1

15-Jan-22

Applied modern physics

BY INSTRUCTOR Solomon H.(BSC, M.SC)

 CHAPTER 4 2

Atomic Structure
✓ Atomic Spectra
➢Outlines
o Spectral Series
✓ Introduction
✓ The Bohr Atom
✓ The Nuclear Atom
✓ Energy Levels And Spectra
o Rutherford Scattering Formula
o Origin of Line Spectra
o Nuclear Dimensions
✓ Atomic Excitation
✓ Electron Orbits
✓ The Laser

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 CHAPTER 4 3

Atomic Structure
❑ Introduction
✓ In this chapter our chief concern will be the structure of the atom
✓ it is this structure that is responsible for nearly all the properties of matter that
have shaped the world around us.
✓ Every atom consists of a small nucleus of protons and neutrons with a
number of electrons some distance away.
✓ The electrons circle the nucleus as planets do the sun.

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 CHAPTER 4 4

Atomic Structure
❑ The Nuclear Atom charged lumps of matter with electrons
embedded in them, like raisins in a fruitcake
✓ An atom is largely empty space (Fig. 4.1).
✓ Electrons carry negative charges whereas
atoms are neutral
✓ positively charged matter of some kind must
be present in atoms.
✓ But what kind? And arranged in what way?
✓ The British physicist J. J. Thomson in 1898
suggested that atoms are just positively

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 CHAPTER 4 5

Atomic Structure
❑ The Nuclear Atom have lost two electrons each, leaving them
with a charge of +2e.
✓ But the real atom turned out to be quite
different. ✓ Geiger and Marsden placed a sample of an
alpha-emitting substance behind a lead
✓ At the suggestion of Ernest Rutherford, screen with a small hole in it, as in Fig. 4.2,
Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden used as
probes the fast alpha particles emitted by ✓ so that a narrow beam of alpha particles was
certain radioactive elements to see what is produced.
in atom.
✓ Alpha particles are helium atoms that

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 CHAPTER 4 6

Atomic Structure
❑ The Nuclear Atom
✓ This beam was directed at a thin gold foil.
✓ A zinc sulfide screen, which gives off a
visible flash of light when struck by an alpha
particle, was set on the other side of the foil
with a microscope to see the flashes.
✓ It was expected that the alpha particles would
go right through the foil with hardly any
deflection Figure 4.2 The Rutherford scattering experiment.

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 CHAPTER 4 7

Atomic Structure
❑ The Nuclear Atom indeed were not deviated by much
✓ a few were scattered through very large
✓ This follows from the Thomson model, in
which the electric charge inside an atom is angles.
assumed to be uniformly spread through its ✓ Some were even scattered in the backward
volume. direction.
✓ With only weak electric forces exerted on them, ✓ Alpha particles are relatively heavy (almost
alpha particles that pass through a thin foil 8000 electron masses) and those used in this
ought to be deflected only slightly, 1° or less. experiment had high speeds (typically 𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒎/
𝒔)
✓ What Geiger and Marsden actually found
was that although most of the alpha particles

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 CHAPTER 4 8

Atomic Structure
❑ The Nuclear Atom
✓ So it was clear that powerful forces were
needed to cause such marked deflections.
✓ The only way to explain the results,
Rutherford found, was to picture an atom as ✓ With an atom being largely empty space, it is
being composed of a tiny nucleus in which its easy to see why most alpha particles go right
positive charge and nearly all its mass are through a thin foil.
concentrated, with the electrons some distance
away (Fig.4.3).

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 CHAPTER 4 9

Atomic Structure
❑ The Nuclear Atom ✓ The nuclear charges always turned out to be
multiples of +e; the number Z of unit positive
✓ However, when an alpha particle happens to charges in the nuclei of an element is today
come near a nucleus, the intense electric field called the atomic number of the element.
there scatters it through a large angle.
✓ We know now that protons, each with a charge
✓ The atomic electrons, being so light, do not +e, provide the charge on a nucleus, so the
appreciably affect the alpha particles. atomic number of an element is the same as the
✓ The deflection of an alpha particle when it number of protons in the nuclei of its atoms.
passes near a nucleus depends on the
magnitude of the nuclear charge.

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 CHAPTER 4 10

Atomic Structure
❑ Rutherford Scattering Formula
✓ The formula that Rutherford obtained for
alpha particle scattering by a thin foil on the
basis of the nuclear model of the atom is
(4.1)
✓ Note: For derivation of eqn (4.1) refer the
appendix of chapter 4 on Arthur Beiser 6-ed.
✓ The symbols in Eq. (4.1) have the following
meanings:

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 CHAPTER 4 11

Atomic Structure
❑ Nuclear Dimensions when it approaches a nucleus head on, which
will be followed by a 180° scattering.
✓ In his derivation of Eq. (4.1) Rutherford
assumed that the size of a target nucleus is ✓ At the instant of closest approach the initial
small compared with the minimum distance kinetic energy KE of the particle is entirely
R to which incident alpha particles approach converted to electric potential energy and so
the nucleus before being deflected away. at that instant:
✓ Rutherford scattering therefore gives us a way 𝟏 𝟐𝒁𝒆𝟐
𝑲𝑬𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 =
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝒐 𝑹
to find an upper limit to nuclear dimensions.
✓ An alpha particle will have its smallest R

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 CHAPTER 4 12

Atomic Structure
❑ Nuclear Dimensions
✓ Since the charge of the alpha particle is 2e and that of the nucleus is Ze.
𝟐𝒁𝒆𝟐
✓ Hence: Distance of closest approach: 𝑹 = (4.2)
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝒐 𝑲𝑬𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍

❑ Electron Orbits
✓ The planetary model of the atom and why it fails
✓ The electrons cannot be stationary in the Rutherford model of the atom, because there is
nothing that can keep them in place against the electric force pulling them to the nucleus.

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 CHAPTER 4 13

Atomic Structure
✓ Let us look at the classical dynamics of the hydrogen
❑ Electron Orbits atom, whose single electron makes it the simplest
✓ If the electrons are in motion, however, of all atoms.
dynamically stable orbits like those of the planets ✓ We assume a circular electron orbit for
around the sun are possible (Fig. 4.5). convenience, though it might as reasonably be
assumed to be elliptical in shape.
𝒎𝒖𝟐
✓ The centripetal force: 𝑭𝒄 = holding the
𝒓
electron in an orbit 𝒓 from the nucleus is provided by
𝟏 𝒆𝟐
the electric force : 𝑭𝒆 = between them
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝒐 𝒓𝟐

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 CHAPTER 4 14

Atomic Structure
✓ The total energy E of the electron in a hydrogen
❑ Electron Orbits atom is the sum of its kinetic and potential energies,
✓ The condition for a dynamically stable orbit is which are
𝒎𝒖𝟐 𝟏 𝒆𝟐 𝟏 𝒆𝟐
𝑭𝒄 = 𝑭𝒆 → = (4.3) 𝑲𝑬 = 𝒎𝒖𝟐 and 𝑷𝑬 = −
𝒓 𝟒𝝅𝝐𝒐 𝒓𝟐 𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝝐𝒐 𝒓

✓ The electron velocity 𝒖 is therefore related to ✓ The minus sign follows from the choice of PE = 0
its orbit radius 𝒓 by the formula: at r = ∞, that is, when the electron and proton
are infinitely far apart.
𝒆
Electron velocity: 𝒖 = (4.4) 𝟏 𝒆𝟐
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝒐 𝒎𝒓 ✓ Hence: 𝑬 = 𝑲𝑬 + 𝑷𝑬 = 𝒎𝒖𝟐 −
𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝝐𝒐 𝒓

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 CHAPTER 4 15

Atomic Structure
❑ Electron Orbits
𝒆𝟐 𝒆𝟐 𝒆𝟐
✓ Substituting for u from Eq. (4.4) gives: 𝑬= − =−
𝟖𝝅𝝐𝒐 𝒓 𝟒𝝅𝝐𝒐 𝒓 𝟖𝝅𝝐𝒐 𝒓
𝒆𝟐
✓ ∴ 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎: 𝑬 = − (4.5)
𝟖𝝅𝝐𝒐 𝒓

✓ The total energy of the electron is negative. This holds for every atomic electron and reflects
the fact that it is bound to the nucleus.
✓ If E were greater than zero, an electron would not follow a closed orbit around the nucleus.

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 CHAPTER 4 16

Atomic Structure
❑ Example 4.1
✓ Experiments indicate that 13.6 eV is
required to separate a hydrogen atom into
a proton and an electron; that is, its total
energy is 𝑬 = −𝟏𝟑. 𝟔 𝒆𝑽.
✓ Find the orbital radius and velocity of the
electron in a hydrogen atom.
❑ Solution

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 CHAPTER 4 17

Atomic Structure
❑ Atomic Spectra
✓ Each element has a characteristic line spectrum ✓ But the atoms or molecules in a rarefied gas are
so far apart on the average that they only
✓ The existence of spectral lines is another interact during occasional collisions.
important aspect of the atom like atomic
✓ Here we would expect any emitted radiation to
stability that a successful theory of the atom
must account for. be characteristic of the particular atoms or
molecules present.
✓ In the condensed matter the collective behavior
of many interacting atoms are observed rather
than the characteristic behavior of the atoms of
a particular element.

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 CHAPTER 4 18

Atomic Structure
❑ Atomic Spectra
✓ When an atomic gas or vapor at some what less
than atmospheric pressure is properly
“excited,” by passing an electric current through
it, the emitted radiation has a spectrum which
contains certain specific wavelengths only.
✓ An idealized arrangement for observing such
atomic spectra is shown in Fig. 4.6; actual
spectrometers use diffraction screens.

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 CHAPTER 4 19

Atomic Structure
❑ Atomic Spectra
✓ Every element displays a unique line spectrum when a sample of it in the vapor phase is
excited.
✓ Spectroscopy is therefore a useful tool for analyzing the composition of an unknown
substance.
✓ The number, intensity, and exact wavelengths of the lines in the spectrum of an element depend upon
✓ Temperature

✓ Pressure

✓ the presence of electric and magnetic fields and

✓ the motion of the source.
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 CHAPTER 4 20

Atomic Structure
❑ Spectral Series
✓ The wavelengths in the spectrum of an ✓ 486.3nm, is designated Hβ, and so on.
element fall into sets called spectral series.
✓ The first such series was discovered by J. J.
Balmer in 1885 in the course of a study of the
visible part of the hydrogen spectrum
(Fig.4.7)
✓ The line with the longest wavelength, 656.3nm, is
designated Hα, the next, whose wavelength is ✓ Figure 4.7 The Balmer series of hydrogen

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 CHAPTER 4 21

Atomic Structure
❑ Spectral Series
✓ As the wave-length decreases, the lines are ✓ Where n is number of spectral series.
found closer together and weaker in ✓ The quantity R, known as the Rydberg constant,
intensity until the series limit at 364.6nm is has the value
reached. 𝑹 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟗𝟕 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒎−𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟕𝒏𝒎−𝟏
✓ beyond this limit there are no further separate ✓ The Hα line is red, the Hβ line is blue, the Hγ and
lines but only a dim continuous spectrum. Hδ lines are violet and the other lines are in the
✓ Balmer’s formula for the wavelengths of this near ultraviolet.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
series is : Balmer: = 𝑹 𝟐 − 𝟐 , 𝒏 = ✓ The Hα line corresponds to n = 3, the Hβ line
𝝀 𝟐 𝒏
𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, … (4.6) to n = 4, and so on.
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 CHAPTER 4 22

Atomic Structure
❑ Spectral Series
✓ The series limit corresponds to n = ∞, so that it
occurs at a wavelength of 4/R, in agreement with
experiment.
✓ The Balmer series contains wavelengths in the
visible portion of the hydrogen spectrum.
✓ Fig. 4.8 The spectral
✓ These spectral series of hydrogen are plotted in
terms of wavelength in Fig. 4.8 series of hydrogen.

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 CHAPTER 4 23

Atomic Structure
❑ Spectral Series found whose lines have the wavelengths
specified by the formulas
✓ The spectral lines of hydrogen in the ultraviolet
and infrared regions fall into several other series. Paschen: 𝟏 = 𝑹 𝟏 𝟏
− 𝟐 , 𝒏 = 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟔, … (𝟒. 𝟖)
λ 𝟑𝟐 𝒏
✓ In the ultraviolet the Lyman series contains 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
the wavelengths given by the formula Brackett: = 𝑹 − 𝟐 , 𝒏 = 𝟓, 𝟔, 𝟕, … (4.9)
λ 𝟒𝟐 𝒏
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Lyman: =𝑹 − , 𝒏 = 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, … (𝟒. 𝟕) Pfund: λ = 𝑹 − , 𝒏 = 𝟔, 𝟕, 𝟖, … (4.10)
λ 𝟏𝟐 𝒏𝟐 𝟓𝟐 𝒏𝟐
✓ In the infrared, three spectral series have
been

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 CHAPTER 4 24

Atomic Structure
❑ Spectral Series
✓ The Brackett series evidently overlaps the Paschen and Pfund series.
✓ The wavelengths in each series are related by simple formulas.
✓ These observed regularities in the hydrogen spectrum together with similar regularities in the
spectra of more complex elements, pose
o a definitive test for any theory of atomic structure.

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 CHAPTER 4 25

Atomic Structure
❑ The Bohr Atom
✓ As it has been discussed in chapter three the electrons show the wave behavior.
✓ Consider an electron in orbit around a hydrogen nucleus and since its velocity u<<c; let γ = 1.
𝒉
✓ Thus the de broglie wavelength of this electron is : 𝝀 = , where the electron velocity is u
𝒎𝒖
𝒆
that given by Eq. (4.4): is:𝒖 = ,
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝒐 𝒎𝒓

𝒉 𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓
✓ Hence: 𝑶𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝝀=
𝒆 𝒎
(4.11)

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 CHAPTER 4 26

Atomic Structure
❑ The Bohr Atom
✓ By substituting 𝟓. 𝟑 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 𝒎 for the radius 𝒓 of the electron orbit (e.g. 4.1), we find the electron
𝟔.𝟔𝟑∗𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 𝑱.𝒔 (𝟒𝝅)(𝟖.𝟖𝟓∗𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝑪𝟐 /𝑵.𝒎𝟐 )(𝟓.𝟑∗𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 𝒎)
wavelength to be: 𝝀 = = 𝟑𝟑 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 𝒎
𝟏.𝟔∗𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑪 𝟗.𝟏∗𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏 𝒌𝒈

✓ This wavelength is exactly the same as the circumference of the electron orbit:
𝟐𝝅𝒓 = 𝟑𝟑 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 𝒎
✓ The orbit of the electron in a hydrogen atom corresponds to one complete electron wave joined
on itself (fig 4.9a).

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 CHAPTER 4 27

Atomic Structure
✓ Which implies that a fractional number of
❑ The Bohr Atom wavelengths cannot persist because destructive
interference will occur(fig 4.9b).
✓ It is easy to express the condition that an electron
orbit contain an integral number of de Broglie
wavelengths.
✓ The circumference of a circular orbit of radius r is
2πr

✓ Notice: An electron can circle a nucleus only if its

orbit contains an integral number of de Broglie
wavelengths.

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 CHAPTER 4 28

Atomic Structure
❑ The Bohr Atom are given by (Orbital radii in Bohr atom)
𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐 𝝐𝟎
𝒓𝒏 = ,𝐧 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, … (4.13)
✓ So the Condition for orbit stability is: 𝝅𝒎𝒆𝟐

✓ The radius of the innermost orbit is customarily called the

𝒏𝝀 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒏 n = 1, 2, 3, … (4.12) where 𝒓𝒏 designates Bohr radius of the hydrogen atom and is denoted by the
the radius of the orbit that contain n wavelengths. symbol a0:
✓ Integer n is called the quantum number of the
Bohr radius: 𝒂𝟎 = 𝒓𝟏 = 𝟓. 𝟐𝟗𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 𝒎
orbit
✓ The other radii are given in terms of a0 by the
✓ Substituting for λ, the electron wavelength given
formula: 𝒓𝒏 = 𝒏𝟐 𝒂𝟎 (𝟒. 𝟏𝟒)
by Eq. (4.11), yields 𝒏𝝀 = 𝒏𝒉
𝒆
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓𝒏
𝒎
= 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒏 ;

✓ So the possible electron orbits are those whose radii

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 CHAPTER 4 29

Atomic Structure
❑ Energy Levels And Spectra
✓ A photon is emitted when an electron jumps from one energy level to a lower level
✓ The various permitted orbits involve different electron energies.
𝒆𝟐
✓ The electron energy En is given in terms of the orbit radius rn by Eq. (4.5) as 𝑬= −
𝟖𝝅𝝐𝒐 𝒓

𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐 𝝐𝟎
𝒓
✓ Substituting for 𝒏from Eq (4.13), 𝒓𝒏 =
𝝅𝒎𝒆𝟐
we see that:
𝒎𝒆𝟒 𝟏 𝑬𝟏
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝑳𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒔: 𝑬𝒏 = − = 𝟐, 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, … (𝟒. 𝟏𝟓)
𝟖𝝐𝟎 𝟐 𝒉𝟐 𝒏𝟐 𝒏

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 CHAPTER 4 30

Atomic Structure
❑ Energy Levels And Spectra
✓ The energies specified by Eq. (4.15) are called the
energy levels of the hydrogen atom and are
plotted in Fig. 4.15.
✓ These levels are all negative, which signifies that
the electron does not have enough energy to
escape from the nucleus.
✓ An atomic electron can have only these energies
and no others.

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 CHAPTER 4 31

Atomic Structure
❑ Energy Levels And Spectra is no longer bound to the nucleus to form an
atom.
✓ An analogy might be a person on a ladder, who
can stand only on its steps and not in between. ✓ A positive energy for a nucleus-electron
combination means that the electron is free and
✓ The lowest energy level 𝑬𝟏 is called the ground has no quantum conditions to fulfill;
state of the atom
✓ Such a combination does not constitute an atom,
✓ The higher levels 𝑬𝟐 , 𝑬𝟑 , 𝑬𝟒 , … are called of course.
excited states.
✓ As the quantum number 𝒏 increases, the
corresponding energy 𝑬𝒏 approaches closer to 0.
✓ In the limit of 𝒏 = ∞, 𝑬∞ = 𝟎 and the electron

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 CHAPTER 4 32

Atomic Structure
❑ Energy Levels And Spectra
✓ The work needed to remove an electron from an atom in its ground state is called its
ionization energy.
✓ The ionization energy is accordingly equal to −𝑬𝟏 , the energy that must be provided to raise an
electron from its ground state to an energy of 𝑬 = 𝟎, when it is free.
✓ In the case of hydrogen, the ionization energy is 13.6 eV since the ground-state energy of the
hydrogen atom is -13.6 eV.

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 CHAPTER 4 33

Atomic Structure
❑ Origin of Line Spectra
✓ Atoms exhibit line spectra in both emission and absorption.
✓ Let us suppose that when an electron in an excited state drops to a lower state, the lost energy is
emitted as a single photon of light.
✓ According to our model, electrons cannot exist in an atom except in certain specific energy levels.
✓ If the quantum number of the initial (higher-energy) state is 𝒏𝒊 and the quantum number of the
final (lower-energy) state is 𝒏𝒇, we are asserting that
Initial energy - final energy = photon energy → 𝑬𝒊 −𝑬𝒇 = 𝒉𝒗 (4.16)

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 CHAPTER 4 34

Atomic Structure
❑ Origin of Line Spectra
✓ Where v is the frequency of the emitted photon and from Eq. (4.15) we have
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑬𝒊 −𝑬𝒇 = 𝑬𝟏 ( 𝟐 − 𝟐 ) = −𝑬𝟏 ( 𝟐 − 𝟐 )
𝒏𝒊 𝒏𝒇 𝒏𝒇 𝒏𝒊
✓ We recall that 𝑬𝟏 is a negative quantity (-13.6 eV, in fact), so −𝑬𝟏 is a positive quantity.
✓ The frequency of the photon released in this transition is therefore
𝑬𝒊 −𝑬𝒇 −𝑬𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒗= = ( − 𝟐) (4.17)
𝒉 𝒉 𝒏𝒇 𝟐 𝒏𝒊

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 CHAPTER 4 35

Atomic Structure
❑ Origin of Line Spectra
𝒄 𝟏 𝒗 𝟏 −𝑬𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
✓ Since 𝝀 = 𝒗 → = 𝑯𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒎: = −𝒏𝟐 (𝟒. 𝟏𝟖)
𝝀 𝒄 𝝀 𝒄𝒉 𝒏𝒇 𝟐 𝒊

✓ Eq.(4.18) states that the radiation emitted by excited hydrogen atoms should contain certain
wavelengths only.
✓ These wavelengths, furthermore, fall into definite sequences that depend upon the quantum number 𝒏𝒇
of the final energy level of the electron (Fig. 4.16).
✓ Since 𝒏𝒊 > 𝒏𝒇 in each case, in order that there be an excess of energy to be given off as a photon, the
calculated formulas for the first five series are given in next slide

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 CHAPTER 4 36

Atomic Structure
❑ Origin of Line Spectra
𝟏 −𝑬𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
✓ 𝑳𝒚𝒎𝒂𝒏: 𝒏𝒇 = 𝟏, = − 𝒏 𝟐 , 𝐧 = 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, …
𝝀 𝒄𝒉 𝟏𝟐 𝒊 ✓ a
𝟏 −𝑬𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
✓ 𝑩𝒂𝒍𝒎𝒆𝒓: 𝒏𝒇 = 𝟐, = − 𝒏 𝟐 , 𝒏 = 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, …
𝝀 𝒄𝒉 𝟐𝟐 𝒊

𝟏 −𝑬𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
✓ 𝑷𝒂𝒔𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒏: 𝒏𝒇 = 𝟑, = − 𝒏 𝟐 , 𝒏 = 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟔, …
𝝀 𝒄𝒉 𝟑𝟐 𝒊

𝟏 −𝑬𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
✓ 𝑩𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒕𝒕: 𝒏𝒇 = 𝟒, = − 𝒏 𝟐 , 𝒏 = 𝟓, 𝟔, 𝟕, …
𝝀 𝒄𝒉 𝟒𝟐 𝒊

𝟏 −𝑬𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
✓ 𝑷𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒅: 𝒏𝒇 = 𝟓, = − , 𝒏 = 𝟔, 𝟕, 𝟖, . .
𝝀 𝒄𝒉 𝟓𝟐 𝒏𝒊 𝟐

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Atomic Structure
❑ Origin of Line Spectra
✓ Our final step is to compare the value of the constant term in the above equations with that of the
Rydberg constant in Eqs. (4.6) to (4.10).
✓ The value of the constant term is
−𝑬𝟏 𝒎𝒆𝟒 (𝟗. 𝟏𝟎𝟗 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏 𝒌𝒈)(𝟏. 𝟔𝟎𝟐 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑪)𝟒 𝟕 −𝟏
= = = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟗𝟕 ∗ 𝟏𝟎 𝒎
𝒄𝒉 𝟖𝝐𝟎 𝟐 𝒄𝒉𝟑 (𝟖)(𝟖. 𝟖𝟓𝟒 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝑪𝟐 /𝑵. 𝒎𝟐 )𝟐 (𝟐. 𝟗𝟗𝟖 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎/𝒔)(𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟔 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 𝑱. 𝒔)𝟑
✓ which is indeed the same as R.
✓ Bohr’s model of the hydrogen atom is therefore in accord with the spectral data.

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Atomic Structure
❑ Atomic Excitation state in an average of 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝒔 by emitting one or
more photons.
✓ How atoms absorb and emit energy
✓ To produce a luminous (shining) discharge in a
✓ There are two main ways in which an atom rarefied gas, an electric field is established that
can be excited to an energy above its ground accelerates electrons and atomic ions until their
state and thereby become able to radiate. kinetic energies are sufficient to excite atoms they
collide with.
a. collision with another particle in which
part of their joint kinetic energy is
absorbed by the atom. ✓ z
✓ Such an excited atom will return to its ground

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 CHAPTER 4 39

Atomic Structure
❑ Atomic Excitation
b. Another excitation mechanism is involved when an atom absorbs a photon of light whose energy
is just the right amount to raise the atom to a higher energy level.
✓ For example, a photon of wavelength 121.7nm is emitted when a hydrogen atom in the n =2 state
drops to the n=1 state.
✓ Absorbing a photon of wavelength 121.7nm by a hydrogen atom initially in the n=1 state will therefore
bring it up to the n=2 state (Fig. 4.17).
✓ This process explains the origin of absorption spectra.

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 CHAPTER 4 40

Atomic Structure
❑ Atomic Excitation

Figure 4.17 How emission and absorption spectral lines originate.

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 CHAPTER 4 41

Atomic Structure
❑ The Laser exactly in phase with one another.

✓ How to produce light waves all in step iii. A laser beam diverges hardly at all.

✓ The term laser stands for light amplification iv. The beam is extremly intense, more intense
by stimulated emission of radiation. by far than the light from any other source.

✓ It is a device that produces a light beam with ✓ To achieve an energy density equal to that in
some remarkable properties: some laser beams, a hot object would have to
be at a temperature of 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟎 𝑲.
i. The light is very nearly monochromatic(has
the same frequency).
ii. The light is coherent, with the waves all

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 CHAPTER 4 42

Atomic Structure
❑ The Laser photon of energy 𝑬𝟏 - 𝑬𝟎 = hv.
2. Spontaneous emission: it is the process in
✓ The last two of these properties follow from the
which the atom which is initially in the upper
second of them.
state 𝑬𝟏 , can be dropped to 𝑬𝟎 by emitting a
✓ There are three possibilities of transition between photon of energy hv.
two energy levels 𝑬𝟎 and 𝑬𝟏 involving
3. Stimulated emission: it is the process in which
electromagnetic radiation in an atom (fig 4.18)
an incident photon of energy hv causes a
below, such as:
transition from 𝑬𝟏 to 𝑬𝟎 .
1. Stimulated absorption: it is the process in
which the atom which is initially in the lower
state 𝑬𝟎 , can be raised to 𝑬𝟏 by absorbing a

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 CHAPTER 4 43

Atomic Structure
❑ The Laser are exactly in phase with the incident ones, so the
result is an enhanced beam of coherent light.
✓ Einstein showed that stimulated emission has the
same probability as stimulated absorption.
✓ That is, a photon of energy hv incident on an atom
in the upper state 𝑬𝟏 has the same likelihood of
causing the emission of another photon of energy
✓ Fig 4.18 Transitions between two energy levels in hv as its likelihood of being absorbed if it is
an atom can occur by stimulated absorption, incident on an atom in the lower state 𝑬𝟎 .
spontaneous emission, and stimulated emission.
✓ In stimulated emission, the radiated light waves

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 CHAPTER 4 44

Atomic Structure
❑ The Laser
✓ The key to the laser is the presence in many
atoms of one or more excited energy levels
whose lifetimes may be 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒔 or more
instead of the usual 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝒔.
✓ Fig 4.19 An atom can exist in a metastable
✓ Such relatively long-lived states are called energy level for a longer time before radiating
metastable (temporarily stable); see Fig. 4.19 than it can in an ordinary energy level.

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 CHAPTER 4 45

Atomic Structure

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 CHAPTER 4 46

Atomic Structure

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 CHAPTER 4 47

Atomic Structure

❑ h

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