MEC 665

ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION

Chapter 4

Drives, Actuators and

Control
Credit: Pn. Nurul Muthmainnah
 Contents
 Functions of Drive Systems
 Hydraulics and Electro-Pneumatics in
Industry
 Types of Control Valves and its Principles of
Operation
 Electrical Drives
 DC Motors and Transfer Functions
 Steeper Motor and Linear Motor
Functions of Drive Systems
 DRIVE SYSTEMS
 Actuators are the muscle of robot – which move or rotate the
links to change the configuration of robots (desired position
and orientation in the envelope of the robot manipulator)

 Must have enough power to accelerate and decelerate the

links and to carry loads, yet be light, economical, accurate,
responsive, reliable and easy to maintain.

 The drive methods are selected based on the basic of using

open loop or closed loop controls.
 DRIVE SYSTEMS
Three types of drive
- Pneumatic
- Hydraulic (electro hydraulic)
- Electric

Pneumatic Drives Hydraulic Drives Electric Drives

• Used mainly for • Used for robots • Convenient, clean,

pick-and-place that must move quiet, reasonably
robots (simple large or heavy fast and used on
task perform) loads nearly all assembly
robots (close
tolerance
accuracy)
Comparison of Pneumatic, Hydraulic and Electric Actuators
Hydraulics and Electro-Pneumatics
in Industry
 Hydraulic Device
"What is hydraulics ?“
Hydraulics is the transmission and control of forces and motions through the
medium of fluids. Short and simple. Hydraulic systems and equipment have wide-
spread application throughout industry.
For example:
• machine tool manufacturing
• press manufacturing
• plant construction
• vehicle manufacturing
• aircraft manufacturing
• shipbuilding
• injection moulding machines

• Hydraulic actuator - A hydraulic actuator is used for the linear positioning of a

mass and is capable of providing large power amplification.
Cincinati Milacron TM T3
 Principle Used in Hydraulic Actuator
System
Pascal’s Law

Pressure applied to a confined fluid at any point is

transmitted undiminished and equally throughout
the fluid in all directions and acts upon every part of
the confining vessel at right angles to its interior
surfaces.
A hydraulic actuator
• When x(t) > 0 , the high-pressure oil enters the right side of
the large piston chamber, forcing the piston to the left. This
causes the low-pressure oil to flow out of the valve chamber
from the leftmost channel.
• Similarly, when x(t) < 0 , the high-pressure oil enters the left
side of the large piston chamber, forcing the piston to the
right. This causes the low-pressure oil to flow out of the valve
chamber from the rightmost channel.
- To obtain a model for the hydraulic actuator, it is assumed
that the compressibility of the oil due primarily to entrained
air is negligible (in practice the compressibility of oil may
cause some resonance because it acts like a stiff spring).
- It is also assumed that the high-pressure hydraulic oil is
available from a constant pressure source.
- The input x(t) and the output y(t) are related through a
second order nonlinear differential equation and after
linearization around x(t) = 0 and simplification, we will have
the following transfer function for a hydraulic actuator:
- M is the mass of the piston and the attached load. K and B are
functions of the piston area, friction, and the flowing oil.
- The transfer function of the hydraulic actuator is similar to
that of the electric motor (armature-controlled DC motor)
given by
 16

1 – pump
2 – oil tank
3 – flow control valve
4 – pressure relief valve
5 – hydraulic cylinder
6 – directional control valve
7 – throttle valve
A typical hydraulic system
Example of hydraulic actuators
A hydraulic system consists:-

• Hydraulic linear or rotary cylinders and rams – provide the force or torque

needed to move the joints and are controlled by the servo valves or manual valves

• A hydraulic pump – is a high pressure pump that provides high-pressure fluid

to the system

• Electric motor – operates the hydraulic pump

• Cooling system – rids the system of heat generated

• Reservoir – keeps the fluid available to the system

• Servo valve – very sensitive valve that controls the amount and the rate of fluid

to the cylinder

• Safety check valve – holding holes and other safety valve

• Connecting hoses – are used to transport the pressurized fluid to the cylinders

and back to the reservoir

• Sensors – used to control the motion of the cylinders

 Servomotor

Return

Hydraulic
Servovalve Power unit
Source

Sensors Controller

Schematic of a hydraulic system and its components

Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems
Advantages & Disadvantages Hydraulic
Actuators
Advantages Disadvantages
Good for large robots and heavy May leak. Not fit for clean room
payload applications room
Highest power/weight ratio Requires pump, reservoir, motor,
hoses, etc
Stiff system, high accuracy, better Can be expensive and noisy. Requires
response maintenance
No reduction gear needed Viscosity of oil changes with
temperature
Can work in wide range of speed Very susceptible to dirt and other
without difficulty foreign material in oil
Can be left in position without any Low compliance
damage
High torque, high pressure, large
inertia on the actuator
 Pneumatic Device

 Use Pressurized Air to achieve motion

 Add great deal of power and speed to any
actuation system.
 Variety of Actuation mechanisms available
- Cylinders
- Grippers
- Motors
• Pneumatic devices are principally very similar to hydraulic system.
• A source of pressurized air is used to power and drive linear and rotary
cylinders, controlled by manual or electrically controlled solenoid valve.
• Since, the source of pressurized air is separate from the moving actuators,
these systems have lower inertial loads. – power-to-ratio is much lower
than hydraulic system.
• The major problem with pneumatic devices is that air is compressible –
thus it compresses and deforms under load. As a result, pneumatics
cylinders are usually only used for insertion purposes.
• Controlling the exact position of pneumatic cylinders is very difficult. – one
way to control the displacement is called differential dithering. In this
system, the exact location of the piston is sensed by a feedback sensor
(linear encoder or potentiometer). – it can be used in controller that
controls the air pressure on the two sides of the cylinder through a servo
valve.
Some basic characteristics of pneumatic systems are:-

- stroke from a few millimetres to meters in length (longer

strokes have more springiness)
- the actuators will give a bit - they are springy
- pressures are typically up to 85psi above normal atmosphere
- the weight of cylinders can be quite low
- additional equipment is required for a pressurized air supply-
linear and rotary actuators are available.
- dampers can be used to cushion impact at ends of cylinder
travel.
A Typical Pneumatic System
 Advantages & Disadvantages
Pneumatic Actuators
Advantages Disadvantages
Many components are usually off-the- Noisy systems
shaft
Reliable components Require air pressure, filter, etc
No leaks or sparks Difficult to control their linear
position
Inexpensive and simple Deform under load constantly
Low pressure compared to hydraulics Very low stiffness. Inaccuracy
response
Good for on-off applications and for Lowest power to weight ratio
pick and place
Compliant systems
Types of Control Valves and its
Principles of Operation
Types of control valve

• Poppet valves
• Spool valves
• Rotary valves
Poppet valves

Simple 2/2 poppet valve

 In a poppet valve, simple discs, cones or balls
are used in conjunction with simple valve
seats to control flow.

 It allows fluid to flow from port P to port A.

 When the button is released, spring and fluid

pressure force the ball up again closing the
valve.
Poppet valves

A 3/2 poppet valve

 With the pushbutton released, ports A and R
are linked via the hollow pushbutton stem.

 If the pushbutton is pressed, port R is first

sealed, then the valve disc pushed down to
open the valve and connect ports P and A.

 As before, spring and fluid pressure from

port P closes the valve.
Poppet valves

4/2 poppet valve

 The valve of poppet changeover 4/2 valve using two
stems and disc valves.

 With the pushbutton released, ports A and R are

linked via the hollow left-hand stem and ports P and
B linked via the normally-open right hand disc
valve.

 When the pushbutton is pressed, the link between

ports A and R is first closed, then the link between P
and B closed.

 The link between A and P is next opened, and finally

the link between B and R opened.

 When the pushbutton is released, air and spring

pressure puts the valve back to its original state
 Poppet valves are simple, cheap and robust,
but it is generally simpler to manufacture
valves more complicated than using spool
valves.

 Further, a major disadvantage of poppet

valves is the force needed to operate them.

 Large capacity valves need large valve areas,

leading to large operating force. The high
pressure in hydraulic systems thus tends to
prevent use of simple poppet valves and they
are, therefore, mainly found in low pressure
pneumatic systems.
Spool valves

Four-way spool valve

• Spool (or slide) valves are constructed with a
spool moving horizontally within the valve body,
as shown for the 4/2 valve.
• Raised areas called 'lands' block or open ports to
give the required operation.
• The operation of a spool valve is generally
balanced.
• The pressure is applied to opposing faces D and
E and low tank pressure to faces F and G.
• There is no net force on the spool from system
pressure, allowing the spool to be easily moved.
Spool valves

Three position four-way valves

 This is a major cost-saving advantage of spool valves; different
operations can be achieved with a common body and different
spools.

 This obviously reduces manufacturing costs.

 Spool valves are operated by shifting the spool.

 This can be achieved by button, lever or striker, or remotely

with a solenoid.

 Self-centring can easily be provided if springs are mounted at

the end of the spool shaft.

 Solenoid-operated valves commonly work at 24 V DC or 110 V

AC. A solenoid can exert a pull or push of about 5 to 10 kg.

 This is adequate for most pneumatic spool valves, but is too low
for direct operation of large capacity hydraulic valves.
Rotary Valves

a) Construction 4/3 way valve

Rotary Valves
 Rotary valves consist of a rotating spool
which aligns with holes in the valve casing to
give the required operation.

 Rotary valves are compact, simple and have

low operating forces. They are, however, low
pressure devices and are consequently
mainly used for hand operation in pneumatic
systems.
Pilot-Operated Valves

Pilot-operated valve
 With large capacity pneumatic valves
(particularly poppet valves) and most
hydraulic valves, the operating force required
to move the valve can be large. If the required
force is too large for a solenoid or manual
operation, a two-stage process called pilot
operation is used.

 Valve 1 is the main operating valve used to move

a ram.

 The operating force required to move the valve,

however, is too large for direct operation by a
solenoid, so a second smaller valve 2, known as
the pilot valve, has been added to allow the main
valve to be operated by system pressure.
 Pilot pressure lines are normally shown
dotted in circuit diagrams, and pilot ports on
main valves are denoted Z, Y, X and so on.

 In port Z is depressurised with the solenoid

de-energised, and the ram is retracted. When
the solenoid is energized valve 2 changes
over, pressurising Z; causing valve 1 to
energise and the ram to extend.

 Although pilot operation can be achieved

with separate valves, it is more usual to use a
pilot/main valve assembly manufactured as a
complete readymade unit.
Electric Drives
- If electric drives can be described by their motion, there are
two groups:
1. Continuous-motion motors
2. Stepper motors
- Continuous-motion motors can either ac or dc. For example:
DC motors, reversible AC motors, brushless DC motor.
- It can be dangerous in an explosive environment, it is
relatively easy to make them explosion-proof and flameproof.
- The electric drives do not leak and they are eminently
predictable, can be described by linear equation.
- It can be reduced power/size ratio and increased cost.
• Electric drives, the most common actuators in mobile
robots, used both to provide location by powering wheels
or legs, and for manipulation by actuating robot arms.
• Electric drives are the most common source of torque for
mobility and/or manipulation in robotics.
• The physical principle of all electric drives is that when
an electric current is passed through a conductor
(usually a coil of wire) placed within a magnetic field, a
force is exerted on the wire causing it to move.
The principle components of an
electric motor are:
▫ North and south magnetic poles to provide a strong
magnetic field. Being made of bulky ferrous material
they traditionally form the outer casing of the motor
and collectively form the stator
▫ An armature, which is a cylindrical ferrous core
rotating within the stator and carries a large number
of windings made from one or more conductors
▫ A commutator, which rotates with the armature and
consists of copper contacts attached to the end of the
windings
▫ Brushes in fixed positions and in contact with the
rotating commutator contacts. They carry direct
current to the coils, resulting in the required motion
 Stator

(Rotating)
Commutator Armature

Brushes
DC Motor and Transfer Functions
How it works?
 A high-strength permanent magnet (field magnet) creates a magnetic
field in the space occupied by the rotor.
 In this DC motor, the rotor is made of an axle with three radial arms
fixed at equal angles around it.
 The axle is supported to the stator by a bearing, so it can rotate freely
with respect to the stator.
 On each of the three arms, a conducting wire is wound in a coil, as
shown; the direction of this winding is important.
 The coils are connected to three separate electrical contacts as shown.
The split ring made by these contacts is called the commutator.
Structure of a 3-pole DC motor
 A current flows through the coil on the top, inducing a magnetic field, and this arm
behaves like a magnetic south pole.
 At the same time, the two coils in the bottom also experience a voltage drop across
them. Look carefully at the positioning of the commutator; in this position, the two
coils are connected in series; by the left-hand rule, both behave as magnetic north
poles, but since they are in series, they are of less strength than the coil on top.
 In another figure, the north poles in red color, and south poles in green. Also, half
strength magnetization is shown by hashed line patterns.
 [Fleming’s left hand rule: when a current-carrying coil of wire is grasped in the left
hand, the fingers curled around the coil in the direction of electron flow, from
negative (-) to positive (+), the thumb will point toward the north pole of the
electromagnet.]
 It is clear that in the position shown, due to the magnetic forces between the field
magnet and the three electromagnets in the stator, there is a torque forcing the rotor
to rotate clockwise.
A few stages of operation of DC motor
 But as soon as the rotor turns a little, the connections
between the input voltage and the coils change due to the
commutator, changing the magnetic poles in the rotor
arms.
 The rotor is still getting a torque to go clockwise. In
figure above, as the rotor rotates, the commutator keeps
changing the direction of the electromagnets in the rotor
to maintain a continuous torque in the clockwise
direction – thus making the motor to do work.
 Electric motors usually have a small rating,
ranging up to a few horsepower
 They are used in small appliances, battery
operated vehicles, for medical purposes and in
other medical equipment like x-ray machines
 Electric motors are also used in toys, and in
automobiles as auxiliary motors for the
purposes of seat adjustment, power windows,
sunroof, mirror adjustment, blower motors,
engine cooling fans
The basic characteristics of DC motor
 DC Motor Transfer Functions
(Reference: Dorf and Bishop, Modern Control Systems, 9th Ed., Prentice-Hall, Inc. 2001)

The torque generated by the motor is

proportional to if and ia the currents in the
field and armature sides of the motor.

(1.1)

The motor torque increases linearly with

the field current.

By taking Laplace transforms of both sides

of this equation gives the transfer function
from the input current to the resulting
torque.
(1.2)
For the field side of the motor the voltage/current relationship is

The transfer function from the input voltage to the resulting current is
found by taking Laplace transforms of both sides of this equation.

(1st order system) (1.3)

The transfer function from the input voltage to the resulting motor
torque is found by combining equations (1.2) and (1.3).

(1st order system) (1.4)

So, a step input in field voltage results in an exponential rise in the motor torque.

An equation that describes the rotational motion of the

inertial load is found by summing moments

(counterclockwise positive)
or

Thus, the transfer function from the input motor torque to rotational speed
changes is

(1st order system) (1.5)

Combining equations (1.4) and (1.5) gives the transfer function from the input field
voltage to the resulting speed change

(2st order system) (1.6)

Stepper Motor and Linear Motor
 When incremental rotary motion is required in a robot,
it is possible to use stepper motors
 A stepper motor possesses the ability to move a
specified number of revolutions or fraction of a
revolution in order to achieve a fixed and consistent
angular movement
 This is achieved by increasing the numbers of poles on
both rotor and stator
 Additionally, soft magnetic material with many teeth on
the rotor and stator cheaply multiplies the number of
poles (reluctance motor)
Stepper Motors
• This figure illustrates the design
of a stepper motor, arranged
with four magnetic poles
arranged around a central rotor
• Note that the teeth on the rotor
have a slightly tighter spacing
to those on the stator, this ensures that the two sets of teeth
are close to each other but not quite aligned throughout
• Movement is achieved when
power is applied for short
periods to successive magnets
• Where pairs of teeth are least
offset, the electromagnetic
pulse causes alignment and a
small rotation is achieved, typically 1-2o
How Does A Stepper Motor Work?

The top electromagnet (1) is charged, attracting the

topmost four teeth of a sprocket.
The top electromagnet (1) is turned off, and the
right electromagnet (2) is charged, pulling the
nearest four teeth to the right. This results in a
rotation of 3.6°
The bottom electromagnet (3) is charged; another
3.6° rotation occurs.
 The left electromagnet (4) is enabled, rotating again by
3.6°. When the top electromagnet (1) is again charged, the
teeth in the sprocket will have rotated by one tooth
position; since there are 25 teeth, it will take 100 steps to
make a full rotation.
The principal of the Stepper motor
• Stepper motors have several advantages:

▫ Their control is directly compatible with digital

technology
▫ They can be operated open loop by counting steps,
with an accuracy of ±1 step.
▫ They can be used as holding devices, since they
exhibit a high holding torque when the rotor is
stationary
 Linear Motor
Introduction:

􀂄􀂄 Linear Motors are old motors which date from the 1970’s.
􀂄􀂄 Were not intensively used because of their difficult control and
low performance.
􀂄􀂄 Advancements in Power Electronics and Microprocessors have
overcome the control difficulties and have revived the use of
the linear motors.
􀂄􀂄 Linear motors are nowadays emerging as new technologies.
 Main Types of Linear Motors
􀂄􀂄 Linear Synchronous Motor
- Permanent Magnet
- Wound Secondary Type
􀂄􀂄 Linear Induction Motor
- Single-Sided:
-- Long-primary & Short Secondary
-- Short-primary & Long-Secondary
- Double-Sided or Sandwich
􀂄􀂄 Linear Stepper Motor
Linear Synchronous Motor (LSM)
For an LSM to operate properly the control system must
accurately track the position of the moving element in
order to properly synchronize the moving field current in
the stationary frame (stator).

If synchronization is lost or interrupted the motor slips

and loss of propulsion can occur. This situation is likely
to be encountered by an LSM when external sensors are
relied upon to handle motor synchronization.

If a sensor becomes dirty or mis-aligned or if fog, smoke

or other airborne obstructions are present, the system
will experience problems.
 Linear Induction Motor (LIM)
Linear Induction Motors (LIMs) are significantly different than
Linear Synchronous Motors (LSMs) in the way that they produce
electro-motive forces or motion.

In a LIM, the motor stator creates an Alternating Current (AC) field

that induces currents into the reaction plate, which is typically an
aluminum fin. This creates eddy currents in the moving element
which react with the moving field in the stator to produce thrust.

The induced currents in the aluminum plate manifest themselves in

the form of heat. In cases of high duty cycles or in locked rotor
conditions (where the moving element is not permitted to move)
overheating can occur. In several reported cases at amusement
parks, LIM fins have cracked and parts have melted.
 Applications
􀂄􀂄 Transportation (Trains)
􀂄􀂄 Robotics & Material Handling
􀂄􀂄 Elevators
􀂄􀂄 Compressors & Pumps
􀂄􀂄 Catapults and Launchers
􀂄􀂄 Sliding Doors Closer
􀂄􀂄 Certain pullers
􀂄􀂄 etc...