Available online at http://ijcpe.uobaghdad.edu.iq and www.iasj.

net
Iraqi Journal of Chemical and Petroleum
Engineering
Vol. 24 No.1 (March 2023) 125 – 136
EISSN: 2618-0707, PISSN: 1997-4884

A Review on Models for Evaluating Rock Petrophysical

Properties

Zahraa A. Mahdi * and Ghanim M. Farman

Petroleum Engineering Department, College of Engineering, University of Baghdad, Iraq

Abstract
The evaluation of subsurface formations as applied to oil well drilling started around 50 years ago. Generally, the curent review
articule includes all methods for coring, logging, testing, and sampling. Also the methods for deciphering logs and laboratory tests
that are relevant to assessing formations beneath the surface, including a look at the fluids they contain are discussed. Casing is
occasionally set in order to more precisely evaluate the formations; as a result, this procedure is also taken into account while
evaluating the formations. The petrophysics of reservoir rocks is the branch of science interested in studying chemical and physical
properties of permeable media and the components of reservoir rocks which are associated with the pore and fluid distribution.
Throughout recent years, several studies have been conducted on rock properties, such as porosity, permeability, capillary pressure,
hydrocarbon saturation, fluid properties, electrical resistivity, self-or natural-potential, and radioactivity of different types of rocks.
These properties and their relationships are used to evaluate the presence or absence of commercial quantities of hydrocarbons in
formations penetrated by, or lying near, the wellbore. A principal purpose of this paper is to review the history of development the
most common techniques used to calculate petrophysics properties in the laboratory and field based primarily on the researchers and
scientists own experience in this field.
Keywords: Petrophysical Properties, Hydrocarbon, Reservoir, Shale Volume, Porosity, Water Saturation, Permeability, Petroleum Technology,
Interpretation.

Received on 12/06/2022, Received in Revised Form on 07/08/2022, Accepted on 08/08/2022, Published on 30/03/2023

https://doi.org/10.31699/IJCPE.2023.1.14

1- Introduction
significant parts in formation evaluation is the water
Interpretation of well log results is one of the saturation (Sw) that is still difficult regarding well logging
important processes for engineers and geologists to analysis. A water saturation estimation considering
classify the petrophysical properties. The log data is resistivity and porosity was first proposed for clean sand
important in reservoir engineering calculations, development and was named the Archie formula. After
especially in the estimation of the reserve. The best that, a quantity of significant water saturation models
interpretation for any structure of interest is influenced emerged on traditional logging data for shale-bearing
by the quality and quantity of log data available to sands, such as the Simandoux model , modified
analysts and the type of problem [1]. Generally, there Simandoux model [6], Indonesian model, total shale
are two types of data when analyzing these properties; model, modified total shale model , and dispersed clay
instrumental methods that measure the properties vs. model , and dual water model. That leads to good results
depth, which are called logs; and real samples that for clean sandstone reservoirs. For petroleum engineers,
exactly represent the formation that we are dealing with, permeability is a main input and an important key in
such as cores and cuttings [2] . The Cross plot methods reservoir management as well as in development. For
are common means to display the effect of combinations example, when selecting the optimum production rate for
of logs on lithology and porosity, and they give a visual the field and water injection patterns [7]. Almost all
idea of the type of lithology mixtures [3]. analyses of petroleum reservoirs include a calculation of
The quantitative estimation of a hydrocarbon unit in any net pay. The total reservoir material that will flow an
formation requires a correct estimate of shale volume, economically feasible amount of hydrocarbon under a
which causes a blockage to the pore space and decreases specific production process is known as net pay [8]. If
the amount of permeability, which, as a result, decreases unquestioned, the significance of net pay thickness is with
the reservoir quality [4]. There are several methods for regard to hydrocarbon in situ and reserve estimation [8].
calculating porosity, including laboratory testing and/or To differentiate between net pay intervals and non-net pay
log data. The precision of porosity found from drill intervals, there isn't a standard procedure or approach,
cuttings can be incredibly affected by the size of the though.
cuttings and desaturation time [5]. Likewise, log analysis
has been utilized for porosity determination. One of the

*Corresponding Author: Name: Zahraa A. Mahdi, Email: arashikeyoto21@gmail.com

IJCPE is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
 Z. A. Mahdi and G. M. Farman / Iraqi Journal of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering 24,1 (2023) 125 - 136

2- Petrophysical Properties Determination Where Eq. 1 is an empirical equation derived from Na+
Techniques at 25°C, The Waxman-Smits model has the ability to
capture the nonlinear behaviors of the saturated rock
A variety of parameter techniques were applied to the conductivity vs. the pore-water conductivity at low
petrophysical parameters. A brief review of these salinity.
methods is discussed in the following subdivisions (see Poupon and Leveaux, developed a Indonesia model to
Fig. 1). calculate high amount of shale and fresh water saturation
the equation used the computer - made cross plot to
between the water saturation (SW) and true resistivity of
formation ,the range of shale recorded (30-70%) [12].

1 𝑉𝑐𝑙 𝑑 ∅𝑚/2
=[ + ]𝑆𝑤 𝑛/2 (5)
√𝑅𝑡 √𝑅𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦 √𝑎𝑅𝑤

Where; Vclay is volume of shale; Rt, formation true

resistivity; Rw, formation water resistivity; a, tortuosity,
Fig. 1. Petophysical Analysis and Flow Units ϕ, porosity; Sw, water saturation.
Characterization Clavier et al., developed equation was used to estimate
shale volume from gamma ray, density and neutron-
2.1. Shale volume determination density methods [13,14] were utilized to compute total
and effective porosities for older rocks. Clavier neutron-
One of the most public problems in formation density equation [15]:
evaluation is the impact of shale in reservoir rocks. A
𝑁𝑃𝐻𝐼𝑙𝑜𝑔 −𝑁𝑃𝐻𝐼𝑚𝑎+𝑀1(𝜌𝑚𝑎−𝜌𝑙𝑜𝑔 )
precise determination of formation porosity and fluid 𝑉𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑒 =
𝑁𝑃𝐻𝐼𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑒 −𝑁𝑃𝐻𝐼𝑚𝑎+𝑀1(𝜌𝑚𝑎−𝜌𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑒 )
(6)
saturation in shaly sand is exposed to several uncertain
parameters, all of which are prompted by the presence of Where:
shale in the pay formation.
To handle this issue in the shale sand reservoir. An 𝑁𝑃𝐻𝐼𝑓 −𝑁𝑃𝐻𝐼𝑚𝑎
integrated calculation is given to determine the exact 𝑀= (7)
𝜌𝑓 −𝜌𝑚𝑎
value of shale volume from various shale indicator tools,
and after that, the effective porosity is determined. can Thomas and Stieber, this strategy is used to determine
summarize the methods that are used to determine the shale distributions, sand fractions, and sand porosity. It
shale volume: was chosen to account for thin-bed properties on log
De Witte, presented his model for dispersed shale measurements in thin sand, Fig. 2 is a geometrical
considering very shaly formations. This model can be solution of the Thomas–Stieber method for laminated
simplified to characterize low shale formations having sands and shales with sands containing dispersed and/or
low values of water resistivity, In light of laboratory Structural shale which is a base case in this interpretation.
research and field knowledge [9]. The bottom vertex of the lower triangle is the dispersed
Winsaur et al., studied the ionic conductivity in double shale endpoint where the clean sand pore is filled with
layers in reservoir rocks and presented a model for charge dispersed shale and top vertex of the upper triangle is the
scattering in shaly sands. He defined the increment in the structural shale endpoint where the grain of the original
obvious conductivity of shale because of the way that sand is completely replaced with shale [15, 16].
clays add to the total conductivity of the rock while the
rock structure is nonconductive [10].
Waxman and Smits, established the conductivity model
of clay-bearing sandstone to explain the effects of clay
additional conductivity. It assumes the same formation
factor clay has a parallel conductive path to the pore
water. The relationship can be described by the following
equations [11]:
1
𝐶𝑜 = (𝐶𝑊 + 𝐶𝑒𝑥 )
𝐹
(1)

𝐶𝑒𝑥 = 𝐵𝑄𝑣 (2)

𝐶𝑤
𝐵 = 3.83(1 − 0.83𝑒 − 2 ) (3) Fig. 2. Thomas and Stieber (1975) Geometrical Solution
𝐶𝐸𝐶(1−∅𝑡)𝜌𝐺
[7]
𝑄𝑣 =
∅𝑡
(4)
Fertl and Chilingarian, presented the standard Shaly
clastic reservoir rocks commonly hold variable amounts

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of clay minerals. The basic properties of the most value of 100 MPa [21].
common public clay minerals vary significantly, D El Abassi, A Ibhi, et al., the scientists used an
including chemical composition, matrix density, ultrasonic reflectivity technique to measure the porosity,
photoelectric cross-sections, hydrogen index (HI), cation tortuosity, and longitudinal ultrasound velocity of
exchange capacity (CEC), potassium, thorium, and meteorites in this study. They measured the ultrasound
uranium (in present unit) [17]. reflection coefficient of the surface of polished meteorite
Mohammadhossein Mohammadlou et al., in this study, thin plates at two oblique angles of incidence and normal
reservoir clay volume is calculated using fine-grained incidence. In comparison to other existing laboratory
clastic sedimentary rocks composed of clay and pieces of procedures, determining porosity with this method is
other minerals, such as carbonates and siliciclastic. The simple, quick, inexpensive, and non-destructive. In the
NMR log is used as an easy tool to assess the veracity of analyzed meteorite specimens, they discovered a good
the shale volume estimate from gamma-ray and spectral linear association between density and porosity, as well as
gamma-ray logs (most clay minerals contain variable a good linear correlation between the logarithm of
amounts of water trapped in the mineral structure). In the porosity and the longitudinal velocity of ultrasound. This
lowermost reservoir region, the inconsistency between the suggests that the porosity of these meteorites can be
shale quantities calculated by different approaches is estimated using a simple linear mathematical relationship
substantial. SEM analysis was used to detect the based on the longitudinal velocity of ultrasonic vibrations
mineralogy and mineral volume fractions in order to solve [22].
the problem. The SEM data was used as a reference point
for calibrating the spectral gamma-ray log in order to 2.2.2. Porosity measured in the laboratory from Drilling
determine the shale volume [18]. Data

2.2. Porosity Determination methods Westbrook and Redmond, this study applied a single-
unit arrangement of capillary diaphragm. This technique
Porosity is the ratio of the pore or void volume to the provided a means to measure the bulk volume of a great
macroscopic or bulk volume, and there are many types of number of particles, such as drill cuttings. This method is
porosity. The average flux in pores is associated with the quite accurate and reduces errors present in former
bulk Darcy flux. It varies between 0.1 and 50%. The solutions to measure the porosity of drill cuttings [23].
porosity is directly measured in the laboratory by Horsund Chang et., the researchers in this study used
(collecting cuttings) or from drilling data. the Gamma Ray method to collect data from both core
and cuttings analyses. To create precise correlations for
2.2.1. Porosity measured in the laboratory by (collecting sandstone and shale porosity versus UCS and make
cutting) correlations between the UCS and porosity in sandstone
and shale lithologies [24].
Onyia, the shown relationship between UCS and Siddiqui et al., in this study, applied (histogram-based
porosity utilizes Warren's roller cone penetration rate analysis) techniques using laboratory tools to crush the
model. For this situation, the UCS is determined straight plug into cuttings with various mesh sizes to show the full
from log and drilling data. The Onyia strategy is used on a description of a carbonate core plug, and afterward, the
variety of lithologies, including both shale and sandstone cutting samples were scanned with a CT-scanner to
[19]. determine (bulk densities and porosities) [25].
Vojko Matko, the Stochastics Method was utilized to Lenormand and Fonta, in this study, the (a medical-
assess porosity; this method employs a very sensitive based CT-scan method) was re-examined and showed that
sensor with less uncertainty in measuring results and less the accuracy decreased for the cuttings with a diameter of
effect from disruptive noise signals. It is much simpler less than 2.5 mm. In order to obtain consistent porosity
than the helium pycnometer approach. Furthermore, no from cutting with the sizes down to 0.5 mm, [26].
water is placed on the material. The soil or rock sample is
instead immersed in water. Due to stability and long-term 2.3. Water saturation Determination methods
repetition, the porosity sensor employs sensitive
capacitive-dependent crystals (40 MHz with stability of 1 Water saturation dispersion is the main factor in
ppm in the temperature range of 5 to +55 °C). The direct formation evaluation. The right estimation of water
digital method (DDM) reduces the influence of saturation is required for a correct volumetric calculation,
disturbances, which reduces the uncertainty of the which is of commercial interest. Recognizing the
outcome [20]. difference between hydrocarbons and water involving the
Erfourth et al., this technique uses UCS data that has reservoir is critical. This can be done by determining the
been collected from laboratory analysis on core, cast, and water saturation in the area of interest since the whole
tuff samples to compute the porosity. The Onyia method saturation in the reservoir is 100%. The techniques that
yields much higher porosity values for low UCS sectors are used to determine the water saturation are:
than the Erfourth method, but the Erfourth method Archie, the associations of the electrical resistance of
becomes inexact for high UCS sectors. The Onyia fluids in porous media and porosity were discovered. He
correlation also becomes relatively constant at a UCS converted the analysis of well logs from qualitative

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analysis to quantitative analysis by proposing the in-situ

equations to estimate the fluid saturations. Table 1 Values
of Archies’ parameters [15].
𝑎𝑅𝑤 1
𝑆𝑤 = (
∅𝑚
)𝑛 (8)
𝑡 𝑅𝑡

Table 1. Values of Archies’ Parameter for Different

Lithologies [27]
Description of rocks a m
Weakly cemented detrital rocks, such as sand
,sandstone ,and some limestones with a porosity range 0.88 1.37
from 25 to 45 % usually Tertiary in age.
Moderately well cemented sedimentary rocks
including Sandstones and limestones, with a porosity 0.62 1.72
range from 18 to 35% usually Mesozoic in age.
Well–cemented sedimentary rocks such with porosity
0.62 1.95
Fig. 3. Hingle Plot [30]
in the range 5 to 25 %.
Highly porous volcanic rocks, such as tuff , aa ,and
pahoehoe , with porosity in the range 20 to 80 %.
3.5 1.44 Simandoux, developed a model to predict water
Rocks with less than 4% porosity , including dense saturation during the production of shaly sand. The model
1.4 1.58 was created as a consequence of laboratory tests done on
igneous rocks and metamorphosed sedimentary rocks.
a physical A reservoir model made of synthetic sand and
Dunlap, in this method found the water saturation factor clay was created in the Institute of English Petroleum
"n" can vary (from 1.18 to 2.90) based on core rock sort (IFP). the Simandoux still One of the most common
and different saturation methods [28]. models used for water saturation models and a very
Dewitte, established a means to determine water important basis for subsequent research in this field. The
saturation in dispersed shaly formations. The method Simandoux equation [29]:
known as the clay slurry model involves the clay
dispersed in the pore space with a clean sand pore 𝑎𝑅𝑤 −𝑉𝑠ℎ 𝑉𝑠ℎ 2 4∅𝑚
𝑆𝑤 = [( ) + √( ) −( )] (11)
2 ∅𝑚 𝑅𝑠ℎ 𝑅𝑠ℎ 𝑎𝑅𝑤𝑅𝑡
structure. In other words, the clay minerals in the
formations are expected to exist in a slurry with the
formation fluid. This model is given by the following Buckles, after Buckles produced this technique to
equation [29]: calculate average water saturation, he concluded that the
invention of water saturation and porosity in intervals at
1 𝑎𝑅𝑤 𝑞2 𝑞
irreducible water saturation would be a constant related to
𝑆𝑤 =
1−𝑞
(√
∅2𝑡𝑚
+
4
− )
2
(9) pore surface area [6].
Pickett's, this strategy is based on the Archie equation,
Wyllie and Rose (1950), in the numerical sense, which effectively used to predict main parameters (a and
assumed factor (M) can range between one and infinity; m) in clean formation and relies on a graphical plot to
however, it lies between (1.3 and 3.0) depending on the include resistivity at the water zone vs. porosity to
first experimental by Archie 1942 [28]. approximation factor (m) from data of well logs (Fig. 4)
Hingle, suggested the graphical solution. It is the first [33, 30].
commonly used solution to solve Archie’s equation. To
𝑅𝑤
interpret this method, use a specially designed graph log 𝑅𝑡 = −𝑚𝑙𝑜𝑔∅ + log(
𝑆𝑤 𝑛
) (12)
paper and look for the cementation exponent value, m,
where the y-axis varies with that value. the hingle plot
(Fig. 3) assume the saturation exponent and cementation
exponent both equal to 2.0 and rewrite the Archi formula
in form [30]:
1 1
√𝑅𝑡
= 𝑆𝑤
√𝑅𝑤
∅ (10)

Keller, showed that electrical resistivity experiments

treated sandstones. The research introduced the exponent
"n" range in (1.5 to 11.7) depending on how the cores
were dealt with [31].
Dobrynin, presented with a factor (m) value, it can be Fig. 4. Pickett Plot [30]
determined as a function of lithology and pressure.
Furthermore, the greatest variety in (m) relies upon the Waxman and Smith, established a dual water model
quantity of small conductivity channels in the rock [32]. depending on the CEC of shale. The (CEC) is measured
as the main shale properties. which is expressed in milli
equivalent unit pore volume of pore fluids, Qv (meq/cc).

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In a general laboratory study, a saturation resistivity approximation permeability. A Buckles plot is a plot of
relationship for shaly formation was found that linked the water saturation (Sw) vs. porosity (Fig. 5). Contours of
resistivity impact of the shale to the (CEC) of the shale. equal bulk volume water (BVW) are drawn on the plot.
(Waxman–Smits relationship) [34, 35].  Points plot on a hyperbolic BVW line where the
Morris and Biggs, the researchers in this research formation is near immobile water if the points come
reached the conclusion that the porosity-water saturation from a reservoir with consistent pore type and pore
produced was a fraction of bulk volume water, BVW. geometry.
used as a constant (often denoted as "Buckles number").  Points scatter on a Buckles plot where the formation
This constant is used not only to classify transition zones falls below the top of the transition zone [36].
from zones at irreducible saturation, but also to

Fig. 5. Buckles Constant Relates to Capillary Pressure, Fluid Distribution, Fluid Recovery and Porosity in a Reservoir
[36]

Poupon and Leveaux, the Formulated Indonesia model and the formation invasion model, the scientists in this
[37];was established to remove the limitations of other study developed a formula for calculating reservoir water
techniques in reservoir studies when determine water saturation by radial resistivity ratio under the most
saturation in laminated and shaly formations The extensive conditions. The use of radial resistivity ratios
Indonesia model was developed by field observation in can reduce the effect of reservoir lithology and physical
Indonesia, rather than by laboratory experimental property variations on water saturation calculation. A
measurement support, also does not particularly assume power function describes the relationship between the
any specific shale distribution. The Indonesian model also radial resistivity ratio and reservoir water saturation. The
has an extra feature as the only model considered the bigger the radial resistivity ratio, the better the reservoir's
saturation exponent (n). This model is given by the oil bearing; the lower the radial resistivity ratio, the worse
following equation [29]: the reservoir's oil bearing; there is a one-to-one
relationship between them. This approach is useful for
Vsh m
1 n Vsh
1− 2
∅2 evaluating low resistivity oil and high water layers [40].
= Sw 2 ( +( )) (13)
Rt √Rsh √aRw Dahai Wang, Jinbu Li, et al., the triple-porosity model
was established for determining the cementation exponent
Miyairi and Itoh, depended on the Poupon et al. model of triple-porosity media reservoirs by merging the
(1971) for shaly sands to produce a method to obtain three Maxwell-Garnett theory and the series-parallel theory,
shaly sand factors: a, n, and m. This strategy can be which corresponded with genuine physical-experiment
defined by using several crossplots, like true resistivity data of rocks.They developed a new model based on the
formation versus porosity (R, vs p) and true resistivity link between total porosity and cementation exponent m
formation versus porosity of the shaly formation (R, vs of a triple-porosity medium composite system with
cpst) [38]. various combinations of fractures and nonconnected vug
Ellis & Singer, found The value of (n) is measured from porosity. The results showed that the fractures decreased
core sample data laboratory and (n) is estimated from the reservoir's cementation exponent while the vugs rose.
slope line for resistivity index (Rt/Ro, where Ro is the Because of the mixture of matrix pores, fractures, and
water filled resistivity and Rt is the true resistivity) on a vugs, the cementation exponent of the triple-porosity
log-log scale with water saturation measurements [39]. media reservoir varied around 2.0. The cementation
Yang Kebing, Xie Li, et al., based on Archie's formula exponent proposed in the work could reasonably predict

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the cementation exponent of the strongly inhomogeneous from the Morris-Biggs gas equation [46].
triple-porosity media reservoir [41]. Gary and Fatt, investigated the influence of stress on
sandstone permeability, finding that not only rock
2.4. Permeability Determination methods permeability, but also permeability anisotropy in many
sandstones, is a function of overburden pressure, and
Typically, permeability data are obtained through permeability reduction owing to stress effect is also a
routine analysis in the field or laboratory Core analysis is function of the radial to axial stress ratio [47].
one of the most reliable techniques to determine
permeability, with the disadvantages of high cost and
time-consuming. An average value of permeability could
be obtained by well testing, which gives information on
the extension and connectivity of the reservoir. By
applying the (MDT) technique, more accurate
permeability data can also be achieved. The NMR log is
now widely used to provide a fast estimation of the
permeability profile along the wells. The most important
methods developed to measure the permeability are:
Carman-Kozeny, developed an equation to evaluate
permeability (k). The result of this calculation was a
mixing between Darcy’s and Poiseuille’s laws. Where Fig. 6. Permeability Contours Drawn on Pickett Plot of
Darcy’s law macroscopically quantifies fluid flow, Sandstone Data, Using a Wyllie-Rose Relationship with
Poiseuille’s law explains the parabolic displacement of a both Porosity and Irreducible Water Saturation [45]
viscous fluid in a straight-circular tube. The semi- Morris Biggs, using the Wyllie Rose equation, we
analytical Carman-Kozeny (CK) equation does not provided permeability equations for both oil and gas
correctly capture the permeability’s dependence on reservoirs. The permeability obtained by Morris-Biggs in
porosity because (a) this equation has been derived for a a completely gas saturated area (at irreducible water
solid medium with pipe conduits, rather than for a saturation) differs slightly from the permeability
granular medium and (b) even if a grain size is used in calculated by Timur. unlike the Timur model, presents the
this equation, it is not obvious that it does not vary with permeability equation for gas fields and does not require
varying porosity [42, 43]. correlation utilizing irreducible water saturation and
4εV 4ε εd
effective porosity of gas reservoirs [48].
Dh =
Sv
=
(1−ε)av
=
(1−ε)
(14)
∅3
𝐾 1/2 = 𝐶 (17)
Where: 𝑆𝑤𝑖

𝑎𝑣 =
𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
(15) Where, C = constant, oil =250, gas =80.
𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Timur, suggested equation to estimate permeability by
using in-situ measurements of residual water saturation
Wyllie and Rose, they proposed a modification of the and formation porosity. He tested several options in the
Carman-Kozeny equation to calculate permeability from laboratory by taking different measurements of
irreducible water saturation and formation resistivity permeability, porosity, as well as residual water saturation
factor (Fig. 6). Many assumptions about their equation are depending on 155 samples of sandstone that belonged to
made. Firstly, there is no variance between minimum three oil fields. The main constraint of this equation is the
water saturation and irreducible water saturation. fixed value of the cementation exponent (m), which is
Secondly, this value of water saturation is a linear equal to 1.5 while this parameter may have other values in
function of the grain surface. Finally, the same tortuosity specific conditions [49].
of the porous media exerts an influence on the electrical Winland, the Winland hydraulic flow unit method was
conductivity as well as on the flow of the wetting phase applied on core data and produced five groups to
fluid [44]. predicate permeability depending on pore throat size at
P∅Q
mercury saturation of 35%. used the r35 parameter, along
K=
SwiR
(16) with other petrophysical, geological, and engineering
data, to identify flow units in five carbonate reservoirs,
Where, Wyllie-Rose relationship is a generalized r35 can be computed from permeability and porosity
equation that requires the determination of values for the measurements on core samples [50].
constants P, Q, and R to be calibrated from core
measurements. log 𝑟35 = 0.732 + 0.588 log 𝑘 − 0.8641𝑙𝑜𝑔∅ (18)
Tixier, the Tixier equation generated the experimental
permeability equation by utilizing the Wyllie Rose In Fig. 7, note that at a given porosity, permeability
equation. The outcomes of the Tixier equation were increases roughly as the square of the pore throat radius.
approximately similar to the permeability calculations And for a given throat size, the dependence of

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permeability on porosity is slightly less than Φ2. discovered that the 35th percent, or 35 percent of the pore
Hartmann and Coalson also They state that r35 is a volume ("R35," where he saw the inflexion on the
function of both entry size and pore throat sorting and is a mercury injection capillary curve vs. mercury saturation),
good measure of the largest connected pore throats in a had the best correlation with the Spindle Field data (it
rock with intergranular porosity [24]. corresponds to a 0.5 m pore throat threshold value) [55].

Fig. 7. Empirical Model Based on Regression Attributed Fig. 8. Porosity Cut off [26]
to Winland [51]
Worthington and Cosentino, summarized that the cut-
off values should be "dynamically conditioned" with a
Coates and Dumanoir, from irreducible water saturation
hydraulic parameter like pore throat radius, absolute
and various types of effective porosity, an experimental
permeability, or fluid mobility [56].
relationship for the permeability estimates of average
Jensen and Menke, the accuracy and mistakes in
gravity oil reservoirs was presented[48, 52].
approximating multiple porosity cut-off values were
𝐶 ∅2𝑊 investigated using a probabilistic approach. To calculate
𝐾 1/2 = (19)
𝑊 4 𝑅𝑤
𝑅𝑡𝑖
porosity cut-off values, they used a semilog porosity vs.
permeability plot and the Y-on-X regression line. The
Where: regression line delivers the best results for estimating the
net pay, while the RMA line gives the best results for
C=23+465𝜌h-188𝜌ℎ2 and 𝑊 2 = (3.75 − ∅) + 12 (log10 (𝑅𝑤
𝑅𝑡𝑖
) + 2.2)2 NGR. [57].
Proposed Method, this method (Based on Diffusivity
Bo Shen, et al., they devised a method for assessing Equation) Diffusivity equation is designed to determine
permeability in glutenite reservoirs using well logs. This the pressure as a function of time and distance from the
technique is based on the K-C model, the geometry well for a radial flow regime of slightly compressible
equivalent parameter, and the flow porosity. Furthermore, fluids.
the authors present a method for determining flowing ∂2 p 1 ∂p ∅μc ∂p
porosity that can be employed by researchers interested in ∂r2
+
r ∂r
=
0.000264k ∂t
(20)
electrical current flow in pores. Although this method is
more difficult than the usual permeability estimation If a net pay zone has a greater flow rate in comparison
method, it produces a consistent and accurate result for to the other net pay zone, we can rank the first zone in a
glutenite reservoirs with high variability [53]. higher grade in comparison to the second one. Pressure is
an important parameter causing fluid flow in hydrocarbon
2.5. Net pay evaluation method reservoirs as it can be inferred from Darcy’s law. In the
proposed method, division of flow rate by pressure
Well net pay is an effective thickness that is important difference is introduced as an index for net pay
for determining flow units and objective intervals for well determination, after that, this index is calculated from
completions and stimulation programs. Thus, a section of diffusivity equation [8].
the reservoir with high storability (driven by porosity), Lucia, demonstrated that by plotting interparticle
high transmissivity (driven by fluid mobility, which is porosity against permeability in carbonate reservoirs (Fig.
defined as a ratio of permeability to fluid viscosity), and 9), one could derive the type of rock fabric and detect
large hydrocarbon saturation is defined (driven by water pore-size classes. Additional pore types (vuggy,
saturation, Sw), The most important methods developed dissolution-enhanced) might modify these relationships.
to measure net pay are: The permeability and porosity cut-off values should be
McKenzie, the effective pore throat size was connected defined based on these considerations. A unique
to show "producible and non-producible rock types." by permeability cut-off value based on engineering
𝐾 considerations (i.e. mainly depending on the fluid
the ratio (Fig. 8) [54].
∅
mobility) will lead to several porosity cut-off values
Kolodzie, to associate the permeability and porosity
depending on the rock fabric, i.e. the particle size [8, 58].
with a pore throat radius (r) equal to varied mercury
saturations, the Winland method was developed. He

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directly calculate water saturation values or estimate

proper rock physical properties such as shale volume,
both of which are useful in the water saturation
estimation process. These strategies make use of
artificial intelligence computational agents to
discover previously unknown non-linear correlations
between seismic properties and the reservoir property
of interest, which in this case is the water level.
4. There are two types of permeability approaches (non-
experimental and experimental). Some theoretic
methods are used in non-experimental methods to
Fig. 9. Lucia Model for Porosity-Permeability approximate the permeability, taking into account a
Relationships Based on Rock Fabric [59] fully saturated domain (Kozeny Carman), whereas
laboratory methods combine three types of
Jensen and Menke, used a probabilistic approach to classifications: capillary effects (saturated and
analyze the accuracy and errors in prediction of various unsaturated), flow regime (constant pressure and
porosity cut-off values. In the case where either constant flow), and flow direction (unidirectional and
determination of reservoir NGR and/or NP is obtained by radial); then, the mathematical model of the method
cross-plotting surrogate quantities as Sw, Vsh, and/or φ, is established, taking into account such a
investigating the errors inherent to the regression methods combination.
giving log (k) vs. φ best fit lines is crucial since the 5. The systematic use of ordinary least-squares
misuse of regression methods may lead to additional regression for determining porosity cut-off values
errors. Such statistical issues related to the selection of from permeability cut-off values may result in
porosity cut-offs based on regression lines [60]. erroneous results and does not ensure good NP and
NGR estimation. The regression line, as defined by
3- Conclusion Jensen and Menke, mathematically guesses the ideal
porosity cut-off values by the use of another line, the
The main scope of this paper is to provide a general Major Reduced Axis.
review of the development of the field of formation
evaluation and the available studies and applications to Nomenclature
solve the problem. After reviewing a fair number of
studies and papers on the formation evaluation studies the (CEC) Cation Exchange Capacity
following were made: (Φt ) Total Porosity
1. The most popular and accurate method for (𝜌g) Average Particle Density of Rock
determining shale volume is the gamma ray (single (𝜌f) Effective Fluid Density in Flushed (Invaded) Zone
clay indicator method) to calculate shale volume. (𝜌mf) A Density of Mud Filtrate
This method can be used for any formation that has (𝜌ma) A Density of Matrix
shaly layers. The factor that effects clay volume (SEM) Scanning Electron Microscopes
calculating is The hole size, which refers to a large (HI) Hydrogen Index
volume of drilling mud, has an impact on the gamma- (UCS) Unconfined Compressive Strength
ray record, and the reading can be influenced by (ROP) Rate Of Penetration
environmental adjustment. (BVW) Bulk Volume Water
2. Using drilling data to achieve modified porosity and (MDT) Modular Dynamics Tester
UCS values is beneficial in various formations. The (RQI) Reservoir Quality Index
modifications are not only applied in sandstone and (HFU) Hydraulic Flow Unit
shale formations, but the addition of gamma ray data (NP) Net Pay
permits such modifications to be possible for (NGR) Net to Gross Ratio
calculating porosity in formations of varied (N) Water saturation exponent
lithologies. They used drilling data in combination (M) Cementation factor
with the gamma ray (a better indicator) to determine (r35) The Pore Throat Radius at 35% Mercury Saturation
porosity. (K) Air Permeability
3. Water saturation factor can be computed using an (Φ) Porosity In Percent Unit
intermediate parameter such as shale volume in
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‫مراجعة لمراحل تطور الطرق المستخدمة لتقيم الخواص البتروفيزيائية‬

‫زهراء أياد مهدي * وغانم مديح فرمان‬

‫قسم هندسة النفط‪ ،‬كلية الهندسة‪ ،‬جامعة بغداد‪ ،‬العراق‬

‫الخالصة‬

‫تحليل التكوينات الجوفية بدأ تطبيقه قبل اكثر من ‪ 50‬سنة في االبار النفطية المحفورة‪ ،‬ويشمل جميع طرق‬
‫الحفر والتسجيل واالختبار وأخذ العينات بشكل عام‪ .‬حيث يتم مناقش قيساسات الجس والنتائج المختبرية ذات‬
‫الصلة بتقييم التكوينات تحت السطح‪ ،‬بما في ذلك إلقاء نظرة على عينات السوائل التي تم اخذها من هذه‬
‫التكوينات من أجل تقييم التكوينات بدقة أكبر‪ .‬لتعريف مصطلح "البتروفيزياء" مصطلح يستخدم لإلشارة إلى‬
‫فيزيائية أنواع معينة من الصخور‪ ،‬بينما تتعلق الجيوفيزياء بفيزيائية أنظمة الصخور األكبر التي تتكون منها‬
‫األرض‪ .‬علم البتروفيزيائية للصخور المكمنية هو العلم الذي يركز على دراسة الخصائص الكيميائية والفيزيائية‬
‫للوسط المسامي والعناصر المكونة للصخور المسؤولة عن توزيع المسام والسوائل المكمنية‪ .‬خالل السنوات‬
‫األخيرة‪ ،‬تم إجراء العديد من الدراسات حول خصائص الصخور‪ ،‬مثل المسامية‪ ،‬والنفاذية‪ ،‬والضغط الشعري‪،‬‬
‫والتشبع الهيدروكربوني‪ ،‬وخصائص السوائل‪ ،‬والمقاومة الكهربائية‪ ،‬والجهد الذاتي أو الطبيعي‪ ،‬والنشاط اإلشعاعي‬
‫ألنواع مختلفة من الصخور‪ .‬تُستخدم هذه الخصائص وعالقاتها لتقييم وجود أو عدم وجود كميات تجارية من‬
‫الهيدروكربونات في التكوينات التي تم اختراقها أو تقع بالقرب منها‪ .‬الغرض الرئيسي من هذا البحث هو‬
‫بناء‬
‫شيوعا المستخدمة لحساب خصائص البتروفيزياء في المختبر والحقول ً‬
‫ً‬ ‫مراجعة تاريخ تطور التقنيات األكثر‬
‫على خبرة العلماء و الباحثين في هذا المجال‪.‬‬

‫الكلمات الدالة‪ :‬الخواص البتروفيزيائية‪ ،‬هايدروكاربون‪ ،‬حجم السجيل‪ ،‬مكمن‪ ،‬تشبع مائي‪ ،‬مسامية‪ ،‬نفاذية‪ ،‬تقنيات نفطية‪ ،‬تفسير‪.‬‬

‫‪136‬‬