Recorded interviews as evidence in child sexual exploitation and

abuse – Barnahus model in Finland and Sweden

Jani Hannonen*
Doctoral Researcher
University of Turku, Faculty of Law

Abstract

The Nordic Barnahus model promotes child-friendly criminal procedure. An

important aspect of the Barnahus model is that child victims of sexual exploitation
or physical abuse do not testify in court, but an interview recorded in the pre-trial
investigation is used as evidence instead. The article analyzes how the Barnahus model
is implemented in Finland and Sweden using a comparative method.
The criminal procedure in child sexual exploitation and abuse is very similar in
Finland and Sweden. The children are interviewed conclusively in the pre-trial
investigation, and they are not present in the trial. Ensuring the suspect’s right to cross-
examination in the pre-trial phase is a prerequisite for using recorded interviews as
evidence. There is no direct contact between the defense and the child victim because
the defense’s questions are presented by the interviewer.
The Finnish and Swedish Barnahus variations differ mostly in the legislative
stance towards recorded interviews and the organization of Barnahus activities. In
Finland, using recorded interviews is strictly legislated whereas in Sweden the
approach is more flexible case-by-case discretion. In Finland, forensic psychologists
interview young children and older children are interviewed by police officers trained
in child forensic interviews. In Sweden, trained police officers conduct all interviews.

Keywords: recorded interview, evidence, child sexual exploitation and abuse,

Barnahus, Nordic law

* Direct correspondence Jani Hannonen; jsshan@utu.fi, http://dx.doi.org/10.36889/IJCJ.2023.001

Received 5 December 2022; Revised 30 January 2023; Accepted 23 May 2023
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE, Vol. 5 Issue 1, June 2023, 3-31
© 2023 Korean Institute of Criminology and Justice (KICJ)
The author is a Finnish Doctoral Researcher at the University of Turku. The article was written
together with the Korean Institute of Criminology and Justice (KICJ) during a research visit in October
– December 2022. The author expresses his gratitude to three anonymous reviewers and colleagues
Inka Lilja and Dr. Julia Korkman for their valuable comments.
 Recorded interviews as evidence in child sexual exploitation and abuse –
4 Barnahus model in Finland and Sweden
Jani Hannonen

1. Introduction

In this article, a recorded interview refers to an audio and video recording

of the victim’s interview in the pre-trial investigation in which the victim
testifies on the alleged crime. In the Korean criminal procedure, it is possible
to use recorded interviews of child victims of sexual crime if the defendant
confesses to the crime.

According to Article 30 (6) of the Korean Act on Special Cases Concerning

the Punishment, etc. of Sexual Crimes: “If a victim of a sexual crime is under
the age of 19, the statements made by a victim in a video recording may be
admitted as evidence only

When they are duly authenticated by a statement of the victim

himself/herself, a person in a relationship of trust with the victim who was
present in the investigative process, or an intermediary on a preparatory hearing
date or a hearing date”. However, according to a recent ruling by the Korean
Constitutional Court (23/December/2021, 2018 헌바 heunba524), it is
currently unclear if recorded interviews can be used as evidence if the defendant
does not confess to the crime.

Therefore, Korean child victims often have to testify physically in court.

I argue that this is not in the best interest of the child or beneficial for reaching
the material truth in criminal procedure. Firstly, children are an especially
vulnerable group of victims and a full-scale criminal procedure can be a
traumatizing experience. Children have to be protected from further trauma.
Secondly, from a legal psychological perspective, the quality of evidence is
better if the interview is recorded as soon as possible after the alleged crime
has occurred because the child’s memory is more reliable compared to hearing
the child in court after several months. Thirdly, the questions to the child
should be presented by trained professionals in child forensic interviews
instead of criminal justice professionals. Utilizing special expertise decreases
the risk of unintentional improper influence such as leading questions which
may even lead to the development of false memories (See la Rooy et al., 2016
about the legal psychological perspective of interviewing children; see also
Väisänen & Korkman, 2014, pp. 729–732 and referred literature).
 International Journal of Criminal Justice Volume 5 Issue 1, June 2023 5

Using recorded interviews of children as evidence in criminal proceedings

is an established practice in the European legal regime, especially in the
Nordic countries (Iceland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Finland). The
rights of the defendant have traditionally been at the core of criminal law, and
for a good reason. However, in recent decades the rights of the victims have
drastically improved. The Nordic legal systems have produced functional
solutions to balancing the rights of the defendant and victim protection
measures. This article aims to facilitate discussion in South Korea by
presenting the Nordic Barnahus model1 to a Korean audience by analyzing how
the Barnahus model is implemented in two Nordic countries, Finland and
Sweden. The focus is on describing the legal framework and practice of using
recorded interviews of children as evidence in criminal proceedings.

Bragi Guðbrandsson, the head of the Icelandic Government Agency for

Child Protection and “father of the Barnahus model”, describes the concept
well in the foreword of the 2017 Barnahus book (Johansson et al., 2017a, pp.
v–xii). According to Guðbrandsson, the Barnahus model (Children’s House in
Icelandic) establishes child-friendly service centers for child victims of sexual
exploitation and abuse. He further elaborates that the Barnahus model aims to
make the procedure as easy as possible for the child victim by gathering all
services from criminal justice professionals to social and medical workers in the
same facility. This is based on the realization that the needs of the child victim
are not fulfilled only by facilitating the criminal procedure, but smooth cooperation
with child protection and medical services is crucial for the well-being of the
child. The Barnahus units are not necessarily separate buildings, and it is important
to highlight that child-friendly furniture and toys are not the point of the
Barnahus model. Instead, the concept refers to established cooperation
structures.

Guðbrandsson explains that the idea behind this multidisciplinary

approach is originally from the United States (National Children’s Advocacy

1 I have chosen to use the concept “Barnahus model” to refer to Nordic approaches to child-friendly
criminal procedure in cases of child sexual exploitation and abuse. The Barnahus concept is nowadays
commonly used in Nordic countries and increasingly in the European context as well. I acknowledge
the fact that the practice of using recorded interviews has slightly different historical backgrounds in
all Nordic countries and the practice predates the Barnahus concept. Furthermore, I am aware that the
term is not commonly used in Finland.
 Recorded interviews as evidence in child sexual exploitation and abuse –
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Jani Hannonen

Centre in Huntsville, Alabama), but it was further developed in Iceland since

the mid-’90s. Guðbrandsson points out that the Barnahus model differs from
the US predecessor in one important aspect: recording the children’s interviews
in Barnahus units is an official institutional practice and embedded in the
criminal procedure and therefore, the child does not have to testify again in
court. According to Guðbrandsson, the Barnahus model spread from Iceland,
first to other Nordic countries and then further to Europe in the 2000s.

In recent years there has been much development on a European level.

The PROMISE 2 Barnahus Network consisting of local Barnahus units in
European countries was founded in 2019. PROMISE divides the Barnahus
Model into four components often referred to as rooms: Child Protection,
Criminal Justice, Physical Wellbeing and Mental Wellbeing (PROMISE
Barnahus Network Website, 2022). The European Barnahus Quality Standards,
which set out minimum requirements and guidelines for Barnahus activities,
have been developed in the framework of the PROMISE projects (for more
information in English see the original report by Lind Haldorsson, 2017).

Barnahus Quality Standard 6 is titled Forensic Interview and it gives

guidance on how to conduct the interview in a child-friendly manner while
also safeguarding the procedural rights of the suspect. The child’s interview
is video recorded for future use in the trial and the suspect’s right to a fair trial
is respected by providing a possibility of cross-examination in the pre-trial
investigation. The standard requires that the interviews are carried out
according to evidence-based practice by specialized staff members and the
interview is adapted to the child’s developmental stage. Other professionals
follow the interview through a video connection. Recording the child’s
interview is important because multiple hearings are potentially traumatizing
for the child and according to research, the quality of the child’s story weakens
as evidence if it has to be told numerous times. (Lind Haldorsson, 2017, pp.
76–88)

The article starts with a methodology section in Chapter 2. The results

2 PROMISE is an acronym for “Promoting child-friendly multi-disciplinary and interagency service”.

In addition to the Network, it has also been the name of three EU-funded projects between the years
2015 and 2022.
 International Journal of Criminal Justice Volume 5 Issue 1, June 2023 7

of the comparative study are described in Chapter 3. First, the obligations set
out by European law are examined. Then, the Finnish and Swedish Barnahus
models are analyzed in detail. The results of the study are followed by
discussion and conclusions in Chapter 4.

2. Methodology

The study utilizes a comparative method. I draw upon the thoughts of

Finnish comparatist Jaakko Husa concerning the methodology of comparative
law. According to Husa (2014), comparative law is essentially a hermeneutic
process that aims to understand the research subject and make justifiable
conclusions based on this understanding. Husa (2014, p. 66) notes that it is
important to avoid bias even though it may not be possible to completely prevent
the subconscious influence of the author’s own legal culture. Therefore, it is
worth mentioning explicitly that the author’s native legal culture is Finnish.

In comparative law, it is important to explain and reason the author’s

methodological choices. All Nordic countries have implemented the Barnahus
model but there are differences in how this is done in practice (for information
on Barnahus approaches of different Nordic countries see Johansson et al.,
2017a, pp. 353–371; Kaldal, 2020). Finland and Sweden were selected as
objects of study mainly due to the author’s language skills and the fact that the
author is most familiar with these two legal systems. One further reason is the
fact that both of these countries are member states of the European Union (for
example Norway and Iceland are not). Therefore, examining the European law
dimension is important because it is an inseparable part of the Finnish and
Swedish legal order and hierarchically above national law. The comparison is
conducted on the same horizontal level (i.e., country – country). The vertical
European law dimension does not change this setting because it affects both
comparison countries equally.

Finland and Sweden also provide an interesting starting point for

comparison because the countries have taken very different legislative stances
toward increasing the use of recorded interviews in criminal procedures. In
 Recorded interviews as evidence in child sexual exploitation and abuse –
8 Barnahus model in Finland and Sweden
Jani Hannonen

Sweden, the modernization reforms of the criminal procedure have shifted the
focus of criminal procedure towards the pre-trial phase by widely accepting
recorded interviews (Swedish Government Bill, 2020), whereas in recent
Finnish modernization reforms the stance has been more reserved and
recorded interviews are seen as carefully legislated exceptions to hearing the
victim in court (Finnish Ministry of Justice, 2020, pp. 61–63).

A desk research approach was chosen instead of an empirical approach

because there are recent interview studies available in both Finland (Lilja &
Hiilloskivi, 2022) and Sweden (University of Linköping, 2019). The source
material of this research consists of European, Finnish, and Swedish legislation
and, when necessary, preparatory material and guidance issued by government
authorities. Furthermore, academic research (especially the extensive Barnahus
anthology in English: Johansson et al., 2017a) and Barnahus evaluations are
utilized to describe how the Swedish and Finnish procedures work in practice.

3. Results

3.1. European law

3.1.1. European Union

The European Union (EU) is a unique regional organization that enhances
economic cooperation and harmonizes legislation in its member states. The
EU has 27 member states in total including both Finland and Sweden
(European Union Website, 2022). The EU harmonizes criminal law and
criminal procedure of the member states mostly by using directives. EU
directives set out goals that the member states have to fulfill but the means to
achieve these goals are left to the member states’ discretion.

The Barnahus model has wide support in EU law. There are provisions
for using recorded hearings as evidence in the 2012 Victim Directive3 (Article

3 Directive 2012/29/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2012 establishing
minimum standards on the rights, support and protection of victims of crime, and replacing Council
Framework Decision 2001/220/JHA.
 International Journal of Criminal Justice Volume 5 Issue 1, June 2023 9

24) and the 2011 Child Sexual Abuse and Exploitation Directive4 (Article 20).
In short, EU legislation requires that it is possible to use recorded interviews
of under-18-year-old child victims as evidence in all member states. The scope
of the Child Sexual Abuse and Exploitation Directive is limited to sexual
crime, but according to the Victim Directive, the child may be heard conclusively
in the pre-trial investigation of other crimes as well. It is further elaborated in
the Victim Directive that the procedural rules for the recorded interviews and
their use shall be determined by national law.

The Victim Directive (Articles 23 and 24) and the Child Sexual Abuse
and Exploitation Directive (Article 20) also include other victim protection
measures that the child victims may benefit from that both Finland and
Sweden have implemented. These measures include securing a representative
and/or an own lawyer for the child if there is a conflict of interest with the
child’s guardians. During criminal investigations, the interviews should be
carried out on premises designed or adapted for that purpose by trained
professionals and all interviews should be conducted by the same persons. In
cases of sexual violence and violence in close relationships, the interviews
should be carried out by a person of the same sex as the victim if the victim
so wishes (for example by having a female interviewer for a girl victim). The
interviews should take place without unjustified delay and the number of
interviews should be as limited as possible.

The Victim Directive also includes protective measures for the trial
phase. If the child would for some reason testify in court visual contact
between the victim and defendant should be avoided (for example by setting
a screen to block visual contact). The victim could also be heard without being
physically present in the courtroom by using communication technology
and/or the case could be tried without the public. All unnecessary questioning
concerning the victim’s private life should be avoided in criminal proceedings.

4 Directive 2011/93/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 December 2011 on
combating the sexual abuse and sexual exploitation of children and child pornography, and replacing
Council Framework Decision 2004/68/JHA.
 Recorded interviews as evidence in child sexual exploitation and abuse –
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Jani Hannonen

3.1.2. Council of Europe and the European Court of Human Rights

The Council of Europe (COE) is a European organization that promotes
human rights and has 46 member states including Finland and Sweden. Most
of the Council of Europe member states are also EU member states. However,
the Council of Europe has more member states in Eastern Europe and also
Iceland and Norway are member states (Council of Europe Website, 2022).

The Barnahus model has strong support in the 2007 Lanzarote

Convention5. All member states of the Council of Europe have ratified the
Lanzarote Convention which requires the contracting states to ensure that it is
possible to use recorded interviews of child victims as evidence (Article 35).

The European Convention of Human Rights 6 is the most important

human rights instrument in Europe. Both Finland and Sweden have ratified
the Convention which is a prerequisite for joining the Council of Europe. The
Convention is interpreted by the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) in
Strasbourg, France. Individuals may take cases to the ECHR after they have
exhausted national appeal mechanisms. The ECHR does not change the
judgment of the national court, but the ECHR evaluates if there has been a
breach of human rights. Therefore, the jurisprudence of the ECHR greatly
shapes the interpretation of the law in the contracting states. Article 6 of the
Convention establishes the right to a fair trial.

According to the case law of the ECHR, recorded interviews do not

prejudice the right to a fair trial provided that the suspect is reserved a chance
to present questions to the victim in the pre-trial investigation (Fredman et al.,
2020, pp. 455–459; Johansson et al., 2017b, p. 11 and cited literature; Kaldal,
2020, p. 4). In the landmark case of S.N. v. Sweden (July 2nd, 2002), the
applicant S.N. filed an application to the ECHR to contest the Swedish
practice of using recorded interviews as evidence. S.N. was suspected and
later found guilty of sexual abuse of a 10-year-old child, whose interview was
recorded in the pre-trial investigation by the police. During the pre-trial

5 The Council of Europe Convention on Protection of Children against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual
Abuse 25.10.2007 (CETS No. 201).
6 The Council of Europe Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms
4.11.1950 (CETS No. 005).
 International Journal of Criminal Justice Volume 5 Issue 1, June 2023 11

investigation, S.N.’s lawyer did not participate in the interview in real-time,

but the lawyer was allowed to ask questions to the child by presenting the
questions to the interviewer before the interview. S.N.’s lawyer was satisfied
that the questions were answered when listening to the recording afterward
(para 12). In his application to the ECHR, S.N. argued that he had not been
able to exercise his right to cross-examination because there was no direct
contact between his lawyer and the child victim. He further argued that the
Swedish system where the police present the defense’s questions to the child
was unreasonable and it hampered the possibility of critically questioning the
child (para 39–42).

The ECHR found that the recorded interview was indeed decisive evidence
in adjudicating the case (para 46). The court argued that the defendant has to
be given “an adequate and proper opportunity to challenge and question a
witness” at the time when the statements are made or in a later phase of the
procedure. However, the court stated that the defendant does not have “an
unlimited right to secure the appearance of witnesses in court” (para 44). The
court accepted the use of victim protection measures as long as they can be
reconciled with “an adequate and effective exercise of the rights of the defense”
(para 47). The ECHR ruled that the Swedish procedure was not in violation of
the right to a fair trial (para 54). Therefore, in the European legal regime, it is
possible to secure the right to cross-examination without direct contact
between the defendant or the defendant’s lawyer and the child victim.

3.2. Finland

3.2.1. Legislation on using recorded interviews as evidence

In Finland, the pre-trial investigation is regulated by the Criminal
Investigation Act (esitutkintalaki 805/2011, ETL). The court proceedings are
regulated in the Code of Judicial Procedure (oikeudenkäymiskaari 4/1734, OK)
and the more specific Criminal Procedure Act (laki oikeudenkäynnistä
rikosasioissa 689/1997, ROL). The provisions on using evidence are found in
Chapter 17 of the Code of Judicial Procedure and they apply to both criminal
and civil cases.
 Recorded interviews as evidence in child sexual exploitation and abuse –
12 Barnahus model in Finland and Sweden
Jani Hannonen

The police are in charge of the pre-trial investigation in most cases (ETL
2:1–2). The prosecutor decides to prosecute or waive prosecution based on
written material delivered by the police (ROL 1:6–8). There are also provisions
for cooperation between the police and the prosecutor (ETL 5:1–3). The
prosecutor must be informed of crimes involving the sexual abuse of children.
The prosecutor may also order the police to conduct a pre-trial investigation
or gather more evidence on a specific issue.

In Finland, the main rule is to receive all evidence orally during the trial
(OK 17:24). However, it is possible to use recorded interviews of victims as
evidence in the trial phase if the conditions of the Code of Judicial Procedure
(OK 17:24) and the Criminal Investigation Act (ETL 9:4) are met. It is of
paramount importance that the suspect is given a chance to present questions
to the victim during the pre-trial investigation. In addition to legislation, there is
Police Guidance (2019) on the treatment of children in pre-trial investigations
and the recent Police Handbook (2022) on child investigations which contain
more specific instructions.

According to Finnish law, recorded interviews are permissible in all

crimes for child victims (and witnesses) who are under 15 years old. The
Criminal Investigation Act requires that the interview is filmed if hearing the
person in a trial would probably cause him or her harm due to the person’s
young age (ETL 9:4.1). Therefore, recorded interviews must be used as evidence
when the case involves young children. In practice, recordings are routinely
used for children under 15 years of age.

The use of recorded interviews is more restricted for child victims

between 15 and 17 years. Recorded interviews are permissible as evidence in
most sexual crimes such as rape and sexual abuse that are invasive in nature.7
The only other requirement is that the 15 to 17-year-old child victim does not

7 At the time of writing, the list of sexual crimes does not include sexual harassment, pandering, enticing
a child for sexual purposes or crimes concerning the dissemination of sexual material depicting a child.
However, recorded interviews may be used as evidence in these situations if the child between 15 and
17 years has specific protection needs. The Finnish parliament has enacted legislation that extends the
permissibility of recorded interviews by default to victims of human trafficking or pandering and
minors who are offered compensation for a sexual deed in March 2023 (Finnish Government Bill,
2022, pp. 135–136). The new legislation enters into force October 1st 2023.
 International Journal of Criminal Justice Volume 5 Issue 1, June 2023 13

want to testify in court but the child may testify if he or she wants to. The
recorded interviews are also permissible in other crimes than sexual exploitation
if the child victim between 15 and 17 years has specific protection needs (for
example victims of hate crime or violence in close relationships). When
evaluating the victim’s specific protection needs the personal situation of the
victim and the quality of the crime shall be taken into consideration (Finnish
Government Bill, 2014, p. 84).

In Finland, the use of recorded interviews is not strictly restricted to

children. Also, adult victims may benefit from recorded interviews in most
sexual crimes if testifying in court would harm their health or would cause
other significant harm. Therefore, not wanting to testify in court is not enough
for adult victims.

3.2.2. Organization of Barnahus activities

In Finland, no law extensively regulates Barnahus activities. However, in
2008 the Act on Organizing the Investigation of Sexual and Assault Offences
against Children (laki lapseen kohdistuneen seksuaali- ja pahoinpitelyrikoksen
selvittämisen järjestämisestä 1009/2008) was enacted. According to the
Organization Act, university hospitals are tasked with organizing interviews
and examinations of child victims of sexual and physical abuse. There are five
Child Forensic Psychology Units in university hospitals (sometimes referred
to as Barnahus units) in Helsinki, Turku, Tampere, Oulu, and Kuopio. The
units are responsible for providing services in their respective districts which
cover the whole country. The Barnahus activities are coordinated by the
Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare.

In Finland, the name Barnahus (or Barnahus project) has been used more
since 2019 to describe the cooperation between authorities. Nonetheless, there
were similar practices in place already in 2014 such as the interdisciplinary
LASTA screening model. The LASTA screening model has been developed
to facilitate the transfer of information between Finnish police, prosecution,
child protection, and healthcare authorities which is crucial for investigating
the crime. There is a standardized template for gathering information such as
medical history and possible child protection measures. The information is
 Recorded interviews as evidence in child sexual exploitation and abuse –
14 Barnahus model in Finland and Sweden
Jani Hannonen

gathered from different systems manually by a LASTA coordinator who may,

for example, be a trained social worker. LASTA screening is followed by a
meeting between relevant authorities where the child’s situation is discussed
and the authorities decide together which actions to take. The LASTA screening
may be initiated, for example, by child protection services if they are
concerned about the child’s welfare. There are regional differences in the
procedures (Johansson et al., 2017a, pp. 363–364; Lilja & Hiilloskivi, 2022,
pp. 16–23; Police Handbook, 2022, pp. 27–34).

There is some recent research on the Finnish variation of the Barnahus

model available in English. Julia Korkman, Tom Pakkanen, and Taina Laajasalo
(Korkman et al., 2017) have explained the forensic interview procedure in
detail in the Barnahus book. More recently, an analysis of legal psychological
research and authorities’ training needs was released (Mäenpää et al., 2022).
Inka Lilja and Miina Hiilloskivi (2022, pp. 4–6) have recently studied Finnish
procedural legislation on child abuse in line with the Barnahus model by
analyzing the relevant legislation and conducting interviews with 23 professionals.
According to Lilja and Hiilloskivi (2022, pp. 11–32), the legislation on
authorities’ right to information should be made clearer. They argue that enacting
a specific Barnahus law could be a possible way to improve the system (Lilja
& Hiilloskivi, 2022, pp. 48–55).

3.2.3. Barnahus target group

In Finland, the Barnahus target group is small because in practice only
young child victims of sexual or physical abuse are referred to Barnahus units.
Lilja and Hiilloskivi (2022, pp. 10–11) point out that there is no legal
obligation for the police to refer the case to Barnahus units. They further
observe that according to the Organization Act, all children under 16 years
(and even children aged 16–18 for a specific reason) could be referred to the
Barnahus units.

According to the study by Lilja and Hiilloskivi (2022, pp. 34–39; see also
Police Handbook, 2022, p. 78), the police usually request that the Barnahus
units conduct the interview only for children under 7 years old or children with
developmental disabilities due to a lack of resources. In practice, children
 International Journal of Criminal Justice Volume 5 Issue 1, June 2023 15

from 7–17 years are usually interviewed at the police station by police officers
trained in child forensic interviews. According to Lilja and Hiilloskivi (2022,
pp. 38, 45–46), it is problematic that not every child is referred to the Barnahus
units, because Barnahus units provide better access to therapy services. Most
importantly the quality of evidence tends to be better if forensic psychologists
from Barnahus units are involved in the interview.

3.2.4. Representation of the child victim

Children are not legally competent to represent themselves in the criminal
procedure due to their young age and therefore the legal guardian has to take
care of the child’s interests. Yet, the guardians of the child victim may not
always be suited to act in the best interest of the child in the criminal procedure.
For example, this can be the case if one of the victim’s parents is the suspect.

In certain cases, the police officer in charge of the investigation has an

obligation to apply for a legal guardian for the criminal procedure to ensure
that the interests of the child are taken seriously. The legal guardian is usually
a social worker. The guardian is wholly in charge of representing a child under
15 years old, but children over 15 years have shared competence with the
guardian. The child may be appointed a personal legal aid counsel. (Police
Guidance, 2019, pp. 19–21; Police Handbook, 2022, pp. 39–47) Legal aid for
a victim of sexual exploitation is free of charge regardless of income (ROL
2:1a). The child’s legal aid counsel and the child’s legal guardian (or appointed
guardian in case of conflicting interests) have the right to be present during
the interview of the child (ETL 7:12 and 7:14).

The cooperation between the legal guardian and the legal aid counsel is
referred to as the tandem model. Lilja and Hiilloskivi (2022, pp. 8–10) point
out that the guardian supervises the best interests of the child, and the legal
aid counsel is responsible for representing the child in the criminal procedure.
The legal aid counsel ensures that all relevant evidence is gathered and makes
claims for damages. According to Lilja and Hiilloskivi, both the legal guardian
and the legal aid counsel should be appointed as early as possible, and the
police are responsible for ensuring that they have been applied for (see also
Police Guidance, 2019, pp. 19–21; Police Handbook, 2022, p. 41).
 Recorded interviews as evidence in child sexual exploitation and abuse –
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Jani Hannonen

3.2.5. Interview and cross-examination

There is some regulation concerning the process of conducting the
interviews in the Criminal Investigation Act (ETL 9:4). Before starting the
interview, the child must be informed that the interview is being recorded. The
police may decide that the interview is conducted by another person than the
police (Barnahus expert who is usually a forensic psychologist) under the
supervision of the police. The child’s developmental stage must be taken into
consideration when deciding the methods and circumstances of the interview
and the number of participants.

In Finnish Barnahus units, experts in forensic psychology conduct the

interviews of young children because they are the most challenging. The
Barnahus experts may also support police officers in police-conducted interviews
by working together as a pair, reviewing the interview plans, or giving feedback.
(Police Handbook, 2022, pp. 90–91) Lilja and Hiilloskivi (2022, pp. 40–41)
highlight the importance of the police officer’s participation in the planning of
the interview if it is conducted by a Barnahus expert. The process of recording
interviews is essentially the same even though the interview would be
conducted by a Barnahus expert or by a specialized police officer. The police
remain in charge of the investigation. The legal guardian or possible court-
appointed guardian is responsible for taking the child to the interview. In some
cases, it is also possible to take the child to the interview without the parents
knowing about it. Only the interviewer and the child are physically in the same
room and the other participants follow the interview from a separate room by
using a video connection (Police Handbook, 2022, pp. 74–84).

The place of the interview is not strictly regulated, but it has to be suitable
for interviewing children and there has to be adequate video-recording equipment
(Police Guidance, 2019, p. 30). According to the study by Lilja and Hiilloskivi
(2022, pp. 38, 45–46), some Barnahus units prefer to interview the child in
their child-friendly premises and some units prefer to travel to the child victim
and conduct the interview, for example, in a local police station. Lilja and
Hiilloskivi point out that even though some police stations have premises
designed for interviewing children, not every police station is suited for children.

Before the actual interview, a practice interview is conducted to get the

 International Journal of Criminal Justice Volume 5 Issue 1, June 2023 17

child to relax and gain experience in communicating in a way that the real
interview requires. The child may be asked to tell about some mundane event,
for example, a day at school (Police Handbook, 2022, p. 75). The NICHD
protocol is used as the basis of the interview (for more on the protocol see
Baugerud & Sinkerud Johnson, 2017). The semi-structured protocol is based
on empirical research. It is used by both police officers and Barnahus experts
and it is individually modified for each case (Police Handbook, 2022, p. 79).
According to Korkman et al. (2017, p. 146), the hypothesis testing approach
is a unique trait of the Finnish Barnahus model. Korkman et al. explain that in
the hypothesis testing approach, different hypotheses are carefully formulated
before the interview, and then it is tested which hypothesis gains support in
the interview. The hypotheses can, for example, be the following: A) the child
was sexually abused by a parent, B) the other parent has repeatedly instructed
the child to lie about sexual abuse due to a custody dispute and C) the child
has been misunderstood or the child has not understood the sexual nature of
the words he or she has used.

The prerequisite for using recorded interviews as evidence is that the

suspect is given a chance to ask questions from the victim (OK 17:24). The
suspect’s right to cross-examination is further stipulated in the Criminal
Investigation Act (ETL 9:4). According to the Police Handbook (2022, p. 87),
the suspect should be provided with a lawyer to properly comprehend the
meaning of cross-examination and counter possible claims for infringements
of the suspect’s procedural rights. Also, the prosecutor must be reserved a
chance to participate in the interview and ask questions (ETL 9:4.3).

The interview is usually conducted in two parts. First, the victim is asked
to tell about the situation in his or her own words. Then, in the second part of
the interview, all parties are allowed to ask questions of the victim. (Fredman
et al., 2020, p. 455; Korkman et al., 2017, pp. 149–150) Usually, the suspect
is not personally present in the adjacent room, but the suspect’s lawyer is in
charge of securing the right to cross-examination. The defense is usually not
allowed to follow the first interview in real-time but instead the defense is
allowed to get acquainted with the recording and transcription of the first
interview. The suspect has to be reserved a chance to ask relevant questions
 Recorded interviews as evidence in child sexual exploitation and abuse –
18 Barnahus model in Finland and Sweden
Jani Hannonen

to the victim, but the suspect does not have to exercise this right. The suspect’s
lawyer often presents the questions on behalf of the suspect and the questions
should be prepared preferably in written form. The defense does not have the
right to ask irrelevant or harmful questions. This is supervised by the police
who routinely decide that the defense’s questions are presented to the victim by
the interviewer. The interviewer may formulate the questions in another way
that is more suitable for children of that age. Therefore, the suspect’s right to
ask questions may be secured without direct contact between the victim and
the suspect (Police Guidance, 2019, pp. 33–35; Police Handbook, 2022, pp.
84–89).

There are two major reasons why the defense's questions are asked by
the interviewer. Firstly, direct contact with the possible offender should be
avoided because it could be traumatizing for the child. Forming a good
connection between the interviewer and the child is crucial to getting the child
to speak. It is easier for the interviewer to ask the questions because they
already have a deeper connection. Secondly, interviewing children requires
special expertise because children are especially vulnerable to leading
questions. If the defense's question is not leading, irrelevant, or harmful it can
be conveyed as such to the child. The interviewer does not change the essential
content of the defense’s question but makes it more understandable to the child
or formulates the question in a less-leading form. Open questions such as
“What happened?” are preferred. This directly affects the quality of the child’s
interview. It is possible to ask further questions if the suspect’s lawyer is
following the interview in real-time. However, in practice, the suspect’s
lawyer does not always follow the second interview in real time but instead
approves the cross-examination by watching the recording afterward.

According to Korkman et al. (2017, p. 151), the interview of a child

victim is often evaluated by a Barnahus expert who gives a statement in which
the credibility of the abuse hypothesis is weighed against other hypotheses at
the request of the police, prosecution or the court. Korkman et al. explain that
these statements are used in court proceedings as evidence, but they are not
binding on the court.

In addition to the interview, a medical examination is usually conducted

 International Journal of Criminal Justice Volume 5 Issue 1, June 2023 19

to gather evidence of physical or mental signs of crime. The medical

examination is conducted in university hospitals. For victims of sexual
exploitation over 16 years the examination is conducted in SERI support
centers where they also receive support services (Police Guidance, 2019, pp.
33–35; Police Handbook, 2022, pp. 84–89).

3.2.6. Trial phase

Child victims of exploitation or abuse are not present during the trial. A
15 to 17-year-old victim may participate in the trial if the victim so wishes. In
these cases, the child may be heard as a witness and the recorded interview is
not used as primary evidence. The prosecutor, defendant, and the defendant’s
lawyer are present in the trial and the child’s legal aid counsel participates if
the child has compensation claims. The case is heard without the public if it
involves sexual violence towards children (15 § laki oikeudenkäynnin
julkisuudesta yleisissä tuomioistuimissa 370/2007). The video of the child’s
interview is played in the courtroom and the parties are allowed to comment
on the evidence. Experts that have participated in the interview of the child
may be heard in court. The defendant and possible witnesses are heard in the
trial. The procedure is the same in appellate courts if they arrange a hearing
(Fredman et al., 2020, pp. 452–459).

According to legal psychological research, recorded hearings are

reliable evidence because they are taken up shortly after the alleged crime.
The recordings should be made as soon as possible after the alleged crime
because memories fade rather quickly, and the risk of false memories
increases when time passes. (Väisänen & Korkman, 2014, pp. 729–732 and
referred literature). However, from a strictly legal perspective, it may be
harder for the prosecutor to win a sexual crime case if the victim does not
testify in court. This is because new issues may be raised in the trial phase and
the procedural safeguards are in favor of the defendant. This problem is
articulated in the recent Finnish Government Bill (2022, p. 135) on changing
the Act on Criminal Investigations. For example, the prosecutor might need to
ask new questions from the victim to undermine the defendant’s arguments,
but this is not possible because the interview was recorded. Therefore, the
 Recorded interviews as evidence in child sexual exploitation and abuse –
20 Barnahus model in Finland and Sweden
Jani Hannonen

victim does not always know what refusing to testify in court may mean in
practice.

The problem is more relevant for adult victims of sexual crime. The presence
of young children would not make it easier to secure a conviction because they
would not be able to answer the prosecutor’s questions properly in a court
setting. Consequently, this highlights the need to conduct the recorded
interview properly and the prosecutor’s active participation in the pre-trial
investigation.

3.3. Sweden

3.3.1. Legislation on using recorded interviews as evidence

In Sweden, the most important procedural piece of legislation is the Code
of Judicial Procedure (Rättegångsbalk 1942:740, RB). There are provisions
on pre-trial investigations in Chapter 23 of the Code of Judicial Procedure and
the Statute on Pre-trial Investigation (Förundersökningskungörelse 1947:948,
FuK).

The main rule is to receive all evidence in the trial (RB 35:8). Since
January 2022 it has been possible to even use recorded interviews of adults as
evidence in criminal cases provided that it is deemed appropriate by the court
(RB 35:15). There is no specific legislation on recorded interviews of child
victims. Nevertheless, the practice is deeply embedded in Swedish legal
culture. Susanna Johansson et al. (2017b, pp. 11–12) point out that the
Swedish supreme court ruled already in 1963 that audio recordings of child
victims could be used as evidence. Therefore, the Swedish legal system is very
open to using recorded interviews as evidence provided that the suspect’s right
to cross-examination is secured.

In Sweden, the prosecutor leads the pre-trial investigation when the

victim is under 18 years of age (Prosecutor’s Handbook, 2019, pp. 14–15).
According to the Prosecutor’s Handbook (2019, pp. 24–25), the interviews of
children under 15 years old shall be recorded in the pre-trial investigation and
this recording shall be used as evidence in the trial. The Handbook also states
 International Journal of Criminal Justice Volume 5 Issue 1, June 2023 21

that there is no legal obstacle that prevents using recorded interviews of

children aged 15–17 years as evidence. The use of recorded interviews is not
limited to sexual exploitation or abuse, but it is permitted in all crimes as long
as it is deemed appropriate.

3.3.2. Organization of Barnahus activities

In 2006, the Swedish Ministry of Justice started a pilot with six Barnahus
Units. Currently, there are over 30 Barnahus units in total. Barnahus activities
are not legislated but they are based on established cooperation practices.
Therefore, it is not mandatory to refer cases to Barnahus units. (Johansson et
al., 2017a, pp. 356–358) However, in 2009 the National Police Board, together
with the National Prosecution Authority, the National Board of Forensic
Medicine, and the National Board of Health and Welfare, issued national
guidelines for Barnahus cooperation (National Police Board, 2009).
Furthermore, the National Prosecutor Authority has issued a Prosecutor’s
Handbook (2019) for crimes against children.

In Sweden, the Barnahus activities are decentralized and therefore, the

local authorities are supposed to make a specific contract on Barnahus
cooperation (National Police Board, 2009, pp. 10–12). The Barnahus units are
mostly funded by the municipalities. NGOs, such as Save the Children, play
an important role in coordinating Barnahus activities on a national level.
(Johansson et al., 2017b, p. 15) However, there is much variation in local
practices, and not every municipality is connected to a Barnahus unit, especially
in Northern Sweden (Kaldal, 2020, p. 9; University of Linköping, 2019, pp.
25–26 and map on p. 13). In municipalities that are not connected to a
Barnahus unit, the cooperation between the prosecutor, police, social services,
and health care shall be organized in another way (Prosecutor’s Handbook,
2019, p. 9).

The main role of the Barnahus is to coordinate the parallel criminal and
social welfare investigations (Johansson et al., 2017b, p. 20; National Police
Board, 2009, p. 8). According to the guidance issued by the National Police
Board (2009, pp. 8, 10–11), the authorities should arrange a coordination meeting
with the police, prosecutors, social workers, and medical professionals when
 Recorded interviews as evidence in child sexual exploitation and abuse –
22 Barnahus model in Finland and Sweden
Jani Hannonen

the authorities receive information about possible child abuse. The coordination
meeting is called by the Barnahus Coordinator, who works in the local
Barnahus unit.

In Sweden, there is much research and many evaluations of Barnahus

activities. The University of Linköping (2019, pp. 11–14) conducted an evaluation
of Swedish Barnahus units in 2018–2019 with an extensive literature review
of previous evaluations conducted in 2006–2007, 2010, and 2013 by different
Swedish universities. According to the 2018–2019 evaluation, the overall
quality of Barnahus units was good, but there is still room for improvement.
Some of the identified development needs were providing the children better
access to healthcare services in Barnahus units and connecting every
municipality to a Barnahus unit. According to the evaluation, there is a need
for Barnahus legislation on a national level that would make the Barnahus
activities mandatory. There is a need for clearer legislation on authorities’ right
to information because the current restrictions hamper the exchange of
information. (University of Linköping, 2019, pp. 57–62) There is also research
available in English about the Swedish Barnahus model in the Barnahus book
(Johansson et al., 2017a).

3.3.3. Barnahus target group

In Sweden, the Barnahus target group is wide. According to the Barnahus
Guidelines (National Police Board, 2009, pp. 9–10), it consists of children
under 18 years old who are suspected to be victims of sexual exploitation,
violence, crimes against freedom (such as human trafficking), female genital
mutilation and even witnesses of violence in close relationships. However,
Anna Kaldal (2020, p. 12) points out that in practice the target group varies
greatly between local Barnahus units. According to the evaluation by the
University of Linköping (2019, p. 58), children between 15–18 do not always
get access to Barnahus units.

3.3.4. Representation of the child victim

Representation of the child is described in the Prosecutor’s Handbook
(2019, pp. 17–22). The child is primarily represented by the child’s guardians.
 International Journal of Criminal Justice Volume 5 Issue 1, June 2023 23

In these cases, the child has a right to legal aid counsel. However, if one of the
child victim’s parents is the suspect the child may be appointed a special
representative who acts simultaneously as the legal counsel and the guardian
of the child in the criminal procedure. The representatives are regulated in the
Act on Special Representatives for Children (lag om särskild företrädare för
barn, 1999:997). In practice, the special representatives are lawyers with
experience in child cases. The prosecutor applies for a special representative
from the district court if it is deemed necessary. It is possible to appoint a
special representative without hearing the parents (In English see Forsman,
2017, pp. 231–236).

3.3.5. Interview and cross-examination

There are provisions for interviewing children in the Statute on Pre-trial
Investigation. The interview shall be conducted in such a manner that it does
not cause harm to the child and the number of interviews should be kept to a
minimum (FuK 17 §). The interviews of children shall be conducted by trained
professionals (FuK 18 §) who are police officers. An expert in child or witness
psychology shall assist in the interview or give an opinion of the child’s
interview if the child’s age and developmental stage or the nature of the crime
so require (FuK 19 §).

The interviews of children are conducted in Barnahus units. The child’s

guardian shall take the child to the Barnahus unit for a forensic interview. If a
special representative is appointed he or she is responsible for taking the child
to the interview. In Sweden, the authorities may take the child to the Barnahus
unit without the parents knowing about it. For example, the child is taken from
school or kindergarten to a Barnahus unit by the special representative. The
child should also be accompanied by a person the child knows, such as the
child’s teacher, kindergarten worker, or social worker (In English see Forsman,
2017, pp. 236–237; and in Swedish Prosecutor’s Handbook, 2019, p. 20).

The interviews of children are usually conducted by specifically trained

police officers (Lind Haldorsson, 2017, pp. 16–17; Mycklebust, 2017, p. 109).
The interviewer is the only person directly in contact with the child while other
participants follow the interview from another room through a video connection.
 Recorded interviews as evidence in child sexual exploitation and abuse –
24 Barnahus model in Finland and Sweden
Jani Hannonen

The aim is to ensure the quality of the child’s testimony by creating trust and
preventing suggestive interview techniques. The NICHD protocol and a practice
interview are also used in Sweden (Prosecutor’s Handbook, 2019, pp. 8–10).
In Sweden, psychologists do not conduct interviews, but their expertise may
be used in the process. A psychologist may also give an opinion on the child’s
interview for court proceedings (FuK 19 §). According to the Barnahus
evaluation by the University of Linköping (2019, pp. 45–47), it is problematic
that psychologists do not attend the interview regularly. Their role is more
consultative instead.

The prosecutor is in charge of the investigation, but the prosecutor is not

in direct contact with the child. The prosecutor follows the interview from an
adjacent room and has the power to decide who is present in the interview
through the video connection. The child’s guardian or special representative
shall also be present (National Police Board, 2009, pp. 8, 11; Prosecutor’s
Handbook, 2019, pp. 24–25). In Sweden, the child’s interview in the pre-trial
phase does not only focus on the criminal investigation, but instead it is a joint
interview with the social welfare investigation. The idea is to avoid the child
telling the same things twice. Therefore, a representative of social services
should be present to facilitate the parallel investigations (Prosecutor’s Handbook,
2019, p. 26). According to the evaluation by the University of Linköping
(2019, pp. 45–46), the cooperation between criminal justice professionals and
social services works well in practice. However, according to Johansson (2017,
p. 268), the social welfare investigation is in practice subordinate to the
criminal investigation due to the underlying criminal law-oriented logic.

In Sweden, the right to cross-examination is ensured without direct

contact between the child and the suspect or the suspect’s lawyer. According
to the Prosecutor’s Handbook (2019, pp. 42–44), the suspect’s right to cross-
examination is ensured by giving the suspect an opportunity to ask questions
from the victim. It is important that the suspect is provided with a defense
lawyer. The Handbook states that the suspect or the defense lawyer is never
allowed to ask questions directly from the victim, but they are presented
through the interviewer instead. It is further explained that the interview is
conducted in two parts and in the second interview the suspect’s defense
 International Journal of Criminal Justice Volume 5 Issue 1, June 2023 25

lawyer is allowed to follow the child’s interview from another room through
a video connection and ask questions. The defense is allowed to see the
recording of the previous interview and the questions should be given to the
lead investigator in advance. According to the Handbook, the exercise of the
right to cross-examination shall be carefully documented in a written memorandum.
During the interview, the prosecutor and the special representative (or the
child’s legal aid counsel) are also allowed to ask questions from the victim
through the interviewer (National Police Board, 2009, pp. 8, 11; Prosecutor’s
Handbook, 2019, pp. 24–25).

In addition to the interview a forensic medical examination is conducted

when necessary, preferably in the Barnahus facilities (National Police Board,
2009, pp. 11–12, 14; Prosecutor’s Handbook, 2019, pp. 27–29). In practice,
every Swedish Barnahus unit is not able to provide medical examination
services and then the examination is conducted in a local hospital (Kaldal,
2020, p. 13; University of Linköping, 2019, pp. 49–50).

3.3.6. Trial phase

If a child’s interview has been recorded in the pre-trial investigation the
court may decide that the recording is played in court (RB 35:14). In this case
the child is not present in court.

However, according to the Prosecutor’s Handbook (2019, pp. 24–27, 37),

hearing older children in court can increase the quality of evidence. Therefore,
the prosecutor shall consider if it would be possible to hear the child in court.
The prosecutor shall discuss this with the child’s guardians or special
representative. The Code of Judicial Procedure stipulates that the court shall
consider if a person under 15 years of age may be heard as a witness (RB 36:4).
The Prosecutor’s Handbook states that this is analogically applied to child
victims as well. Therefore, the prosecutor may appoint the child to testify, but
the court decides if it is appropriate to hear the child in court.

It must be noted that the Prosecutor’s Child Handbook was given before
the 2022 law reform, according to which recorded interviews may be used as
evidence in criminal cases provided that it is deemed appropriate by the court
 Recorded interviews as evidence in child sexual exploitation and abuse –
26 Barnahus model in Finland and Sweden
Jani Hannonen

(RB 35:15). The recorded interview can be used as separate evidence even
though the person would be heard in court. The interview is played and the
parties may ask questions from the victim (The procedure is described in detail
in Swedish on the National Prosecution Authority Website, 2022). The victim
protection measures stipulated in the Victim Directive, such as hearing the
case without the public, allowing the victim to testify through a video
connection, or setting a screen to block visual contact between the victim and
the defendant, are also available in Sweden.

4. Discussion and Conclusions

The Barnahus model is widely accepted in Europe, and it has strong

support in European law. European law imposes obligations on states to
ensure the permissibility of recorded interviews of child victims as evidence
in the trial phase. According to the European Court of Human Rights, the
defendant’s right to a fair trial is not prejudiced if the suspect is given the
opportunity to ask questions from the victim in the pre-trial investigation. The
conditions and details of the procedure are regulated by national legislation.

The core function of the Barnahus model is very similar in Finland and
Sweden. In both countries under 18-year-old victims of sexual exploitation
and abuse may be conclusively heard in the pre-trial investigation in most
cases. The suspect’s right to cross-examination is ensured in the pre-trial phase
by providing the suspect with the possibility to ask questions from the victim
through the interviewer. Therefore, there is no direct contact between the
victim and the offender at any phase of the criminal procedure because the
child does not testify in court.

There are also differences in the Finnish and Swedish Barnahus

variations. The first difference is the legislative approach toward using
recorded interviews as evidence. In Finland, the use of recorded interviews is
a clearly legislated exception to the general rule of receiving all evidence
orally in the trial phase. In Sweden, the approach is more flexible and based
on case-by-case discretion because recorded interviews are permissible if the
 International Journal of Criminal Justice Volume 5 Issue 1, June 2023 27

court deems it appropriate. However, in both countries, the general rule of an

immediate trial where all parties are simultaneously present is starting to
crumble (Hiilloskivi & Lilja, 2022).

The second difference is the representation of a child victim if the child’s

guardian is not suited to represent the child in the criminal procedure. A
unique trait of the Swedish model is that the child may be represented by a
special representative who is both the guardian and the legal aid counsel. In
Finland, the guardian and the legal aid counsel are two separate people with
separate duties.

The third difference is the organization of Barnahus activities. Johansson

et al. (2017b, p. 22) point out that in Finland the Barnahus activities are closely
tied to the healthcare system because they are arranged by university hospitals
(Child Forensic Psychology Units). In Finland, forensic psychologists are
tasked with conducting interviews with young children at the request of the
criminal justice authorities. According to Korkman et al (2017, p. 159),
harnessing forensic psychological expertise in conducting interviews and
using the hypothesis testing approach is perceived as the major strength of the
Finnish model. However, in practice, the Barnahus target group is narrow
because only the interviews of under-7-year-old child victims of sexual or
physical abuse are conducted in Barnahus units. The interviews of older
children are conducted at police stations by specifically trained police officers.

In Sweden, the Barnahus activities are more decentralized and based on

local contracts between police, prosecutor, social services, and healthcare. The
key task of the Swedish Barnahus units is coordinating the criminal investigation
and the social welfare investigation. The interviews are conducted in Barnahus
units by specifically trained police officers. In Sweden, the Barnahus target
group is considerably wider than in Finland because it covers children under
18 years old and more crime types, such as human trafficking (National Police
Board, 2009, pp. 9–10). However, in practice, there is much variation between
different Barnahus units, and children 15–18 years old do not always get
access to Barnahus (University of Linköping, 2019, p. 58). In conclusion, the
Finnish Barnahus activities are closely tied to Child Forensic Psychology
Units while the Swedish Barnahus units focus on coordinating parallel
 Recorded interviews as evidence in child sexual exploitation and abuse –
28 Barnahus model in Finland and Sweden
Jani Hannonen

criminal and social welfare investigations.

Johansson et al. (2017b, pp. 1–4) state that the development of the
Barnahus model is closely tied to the context of the Nordic welfare state.
According to the researchers, comparative knowledge about Nordic Barnahus
variations is also valuable in implementing a child-friendly approach to
criminal procedures outside Nordic countries. Even though the legal status of
using recorded interviews is clear in Nordic countries, it is not certain that the
suspect’s or the child victim’s rights are always adequately respected in
practice. The proper implementation of the Barnahus model while respecting
the rights of the defendant requires consistent efforts and the work is not yet
done in either Finland or Sweden. Nevertheless, I argue that the Barnahus
model guides the development in the right direction. As Bragi Guðbrandsson
states (in the foreword of Lind Haldorsson, 2017, pp. 5–6): “the Barnahus is
never a fixed model but rather an evolving practice, ready to adapt to the
complex needs of children who are victims or witnesses of violence.”
Therefore, I invite Korean scholars and criminal justice professionals to
discuss if the Barnahus model or a similar practice could be applied to South
Korea and what form could the multidisciplinary cooperation take.
 International Journal of Criminal Justice Volume 5 Issue 1, June 2023 29

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