Abe 22 Midterm

QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY AND ENGINEERING
SELF – PACED LEARNING MODULE
IN
ABE 22 (MATERIALS AND PROCESSES FOR ABE)
BY:
ANALINDA S. CORDOVA
Assistant Professor I
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MODULE 3
Topic 4
Material Processes
Learning Objectives:
After reading this lesson, you must be able to:
1. Define the different classification of metal working processes
2. Determine the Name the major four processes involved in wood processing.
3. Identify the two methods of seasoning wood.
4. Calculate moisture content of wood
5. Appreciate the different classification of ceramics processes
6. Define the most important polymers processing operations
7. Determine classification of composite materials
Introduction
Classification of the most important material groups distinguishes between natural and
synthetic materials. Natural raw materials are extracted from earth, and these raw materials must be
further processed. They are blast in quarries, i.e., pieces of rock are exploited and worked up to
powders (materials) (Fig. 1.1). From these materials pre-products are produced by forming or shaping.
Metal components can be formed during the process of reshaping whereas ceramic components can
be produced only by a sintering process. The product in later time has to be disposed by recycling or
remineralisation.
Figure 1. Cycle of materials by Ondracek.
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Synthetic materials are classified into non-metallic materials, semiconductors and metallic
materials (Fig. 2). Non-metallic materials are non-conductors, or insulating materials.
Metallic materials have a very high electric conductivity; in semiconductors the electric
conductivity can be found in between. Non-metallic materials are devided into inorganic and
organic materials. Oxide and non-oxide ceramics as well as glass belong to the group of
inorganic materials.
Figure 2. Classification of the main material groups.
METAL
Manufacturing Processes can be classified as
i) Casting
ii) Welding
iii) Machining
iv)Mechanical working
v) Powder Metallurgy
vi)Plastic Technology etc.,
In Mechanical working Process the raw material is converted to a given shape by the
application of external force. The metal is subjected to stress. It is a process of changing the shape
and size of the material under the influence of external force or stress. Plastic Deformation occurs.
Classification of Metal Working Processes
1. General classification
i. Rolling
ii. Forging
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iii. Extrusion
iv. Wire Drawing
v. Sheet Metal Forming
2. Based on Temperature of Working

i. Hot Working
ii. Cold Working
iii. Warm Working
3. Based on the applied stress

i. Direct Compressive Stress
ii. Indirect Compressive Stress
iii. Tensile Stress
iv. Bending Stress
v. Shear Stress
Classification of Metal Working based on temperature.
Hot working: It is defined as the mechanical working of metal at an elevated (higher)

temperature above a particular temperature. This temperature is referred to RCT(Re
Crystallization Temperature).
Cold Working: It is defined as the mechanical working of metal below RCT.
Warm Working: It is defined as the mechanical working of metal at a temperature between that
of Hot working and Cold Working. Ingot is the starting raw metal for all metal working process.
Molten metal from the furnace is taken and poured into metallic moulds and allowed to cool or
solidify. The cooled solid metal mass is then taken out of the mould. This solid metal is referred
to as Ingot. This Ingot is later on converted to other forms by mechanical working.
What is a Cast Product?

It is a product obtained by just pouring molten metal into the mould and allowing it to
solidify to room temperature. It will have the final size and shape. Engine block, Piston etc.,
What is a wrought Product?

It is a product obtained by subjecting the hot ingot to mechanical working process to get a
variety of products. Ex., spanner, screw driver, connecting rod, crank shaft etc.,
Difference between Cast and Wrought product
Cast Product Wrought Product

1.It is obtained by conversion of liquid 1. It is obtained by subjecting the metal
metal to solid state, to get the required shape of to external load or mechanical working to get
the component in one step. The cast product the shape.
may undergo machining operation. It may be subjected to further operation.
2. The cast product will have uniform 2. The wrought product will have
properties. directional properties
The product is Isotropic in nature. Properties . Properties are enhanced
are same in all directions. . The Product is anisotropic in
nature. ie., properties are different in different
directions.
3. The product will have uniform grain 3. The product will have directional
structure. properties and the grain structure will be
oriented. Grains get altered.
4. The product will have small amount 4. Due to mechanical working the
of porosity which cannot be eliminated porosity level is almost zero.
completely.
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5. Cast product will have any shape size 5. Wrought products are smaller in size
and complexity. Small to very huge components but large size and moderately complex shapes
can be produced easily. can also be produced with some difficulty.
Based on the type of applied stress

 Direct compression stress: Rolling and Forging
 Indirect Compression: Extrusion and Wire drawing.
 Tensile stress: Stretch forming
 Bending stress: Sheet bending/ roll bending
 Shear stress: Cutting of sheet
Advantages of metal working process

 Product with consistent high quality can be manufactured.
 Defects such as porosity and discontinuities are minimized.
 Inclusions get distributed evenly throughout the product.
 Grains are oriented in a particular direction and directional properties are obtained.
 In hot working the grains will be uniform and the properties are also uniform.
 In cold working the properties are enhanced due to strain hardening effect.
 Large tonnage can be easily produced.
 The process can be easily mechanized.
Limitations of Mechanical working process

 The product becomes highly anisotropic in nature.
 Final product has to be obtained after machining of the wrought product except in the case
of structural components.
 Needs additional equipment and machinery for metal working process. Hence, initial
investment is high.
 Maintenance cost is high.
 More safety precautions are to be exercised as hot metal and additional equipments are used.
Effect of Mechanical Working on the properties of the Metal

Due to working of the metal there will be
changes in the grain structure. The grains may be
elongated in one direction from its equiaxed
shape. The pores are reduced and the inclusions are
fragmented and distributed evenly in the metal. In
hot working the coarse equiaxed grains will become
fine equiaxed. The changes obtained in cold working
is appreciable. The behaviour of the metal with
changes in grain size is shown in the figure. As
grain size becomes coarse the strength property comes down and ductility increases.
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As the percentage of cold working increases the material becomes strain hardened, the
hardness and strength properties are increased but the ductility property decreases as shown in the
figure It can be summarized as follows. Equiaxed grains will give uniform properties in all directions.
Deformed grains show higher strength properties in the elongated direction.
Concept of cold working
Consider a cylindrical metal piece with a known height, H and diameter, D. Let us subject the
piece to compressive load at room temperature. We shall take that the height is reduced by
10%,20%,30% ….. etc., Each of these reduction in height represents %cold working. For each of these
the diameter the Tensile strength, hardness, yield strength, %elongation were measured. It is seen
that the %elongation decreases with increase in %cold working whereas other properties UTS, YS,
Hardness increases and the diameter of the specimen also increases. Similarly the specimen can be
subjected to tensile load also. The changes that take place in the material due to cold working is an
important aspect which needs to be born in mind while designing various steps in MW process.
Concept of strain hardening
Straining of the metal/alloy occurs when subjected to cold working process. The metal will
show more and more resistance for the external load as the cold working is Continued. At some
it may become very difficult to deform the metal. This phenomenon is referred to as strain
hardening effect. This can be explained in simple terms as given below.
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All metals have atoms arranged in a repetitive manner in three dimensions referred to as
crystalline structure. The structure is associated with imperfections in the form of dislocations.
These dislocations starts moving towards the grain boundary region under the influence of
external load. The dislocations get piled up near the grain boundaries. The density of dislocations
increases due to Frank Reed source and may reach a value as high as 10 8-1012/cm2
Since, dislocations pile up near the grain boundary the density increases and the mean
free path for the movement of dislocations decreases. The metal offers more resistance to external
force. The metal will realize higher strength and this goes on building up till all the dislocations
are brought near the grain boundary. Then annihilation of like and unlike dislocations takes
place. The net existing dislocations will then become effective. During this period the load
required for deformation increases. This phenomenon is referred to as”Strain Hardening”. If the
cold working stress exceeds this range the metal will fracture.
Forging
Definition:
Forging is a metal working process in which useful shape is obtained in solid state by
hammering or pressing metal.
It is one of the oldest metalworking arts with its origin about some thousands of years
back. Some examples of shapes obtained by forging process: Crane hook, connecting rod of IC
engine, spanner, gear blanks ..etc.
Different Forging Operations

1. Upsetting
The thickness of the work reduces and length increases
Fig.3 Upsetting
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2. Edging
The ends of the bar are shaped to requirement using edging dies.
Fig.4 Edging Fig.5 Fullering

3. Fullering
The cross sectional area of the work reduces as metal flows outward, away from centre.
4. Drawing
The cross sectional area of the work is reduced with corresponding increase in length
using convex dies.
Fig.5 Drawing Fig.6 Swaging
5. Swaging: The cross sectional area of the bar is reduced using concave dies.
6. Piercing: The metal flows around the die cavity as a moving die pierces the metal.
7. Punching: It is a cutting operation in which a required hole is produced using a
punching die.
Fig.6 Piercing Fig.7 Punching
5. Bending: The metal is bent around a die/anvil.
Classification of Forging Processes

Based on Temperature of the work piece:
1. Hot Forging: (most widely used)
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Forging is carried out at a temperature above the recrystallization temperature of the
metal.
Advantages:
 High strain rates and hence easy flow of the metal
 Recrystallization and recovery are possible
 Forces required are less
Disadvantages of Hot Working:
 Lubrication is difficult at high temperatures
 Oxidation and scaling occur on the work
 Poor surface finish
 Dies must withstand high working temperature
2. Cold Forging:
Forging is carried out at a temperature below the recrystallization
temperature of the metal.
Advantages:
 Less friction between die surface and work piece
 Lubrication is easy
 No oxidation or scaling on the work
 Good surface finish
Disadvantages of Cold Working:
 Low strain rates, hence less reduction per pass.
 Recrystallization and recovery do not occur.
 Hence, annealing is required for further deformation in subsequent cycles.
 Forces required are high.
Rolling
The work piece is subjected to
compressive forces and is deformed plastically.
The cross section decreases and length gets
elongated whereas the total volume remains
constant. It is the main metal working process
and offers itself to mass production. Close
control of the final product is possible. Rotating
rolls will squeeze the work piece inducing
direct compressive stress in it. Friction
dominates the process. Rolling of work piece
can be carried out in hot or cold condition.
Components produced through rolling have
higher mechanical properties than cast products. Slabs, Sheets, Bars, Rods, Structural components
like I, U, L etc., in long lengths can be produced easily.
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Steps in Rolling Process

The starting raw material in rolling is the ingot which is obtained by using a metal die.
Ingot will have a length of about 1 meter and a cross section of 100x100mm or 250x250mm
etc,. Ingot may have any geometrical cross section. The details of Ingot production are:
 Prepare molten metal in a furnace.
 Pour clean well prepared molten metal with correct temperature into a metal die
cavity and allow it to cool.
 Take out the solid metal.
 This solid metal is referred to as Ingot or Ingot casting.
 The ingot is then passed through the rolls to get the next set of products blooms,
billets, bars, slabs, plates, sheets or Structural components. The same is shown in
the flow chart.
Classification of Rolling Process

Rolling Process can be classified either
i)based on the temperature of the metal during rolling or
ii) based on the arrangement of the rolls and their number or
iii)based on the Products rolled.
Based on the temperature: Rolling can be classified as Hot Rolling or Cold Rolling. Hot rolling
is carried out above RCT and cold rolling is carried out below RCT. Hot rolling is used to
convert ingots to blooms and blooms to billets to slabs to plates, billets to bars, and billets to
structural shapes. It is used for heavy or thick sections. Surface finish will be poor but the
mechanical properties will be uniform. Cold rolling is used for converting small sections plates
to sheets to foils or bars to wires. Good surface finish is obtained with enhanced properties.
Based on Roll arrangement: The minimum number of rolls required for rolling to take place
is two and the higher end is dictated by the amount of reduction required, type of metal being
rolled, configuration of the product etc., The rolls are cylindrical shaped may be plain or may
have grooves cut on it. The arrangement of rolls could be:
 2 high roll mill- two rolls are used here.
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 3 high roll mill- three rolls are used here.
 4 high roll mill- four rolls are used here.
 Cluster roll mill- a number of rolls are used in conjunction.
 Planetary roll mill- rolls are arrangement in the form of planetary movement. Tandem
roll mill- continuous arrangement of rolls is used for continuous rolling.
 Sendizmer roll mill-similar to a cluster mill but large number of rolls are used. Greatest
reduction in the material is obtained.
The term”mill” is generally used while referring to while referring to the type of rolling process.
It signifies the station involving the arrangement of rolls contributing for rolling and type of
rolling operation carried out.
The term “high” signifies that the rolls are placed above the ground level. As already discussed
the starting raw material is the ingot. Ingot is rolled to blooms- billets-rods-wires in the first
route.In the second route Ingot-bloom-slab-plate-sheet-foil is obtained. In the third route
Ingot-bloom-structural configuration like I, U, V etc. is obtained.
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Based on the product

Blooming Mill- Here only blooms are produced from the Ingot. Blooms will have a dimension
of approx.150x150mm.•Billet Mill- Here Billets are produced from Blooms. Billet will have a
dimension of approx. 100x100mm.Rod/Bar Mill - Here bars or rods are produced from billets.
Bar will have a dimension of 40x40mm.
Slab Mill- Here slab is produced from the bloom. t>b and b=100mm•Plate Mill- Here plate is
produced from the slab. t>4mm.•Sheet Mill – Here sheet is produced from plate.
t<4mm.Structural Mill- Here structural shapes like I, U,L or channel sections are produced.
Drawing
Drawing is a metalworking process which uses tensile forces to stretch metal. As the
metal is drawn (pulled), it stretches thinner, into a desired shape and thickness. Drawing is
classified in two types: sheet metal drawing and wire, bar, and tube drawing. The specific
definition for sheet metal drawing is that it involves plastic deformation over a curved axis. For
wire, bar, and tube drawing the starting stock is drawn through a die to reduce its diameter
and increase its length. Drawing is usually done at room temperature, thus classified a cold
working process, however it may be performed at elevated temperatures to hot work large wires,
rods or hollow sections in order to reduce forces. Drawing is one type of extrusion.
Drawing differs from rolling in that the pressure of drawing is not transmitted through
the turning action of the mill but instead depends on force applied locally near the area of
compression. This means the amount of possible drawing force is limited by the tensile
strength of the material, a fact that is particularly evident when drawing thin wires
Sheet metal
The success of forming is in relation to two things, the flow and stretch of material. As
a die forms a shape from a flat sheet of metal, there is a need for the material to move into the
shape of the die. The flow of material is controlled through pressure applied to the blank and
lubrication applied to the die or the blank. If the form moves too easily, wrinkles will occur in
the part. To correct this, more pressure or less lubrication is applied to the blank to limit the
flow of material and cause the material to stretch or thin. If too much pressure is applied, the
part will become too thin and break. Drawing metal is the science of finding the correct balance
between wrinkles and breaking to achieve a successful part.
Deep drawing
Sheet metal drawing becomes deep drawing when the workpiece is drawing longer than
its diameter. It is common that the workpiece is also processed using other forming processes,
such as piercing, ironing, necking, rolling, and beading.
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Metal drawing is a manufacturing process that forms metal work stock by reducing its cross
section. This is accomplished by forcing the work through a mold, (die), of smaller cross
sectional area than the work. This process is very similar to metal extrusion, the difference
being in the application of force. In extrusion the work is pushed through the die opening,89
where in drawing it is pulled through.
Extrusion
Extrusion is a process used to create objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile. A material
is pushed or pulled through a die of the desired cross-section. The two main advantages of this
process over other manufacturing processes are its ability to create very complex cross-
sections, and to work materials that are brittle, because the material only encounters
compressive and shear stresses. It also forms parts with an excellent surface finish.
Extrusion may be continuous (theoretically producing indefinitely long material) or

semi- continuous (producing many pieces). The extrusion process can be done with the
material hot or cold.
Commonly extruded materials include metals, polymers, ceramics, concrete, play

dough, and foodstuffs. The products of extrusion are generally called "extrudates". Drawing
metal is the main way to produce wire and sheet, and bar and tube are also often drawn.
The extrusion process in metals may also increase the strength of the material.
The process begins by heating the stock material (for hot or warm extrusion). It is then
loaded into the container in the press. A dummy block is placed behind it where the ram then
presses on the material to push it out of the die. Afterward the extrusion is stretched in order
to straighten it. If better properties are required then it may be heat treated orcold worked.
The extrusion ratio is defined as the starting cross-

sectional area divided by the cross-sectional area of the final
extrusion. One of the main advantages of the extrusion process
is that this ratio can be very large while still producing quality
parts
Hot extrusion
Hot extrusion is a hot working process, which means it

is done above the material's recrystallization temperature to
keep the material from work hardening and to make it easier
to push the material through the die. Most hot extrusions are
done on horizontal hydraulic presses that range from 230 to
11,000 metric tons (250 to 12,130 short tons). Pressures range
from 30 to 700 MPa (4,400 to 101,500 psi), therefore
lubrication is required, which can be oil or graphite for lower
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temperature extrusions, or glass powder for higher temperature extrusions. The biggest
disadvantage of this process is its cost for machinery and its upkeep The extrusion process is
generally economical when producing between several kilograms (pounds) and many tons,
depending on the material being extruded. There is a crossover point where roll forming
becomes more economical. For instance, some steels become more economical to roll if
producing more than 20,000 kg (50,000 lb)
Cold extrusion
Cold extrusion is done at room temperature or near room temperature. The advantages
of this over hot extrusion are the lack of oxidation, higher strength due to cold working, closer
tolerances, better surface finish, and fast extrusion speeds if the material is subject to hot
shortness. Materials that are commonly cold extruded include: lead, tin, aluminum, copper,
zirconium, titanium, molybdenum, beryllium, vanadium, niobium, and steel.
Examples of products produced by this process are: collapsible tubes, fire extinguisher
cases, shock absorber cylinders and gear blanks.
Warm extrusion
Warm extrusion is done above room temperature, but below the recrystallization
temperature of the material the temperatures ranges from 800 to 1800 °F (424 to 975 °C). It is
usually used to achieve the proper balance of required forces, ductility and final extrusion
properties.[3]
Extrusion defects
Surface cracking occurs when the surface of an extrusion splits. This is often caused by
the extrusion temperature, friction, or speed being too high. It can also happen at lower
temperatures if the extruded product temporarily sticks to the die.
Pipe – A flow pattern that draws the surface oxides and impurities to the center of the
product. Such a pattern is often caused by high friction or cooling of the outer regions of the
billet.
Internal cracking – When the center of the extrusion develops cracks or voids. These
cracks are attributed to a state of hydrostatic tensile stress at the centerline in the deformation
zone in the die. (A similar situation to the necked region in a tensile stress specimen)
Surface lines – When there are lines visible on the surface of the extruded profile. This
depends heavily on the quality of the die production and how well the die is maintained, as
some residues of the material extruded can stick to the die surface and produce the embossed
lines.
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Sheet Metal Forming
Sheet metal is simply metal formed into thin and flat pieces. It is one of the fundamental
forms used in metalworking, and can be cut and bent into a variety of different shapes.
Countless everyday objects are constructed of the material. Thicknesses can vary significantly,
although extremely thin thicknesses are considered foil or leaf, and pieces thicker than 6 mm
(0.25 in) are considered plate.
Metal Forming Process
Forming can be defined as the process in which the desired size and shape of the object
are obtained through plastic deformation of material. The stresses induced during the process
are greater than yield strength but should be less than the fracture strength. Different types
of loading may be used depending on the process. Tensile Compressive Shear, Bending
Classification of Metal Working Process
Metal working process may be classified as the ease with which metal may be formed
into useful shapes by- Plastic deformation process and Metal removal process
 Plastic Deformation Process - In this the volume and the mass of the metal are conserved
and the metal is displaced from one location to another.
 Metal Removal Process- In this the material is removed from the stock in order to give
it required shape.
Classification of Metal Forming Process
 Metal forming process may be classified on the basis of type of forces applied to the work
piece as it is formed into direct shape. These categories are:
 Direct compression type process (e.g.-Forging, Rolling)
 Indirect – compression processes (e.g.-Extrusion, Wire Drawing) Tension type processes
e.g.-Stretch forming)
Bending processes, Shearing processes, Shearing process
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Sheet metal processing
 The raw material for sheet metal manufacturing processes is the output of the rolling
process. Typically, sheets of metal are sold as flat, rectangular sheets of standard size.
If the sheets are thin and very long, they may be in the form of rolls. Therefore the first
step in any sheet metal process is to cut the correct shape and sized „blank‟ from larger
sheet.
Sheet metal forming processes
Sheet metal processes can be broken down into two major classifications and one
minor classification.
1. Shearing processes -- processes which apply shearing forces to cut, fracture, or

separate the material.
2. Forming processes -- processes which cause the metal to undergo desired
shape changes without failure, excessive thinning, or cracking. This includes
bending and stretching.
3. Finishing processes -- processes which are used to improve the final surface
characteristics.
Shearing Process
1. Punching: shearing process using a die and punch where the interior portion of
the sheared sheet is to be discarded.
2. Blanking: shearing process using a die and punch where the exterior portion of
the shearing operation is to be discarded.
3. Perforating: punching a number of holes in a sheet
4. Parting: shearing the sheet into two or more pieces
5. Notching: removing pieces from the edges
6. Lancing: leaving a tab without removing any material
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Forming Processes
a. Bending: forming process causes the sheet metal to undergo the desired shape change
by bending without failure.
b. Stretching: forming process causes the sheet metal to undergo the desired shape
change by stretching without failure.
c. Deep Drawing: forming process causes the sheet metal to undergo the desired shape
change by drawing without failure.
d. Roll forming: Roll forming is a process by which a metal strip is progressively bent as
it passes through a series of forming rolls.
e. Punching or piercing: The shearing of the material when the metal inside the contour
is discarded. The punch A is piercing the hole for the washer.
f. Blanking: The shearing of close contours, when the metal inside the contour is the
desired part
g. Notching: The punch removes material from the edge or corner of a strip or blank or
part.
h. Shearing: The separation of metal by the movement of two blades operated based on
shearing forces.
WOOD
The basic raw material for processing wood is tree. Before any wooden material is put into any
engineering use, it has to go through some processes aimed at refining the wooden material so that
it will be more stable and more durable. The processes involve in wood processing are:
(i) Felling of trees.

(ii) Conversion of timber
(iii) Wood seasoning.
(iv) Wood preservation.
A. Felling of Trees
The term “felling of trees” means cutting down trees. The felling of trees is done using
chain saw. The felled trees are cut into logs and taken to sawmill where they are converted into
planks.
Felling of trees is done in two areas namely
(i) Government forest reserved areas and
(ii) free areas.
Government Forest Reserved Areas: This is a piece of land set aside by government
for the purpose of growing trees. In these areas, the permit to cut down trees is usually
given to big companies that deal on timber. After the best trees have been cut in the
reserves, the remaining ones are then given to local contractors who might need them.
The money paid to cut down trees in forest reserved is known as OTV which means Out
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Turn Volume. This means that the contractors will pay for the volume of trees felled and
taken out.
Free Areas: Free areas are places outside government forest reserved areas where trees
are grown. For a tree to be cut in this areas, a forest guard is called upon to inspect and
confirm that the tree is matured for cutting. After the inspection and confirmation, some
money called “tariff” will be paid to the government and a permit or authority to fell the
tree(s) will be issued.
B. Conversion of Timber
Conversion is a process of splitting a log of wood into desired sizes for commercial and
engineering use. There are three popular methods of converting timber. These are:
i. Plain sawing method.
ii. Quarter sawing method and
iii. Tangential sawing method.
Plain sawing method: Plain sawing method is also known as flat sawing, slash sawing
or through-and-through sawing method. Here planks are cut parallel to the axis of the
wood. This method is simple, quick, and cheaper to use. However, planks of wood
converted using this method are liable to warp or split than those of other methods.
Quarter Sawing Method: In this method, the log is cut along the modularly rays but at
right angles to the growth rings, with the growth rings running through the thickness
of the planks. The planks produced here are more stable than those of the plain sawn
and with better stripe figures. The planks do not cup, check or split to the same extent
like plain sawn method while seasoning.
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Tangential Sawing Method: This is the method in which planks are cut with their wide
edges tangential to the growth rings. This method is adopted only if the annual rings
are very distinct and modularly rays well defined.
C. Wood Seasoning: Wood seasoning is the gradual removal of water from freshly converted
timber. Naturally, all woods whether hard or soft contain certain amount of water called
moisture or sap. This moisture can cause a newly converted timber which is not seasoned to
warp, shrink, and crack. Thus the need for seasoning.
There are two common methods of seasoning wood. These are:
1. Natural Seasoning: This is a natural way of drying wood by stacking the planks in open
air. Therefore, the method is also known as air seasoning. A roof is usually provided
over the stacked planks to keep off rain. This method is most commonly used by small
saw millers. Natural seasoning is cheap but has a major disadvantage of taking long
time to dry up wood.
2. Artificial Seasoning: This is a manmade way of drying wood by the use of an oven (kiln)
for a short period of time. Artificial seasoning is also called kiln seasoning or scientific
seasoning. This method is very fast, taking only a few weeks at most to dry up wood but
it is relatively expensive to operate when compared to the natural method.
Reasons for Seasoning Wood:
a. Seasoning makes wood more stable.

b. It makes wood lighter in weight.
c. It makes wood more durable.
d. It makes wood easier to be painted or polished.
e. It makes wood resistant to decay.
f. It stops shrinkage of wood on drying.
g. It makes wood has better electrical resistance.
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Calculation of Moisture Content in Wood

The formula for calculating moisture content is given as;
MC = W- Wo
While that of percentage moisture content is given as:
𝑊 − 𝑊𝑜 100
%MC = 𝑥
𝑊 1
where:
W= wet weight of wood sample
Wo= dry weight of wood sample
Examples:
1. Calculate the moisture content of a timber which weighs 867 grams before drying and
688 grams after drying.
MC = W – Wo = 867g – 688g = 179 grams
2. If a sample of wood weighs 80kg before drying and 60kg after drying, calculate the
percentage moisture content of the wood.
80 − 60 100
%MC = 𝑥
80 1
MC = 25%
CERAMICS
The higher performance of ceramics is the result of strict control of purity, composition,
microstructure and processing. Because of their inherent brittleness, ceramics cannot be formed by
rolling, extrusion, drawing etc… Their high melting temperatures also add restrictions on the use of
casting techniques Processing of ceramics takes place through POWDER METALLURGY (PM)
techniques.
Processing of ceramics generally takes place in four steps:

1. Powder processing (raw materials)
2. Forming
3. Sintering (firing)
4. Finishing: (painting, electroplating), densification & sizing, heat treatment (hardening and
strengthening)
Sintering has the greatest effect on the properties and is subject to the greatest amount of control.
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1. Powder Processing/ materials preparation

The characteristics and condition of the starting raw powders and the manner in which
they are treated prior to sintering affect the final outcome of these techniques.
 Characteristics of powders include: particle size, shape, size distribution, degree of

segregation and agglomeration
 Finer and homogeneous particles are preferred.
 Preparation of the starting powders include crushing and grinding to the desired size
range and chemically treated to separate phases and compounds and to achieve
specified purity.
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2. Forming
The powder is consolidated into a compact by shaping in a mould/ die with the
application of pressure (cold compaction) and/ or heat (hot compaction)
Water and/ or plasticisers are added to allow the paste to be formed into
the desired shape
Common forming methods include:

_ Pressing
_ Slip casting
_ Tape casting
_ Injection molding
HP is mainly for densification off ceramics

Increases the rate off sintering by: reducing the time for sintering// reducing temperature off
sintering
Slip Casting
A slip is a suspension of clay and /or other nonplastic materials in water.
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1. Preparation of a powdered ceramic material and a liquid (usually clay and water) into
a stable suspension called a slip.
2. Pouring the slip into a porous mold usually made of plaster of paris and allowing the
liquid portion of the slip to be partially absorbed by the mold. As the liquid is removed
from the slip, a solid layer is formed against the mold surface.
3. When the sufficient wall thickness has been formed, the casting process is interrupted
and the excess slip is poured out of the cavity (Drain casting).
4. The material in the mold is allowed to dry to provide adequate strength for handling
and the subsequent removal of the part from the mold.
Slip cast mold and finish product
Advantages of slip casting:

- Produced uniform
thickness for complex
shapes
- Economic to develop
parts with short
production runs.
Tape Casting
Thin sheets of a flexible tape
are produced by casting. These
sheets are prepared from slips.
This slip contains a suspension of
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ceramics particles in an organic liquid that also contains binders and plasticizers to enhance
strength and flexibility to cast.
thin sheets of green ceramic cast as flexible tape

• used for integrated circuits and capacitors
• cast from liquid slip (ceramic + organic solvent)
Glass forming
Glass is produced by heating the raw materials to an elevated temperature, above melting
point.
Press-and- blow technique for glass
bottle forming
1. A raw gob of glass, a parison or
temporary shape is formed by
mechanical pressing in a mold.
2. This piece is inserted into a
finishing or blow mold and
forced to conform to the mold
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contours by the pressure created from a blast of air.
Drying and Firing

Drying: layer size and spacing decrease
wet slip partially dry “green” ceramic

Drying too fast causes sample to warp or crack due to non-uniform shrinkage
Firing:
--T raised to (900-1400°C)
--vitrification: liquid glass forms from clay and flows between SiO2 particles. Flux
melts at lower T.
Powder Sintering
After forming, the “green” ceramic undergoes a sintering or
firing process to produce a strong final product
The driving force for sintering is the reduction in surface
energy of the powder particles
Sintering: useful for both clay and non-clay

compositions.
Procedure: produce ceramic and/or glass particles by
grinding
-- place particles in mold
-- press at elevated T to reduce pore size.
Aluminum oxide powder:
-- sintered at 1700°C for 6 minutes. Powder sintering
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Factors of green ceramic affecting the sintering process:

 Composition of powders
 Green density
 Pore content (size, shape and distribution)
 Particle size, shape and distribution
 Extent of mixing (multi-component ceramics)
The 3 stages in the sintering process
Initial bonding Contact points grow into necks Grain boundary develop
Effect of sintering
Cementation
Produced in extremely large quantities.
• Portland cement:
-- mix clay and lime bearing materials
-- calcinate (heat to 1400°C)
-- primary constituents:
tri-calcium silicate , 3CaO.SiO2
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di-calcium silicate ,2CaO.SiO2)
• Adding water
-- produces a paste which hardens
-- hardening occurs due to hydration (chemical reactions
with the water).
• Forming: done usually minutes after hydration begins.
Applications: Advanced ceramics

A. Heat Engines
Advantages:
1. Run at higher temperature
2. Excellent wear & corrosion resistance
3. Low frictional losses
4. Ability to operate without a cooling system
5. Low density
Disadvantages:
1. Brittle
2. Too easy to have voids weaken the engine
3. Difficult to machine
Possible parts – engine block, piston coatings, jet engines Ex: Si3N4, SiC, & ZrO2
B. Electronic Packaging
 Chosen to securely hold microelectronics & provide heat transfer
 Must match the thermal expansion coefficient of the microelectronic chip & the
electronic packaging
 material. Additional requirements include:
o good heat transfer coefficient
o poor electrical conductivity
Materials currently used include:
 Boron nitride (BN)
 Silicon Carbide (SiC)
 Aluminum nitride (AlN)
 thermal conductivity 10x that for Alumina
 good expansion match with Si
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Comprehension check
Name:
Answer the following briefly
1. What are the four processes involved in wood processing?

2. What is wood conversion?
3. Identify the two methods of seasoning wood
4. State four reasons while wood seasoning is necessary.
5. Calculate the moisture content of a timber whose weight is 8672 grams before drying
and 5893 grams after drying.
6. Basic categories of ceramics:
7. Fabrication Techniques for ceramics
Enrichment Activity
Materials Processing for ABE Construction
Instructions: Select one specific material used in ABE and make a power point presentation
on the step by step processing involve. The report must also include the different finished
products for ABE construction. Include pictures for better presentation.
PS:
Submit the comprehension check and power point thru google classroom.
Thank you! Keep safe
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QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY

SELF – PACED LEARNING MODULE

ABE 22 (MATERIALS AND PROCESSES FOR ABE)

Figure 1. Cycle of materials by Ondracek.

Figure 2. Classification of the main material groups.

Classification of Metal Working Processes

2. Based on Temperature of Working

3. Based on the applied stress

Hot working: It is defined as the mechanical working of metal at an elevated (higher)

Cold Working: It is defined as the mechanical working of metal below RCT.

What is a Cast Product?

What is a wrought Product?

Difference between Cast and Wrought product

Cast Product Wrought Product

Based on the type of applied stress

Advantages of metal working process

Limitations of Mechanical working process

Effect of Mechanical Working on the properties of the Metal

Concept of cold working

Concept of strain hardening

Different Forging Operations

Fig.4 Edging Fig.5 Fullering

Fig.5 Drawing Fig.6 Swaging

Fig.6 Piercing Fig.7 Punching

5. Bending: The metal is bent around a die/anvil.

Classification of Forging Processes

Steps in Rolling Process

Classification of Rolling Process

Based on the product

Extrusion may be continuous (theoretically producing indefinitely long material) or

Commonly extruded materials include metals, polymers, ceramics, concrete, play

The extrusion ratio is defined as the starting cross-

Hot extrusion is a hot working process, which means it

Sheet Metal Forming

Metal Forming Process

Classification of Metal Working Process

Classification of Metal Forming Process

Sheet metal processing

Sheet metal forming processes

1. Shearing processes -- processes which apply shearing forces to cut, fracture, or

(i) Felling of trees.

There are two common methods of seasoning wood. These are:

Reasons for Seasoning Wood:

a. Seasoning makes wood more stable.

Calculation of Moisture Content in Wood

Processing of ceramics generally takes place in four steps:

1. Powder Processing/ materials preparation

 Characteristics of powders include: particle size, shape, size distribution, degree of

Common forming methods include:

HP is mainly for densification off ceramics

A slip is a suspension of clay and /or other nonplastic materials in water.

Slip cast mold and finish product

Advantages of slip casting:

thin sheets of green ceramic cast as flexible tape

Drying and Firing

wet slip partially dry “green” ceramic

Sintering: useful for both clay and non-clay

Factors of green ceramic affecting the sintering process:

The 3 stages in the sintering process