, milliammeter 0-10 mA, circuit key.

Diagram:

Method:

Connect up the circuit as shown in the diagram. Set the slider of the
rheostat R so as to give minimum reading on the voltmeter, close S and
proceed to measure the current in the circuit for increasing applied
voltage.

When the current has reached 10mA, reduce the voltage applied to the
diode circuit to zero by means of the rheostat and open S. Reverse the
connections to the diode. Close S and take further observations as the
reversed voltage is increased.

Tabulate the readings:

Applied voltage
Forward
V/V
Bias
Current I/mA
Applied voltage
Reverse
V/V
Bias
Current I/mA

Using the same graph plot a graph of values of current on the vertical
axis and the corresponding values of applied voltage on the horizontal
axis.

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PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

Discussions

It will be found that very little current flows until the applied voltage
rises above 0.2V after which the current increases rapidly. For reverse
applied voltages the current remains at zero. However, if very large
reverse voltage are applied (of the order 20-100V) breakdown in the
diode occurs and a small reverse current which increases sharply in
value occurs (the Zener or avalanche effect). Identify the part of the
graph that is forward bias and reverse bias respectively.

20
PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

EXPERIMENT 9 MEASUREMENT OF A.C. VOLTAGES

Aim: To measure a.c. voltages using Cathode Ray Oscilloscope.

Apparatus: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO), stepdown transformer,

a.c. voltmeter, variable resistor.

Switch off the CRO time-base to obtain a stationary spot of light on the
screen.

For a given setting of the Y-sensitivity control apply suitable ac voltages

to the Y-plates by means of the above circuit (R being 2.5kΩ) and
measure the length l of the vertical line 0'0'' which is traced out by the
spot of light.

Plot a graph with values of l(mm) on the vertical axis against the
corresponding values of applied voltages on the horizontal.

Two points to note

1. The deflection 00' or 00'' corresponds to the peak value of the

applied voltage, whereas
2. The a.c. voltmeter measures the rms value of the applied voltage
From the graph calculate the deflection sensitivity as the slope in
mm per rms volt, which provided the ac supply is truly sinusoidal
should be 2√2 times the result obtained in the previous
experiment with dc voltages.

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PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

EXPERIMENT 10

Demonstration of the action of a junction diode as (1) a half-wave

rectifier (2) a full-wave rectifier.

Aim: To demonstrate the action of a junction diode as (1) a half-wave

rectifier (2) a full-wave rectifier.

Apparatus: Four junction diodes, signal generator, dc milliammeter A,

1kΩ rheostat R, cathode ray oscilloscope CRO, three circuit keys.

Diagram:

Fig. 1

Part A: Demonstration of half-wave rectification

Connect up one junction diode into the circuit as shown in the figure
above.

Set the signal generator to give an output voltage of about 1 V at a

frequency of 100 Hz. With S2 and S3 open, close S1 and observe that
though the milliammeter A is vibrating (at the frequency of the ac input,
100Hz) it nevertheless indicates that a small steady direct current is
passing through the circuit and that rectification has been effected. This
is because the junction diode being a one-way device, only allows
current to pass through it for a half of each cycle.

Close S2 thus enabling current to by-pass the diode in either direction.

The milliammeter shows no steady deflection, merely a 100Hz vibration
of the tip of the pointer about the zero of the scale.

Part B: Demonstration of the rectifying action with the CRO.

1. Select a low speed for the CRO time-base suitable for viewing
100Hz oscillations. With S1. S2 and S3 all closed, observe the
forum of the alternating current in the circuit as demonstrated by
the waveform of the voltage developed across R (which can of
course be varied) fig. 2(a).

22
PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

2. Now open S2 and examine the new form of the voltage across R
and hence the new form of the current in the circuit fig.2 (ii). This
is half-wave rectification.
3. Keeping S2 open, connect in turn capacitances of 1, 2, 4 and 8µF
in parallel with R and examine the effect on the shape of the CRO
trace. It will be found that this capacitor C, called a reservoir
capacitor, exerts a profound effect on the voltage across R,
converting it from the half-wave unidirectional pulsations of
fig.2(ii) to the pattern of fig. 2(iii). This is because when the
capacitor has been charged during the half-cycle when the diode
is conducting. Its charge and therefore its pd only slowly decay
at a rate dependent upon the time-constant CR. Before much
charge has leaked away the diode is once again allowing current
through and the charge on the capacitor is thus replenished.

Fig. 2

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PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

EXPERIMENT 11

Investigation of the properties of a series resonance circuit.

Aim: To investigate the properties of a series resonance circuit.

Apparatus: Signal generator, high resistance a.c. voltmeter of 0-100V,

a.c. ammeter (0-0.1A), a 1µF capacitor, an inductor of about 30mH.
Diagram

Method: Connect up the circuit as shown in the diagram. Before

switching on the signal generator adjust its output to 2V and do not alter
this setting throughout the experiment. Select the lowest available
frequency, f, switch on the record the values of the current I in the
circuit and the voltage Vc across the capacitor, C.

Transfer the voltmeter to the dotted position shown in the circuit

diagram so that the voltage, VL across the inductance, L is measured.
Finally connect the voltmeter across the points marked X and Y in the
diagram so that the voltage VLC across L and C in series is measured.

Increase the frequency and measure the values of I, VC, VL and VLC
through a suitable frequency range of 100-5000Hz. Calculate the value
𝑉
of ZLC in each case using 𝑍𝐿𝐶 = 𝐿𝐶
𝐼

Tabulate your readings. Plot of I, VC, VL, VLC and ZLC against frequency
in each case. Determine the resonant frequencies in each case.

Experimental details:

1. A slight modification to the circuit employing two single-pole

two-way switches will enable the voltages VC, VL and VLC to be
obtained without the necessity of changing the connections of the
voltmeter leads.
2. It will be found that each graph exhibits a pronounced maximum
or minimum value which occurs either at or very near to an

24
PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

important frequency f, called the resonance frequency. In the

order to determine this resonance frequency as accurately as
possible many readings of I, VC, VL and VLC should be taken in
the neighbourhood of the resonance frequency once the first
graph of I against f has indicated the approximate value of fr.
3. The maximum values of VC, and VL which will be found to be
nearly equal, will be in excess of the applied voltage. This is
unexpected and a remarkable feature of the series resonance
circuit. It should be remembered and allowed for in selecting the
appropriate voltage range for the voltmeter when approaching the
resonance frequency.

Theory
1
The resonance frequency fr is given by 𝑓𝑟 = and should be tested
2𝜋√(𝐿𝐶)
by inserting the values for L and C in the above formula and comparing
the calculated value for fr with the experimentally obtained value.

𝑉𝐶 𝑚𝑎𝑥. 𝑉𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥.
The ratio (𝑜𝑟 ) is called the circuit
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
magnification, Q.

Although VC and VL are in antiphase with each other at any frequency

(VC lagging on the current I by 90o, VL leading the current by 90o), it is
only at the resonance frequency that they are equal as well as in
antiphase. It is this fact that explains the shape of the curves showing the
variation of VLC and ZLC with frequency. The reason that the minimum
value of VLC is not zero is accounted for by the fact that the coil
inevitably has some resistance and cannot be considered to be a pure
inductance.

By inserting series resistance of (i) 100Ω (ii) 200Ω into the circuit,
investigate the effect on the resonance curves in the above experiment.

25
PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

EXPERIMENT 12

Investigation of the properties of a parallel resonance circuit

Aim: To Investigate the properties of a parallel resonance circuit

Apparatus: Signal generator, a.c. ammeter 0-0.1A, and inductor of

about 30mH, a 1µF capacitor.

Diagram

Method:

Connect up the circuit as shown in the diagram above. Before switching

on the signal generator adjust its output voltage to 5V and do not alter
the setting throughout the experiment.

Select a frequency of 100Hz, switch on and record the value I of the

currents in the circuit. Increase the frequency in suitable steps up to 5
kHz, keeping the output voltage of the signal generator constant, and
record the values of L. Tabulate your readings. Plot of a graph I on the
vertical axis and frequency on the horizontal axis.

Theory

The graph is found to show the exact opposite of what is obtained for
the series resonance circuit whereas the current in the series circuit
exhibited a maximum at the resonance frequency, the current in a
parallel resonance circuit passes through a minimum value at a
particular frequency, fr of the parallel resonance also known as the
resonance frequency. To a close approximation, the resonance frequency
fr of the parallel resonance circuit is given by the same equation as for a
1
series resonance circuit, namely𝑓𝑟 = . This relationship should be
2𝜋√(𝐿𝐶)
tested by inserting the values for L and V in the above equation and
comparing the calculated value for fr with the value obtained from the
graph. The exact equation for the resonance frequency of a parallel

26
PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

1 1 𝑅2
resonance circuit is 𝑓𝑟 = √( − ) where R is the resistance of the
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶 𝐿2
coil whose inductance is L. In practice R is usually so small that the term
𝑅2 1
can be neglected in comparison with the term and the simple
𝐿2 𝐿𝐶
1
formula 𝑓𝑟 = gives the resonance frequency to a high degree of
2𝜋√(𝐿𝐶)
approximation.

27
PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

EXPERIMENT 13

Determination of the characteristics of an npn transistor in a common-

emitter configuration.

Aim: To determine the characteristics of an npn transistor in a common-

emitter configuration.

Apparatus: npn transistor(BC 108 or equivalent), two rheostats of

range 0 – 10kΩ, two 9V dry batteries, fixed resistor of 2.2kΩ,
multimeter or milliammeter of range 0 – 50mA, microammeter of 0 -
100µA, high resistance voltmeter of 0 – 10V and two keys.

Diagram

Method: Connect up the circuit as shown above in the diagram.

Part A: Collector characteristics

Close S1 and by means of the rheostat R1 adjust the value of Ib to a low

value of about 20µA and keep it constant. Close S2 and by means of the
second rheostat R2 reduce the Vce to zero. Observe and record the values
of Ic as Vce is increased from zero up to 1V in steps of 0.1 V (it is in the
early stages of the experiment when Ic is increasing very rapidly that a
multimeter serves better than a milliammeter) and then by steps of 1 V
up to a maximum value taking care to ensure that Ib remains constant
throughout at 20µA.

Repeat the procedure and measurements for Ib = 40, 60, 80 and 100µA.
Tabulate your readings as shown below:

Ib = Vce/V
20µA Ic/mA

Ib = Vce/V
40µA Ic/mA

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PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

Ib = . . Vce/V
. Ic/mA

Plot graphs of Ic against Vce labeling each curve with the appropriate
constant base current.

Calculation: Draw a line through the characteristics for a particular

value of Vce say at 5 V and calculate the ratio

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, ∆𝐼𝑐

= 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, ∆𝐼𝑏

The current gain of the transistor describes how a small change in the
base current produces a much larger change in collector current at a
particular value of collector-emitter potential difference. A newer term
for the current gain (𝛽) is the small signal forward current transfer ratio
for which the symbol is hfe in which the subscript f denotes ‘forward’
and e a common-emitter circuit.

Calculate also for a particular curve beyond the knee, the ratio
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒, ∆𝑉𝑐𝑒
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, ∆𝐼𝑐
= 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡

Part B: Transfer Characteristics

The transfer characteristics exhibits the variation of collector current Ic

with base current Ib while the collector voltage is kept constant. It can be
plotted quite easily from the collector characteristics but much better to
plot it from the data gained from a separate experiment. Select a suitable
collector voltage beyond the knee of the collector cures, say 5 V and
keep it constant by means of R2. By suitable adjustment of R1 increase
the base current Ib in suitable steps from zero to about 100µA and take
the corresponding readings of the collector current, Ic.

Tabulate your readings as below.

Vce = . . . Ib/µA
V Ic mA

Calculation: Calculate the ratio

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, ∆𝐼𝑐
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, ∆𝐼𝑏

The ratio hfe is the small signal forward current transfer ratio or current
gain.

29
 PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

EXPERIMENT 14

Determination of the characteristics of an operational amplifier (OP-

AMP) by measuring the voltage gains and bandwidths.

Aim: To determine the characteristics of an operational amplifier by

measuring the voltage gains and bandwidths.

Apparatus: OP-AMP 741 IC with socket, signal generator, circuit

board, rheostat, 2.2kΩ resistor, 22kΩ resistor, 3 V (two 1.5V) dry cell
battery, connecting wires.

Diagram

3V S2
P S1
Non inverting input Vo
Rheostat Inverting input
Fig. 1
Vi V
Grounded Vo
P
Circuit board

Method

Part A: (a) Set up the circuit as shown in the diagram. (b) Close S1 and
open S2. Adjust rheostat until digital multimeter reads Vi = 0.1 V.
Record Vi. Open S1 and close S2. Record digital multimeter reading Vo.
(c) Repeat step (b) with Vi increasing in steps until Vi = 1.2 V. (d)
Tabulate the readings. Plot a graph of Vo against Vi. Calculate the
voltage gain from the graph.

Part B: (a) Remove the rheostat and 3 V battery from terminal PQ and
replace it with a signal generator. (b) Set the digital multimeter knob to
alternating current. Adjust the frequency f of the signal generator to 1
kHz. (c) Open S2 and close S1. Adjust input voltage Vi of signal
generator so that the digital multimeter reads between 0.10 V and 0.15
V. Record Vi and f. (d) Open S1 and close S2. Record the output voltage
Vo. (e) Repeat steps (b), (c) and (d) by increasing the frequency f of the
generator in steps until 30kHz. Tabulate the readings as f, Vi, Vo and A=
Vo/ Vi. Plot a graph of A and f. From the graph estimate the gain and
bandwidth of frequency response of the inverting amplifier.

30
PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

Theory: OP-AMP is used to detect the difference in the potential of two

signals connected respectively to the two inputs, i.e. (V2 – V1), which is
multiplied by a factor A and will produce a voltage A(V2-V1) as the
output. Ideally, OP-AMPs have very high gain, very high input
impedance and very low output impedance. OP-AMP is represented as
in fig. 2a.

The symbol (+) stands for non-inverting input while (-) represents the
inverting input. Inverting input implies that the output will be negative if
the potential at the inverting input is greater than the potential at the
non-inverting input and vice versa. Thus sign (+) and (-) does not mean
that (+) input is more positive than (-) input.

Normally OP-AMP is used with the negative feedback. There are two
kinds of amplifiers with negative feedback, i. e. inverting amplifier and
non-inverting amplifier. In the case of inverting amplifier (Fig. 2b), the
non-inverting input is grounded and output voltage is given by 𝑉𝑜 =
𝑅
− ( 𝑜 ) 𝑉𝑖 . Note that the resistor, 𝑅𝑜 joins the output to the inverting
𝑅𝑖
input and this setup is called negative feedback. The equation relating to
the gain is given by
𝑉𝑜 𝑅𝑜
Gain 𝐴 = =
𝑉𝑖 𝑅𝑖

In the non-inverting amplifier (fig. 2c) the output voltage is given by

𝑅 𝑅
𝑉𝑜 = (1 + 𝑜 ) 𝑉𝑖 and the gain A as 1 + 𝑜
𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑖

31
PHY492 LABORATORY PHYSICS III

References/further Readings

Armitage A. 1992, Practical Physics in SI. 2nd ed., Bath Press, Great
Britain.

James Sinclair, 1908, Third Year’s Course in Practical Physics, George

Bell and Sons, London.

Worsnot B. L. and Flint H. T. 1969. Advanced Practical Physics for

Students, 9th ed., Methuen and Co. Ltd, London.

Squires G. l. 2001. Practical Physics, 4th ed., University Press,

Cambridge.

32