Asadi F. Electric Circuits Laboratory Manual 2023

Synthesis Lectures on Electrical
Engineering
This series of short books covers a broad spectrum of titles of interest in electrical
engineering that may not specifically fit within another series. Books will focus on
fundamentals, methods, and advances of interest to electrical and electronic engineers.
Farzin Asadi
Electric Circuits Laboratory

Manual
Farzin Asadi
Department of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering
Maltepe University
Istanbul, Turkey
ISSN 1559-811X ISSN 1559-8128 (electronic)

Synthesis Lectures on Electrical Engineering
ISBN 978-3-031-24551-0 ISBN 978-3-031-24552-7 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24552-7
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2023
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Preface
This is a book for a lab course meant to accompany, or follow, any first course in electric
circuit analysis. It has been written for sophomore or junior electrical and computer engi-
neering students who are taking their first lab, either concurrently with their first electric
circuit analysis class or following that class. This book is appropriate for non-majors, such
as students in other branches of engineering and in physics, for which electric circuits is
a required course or elective and for whom a working knowledge of electric circuits is
desirable.
This book has the following objectives:
1. To support, verify, and supplement the theory; to show the relations and differences
between theory and practice.
2. To teach measurement techniques.
3. To convince students that what they are taught in their lecture classes is real and useful.
4. To help make students tinkerers and make them used to asking “what if” questions.
This book contains 33 experiments which help the reader to explore the concepts studied
in the classroom. Here is a brief summary of the chapters and appendixes:
Chapter 1 introduces the commonly used measurement devices that are used during
the experiments and breadboard to the reader.
Chapter 2 studies the resistors. This chapter contains 9 experiments.
Chapter 3 studies the details of measurement with Digital Multi Meters (DMM). This
chapter contains 7 experiments.
Chapter 4 studies some of the important circuit theorems like Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
(KVL), Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL), nodal analysis, mesh analysis, and Thevenin
equivalent circuit. This chapter contains 5 experiments.
Chapter 5 studies the first order (RC and RL) and second order (series and parallel
RLC) circuits. This chapter contains 4 experiments.
Chapter 6 studies the DC and AC steady state behavior of electric circuits. Frequency
response of filters are studied in this chapter as well. This chapter contains 5 experiments.
v
vi Preface
Chapter 7 studies magnetic coupling and transformers. This chapter contains 3

experiments.
Appendix A shows how to draw different types of graphs with MATLAB® .
Appendix B reviews the concept of Root Mean Square (RMS).
I hope that this book will be useful to the readers, and I welcome comments on the
book.
Istanbul, Turkey Farzin Asadi

farzinasadi@maltepe.edu.tr
Contents
1 Commonly Used Labaratory Equipmentes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Digital Multi Meter (DMM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Function Generator (Signal Generator) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Oscilloscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6 Breadboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Reference for Further Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2 Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Tolerance of Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3 Measurement of Low Resistances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4 Measurement of Very Low Resistances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.5 Series and Parallel Connection of Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.5.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.6 Ohm’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.6.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.7 Potentiometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.7.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
vii
viii Contents
2.8 Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

2.8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.8.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.9 Thermistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.9.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.10 Observing the Current Waveform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.10.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3 Digital Multi Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2 Internal Resistance of DMM in Voltage Measurement Mode . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3 Internal Resistance of DMM in Current Measurement Mode . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.3.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.4 Test Current of DMM in Resistance Measurement Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.4.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.5 DC Component (Average Value) Measurement with DMM . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.5.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.6 RMS Measurement with DMM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.6.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.7 True RMS DMM’s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.7.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.8 Frequency Response of the AC Voltmeter and AC Ammeter . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.8.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4 Circuit Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.2 Voltage Division, Current Division and KCL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.2.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Contents ix
4.3 Nodal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

4.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.3.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.4 Mesh Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.4.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.5 Thevenin Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.5.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.6 Maximum Power Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.6.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
References for Further Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5 First Order and Second Order Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.2 Output Resistance of Function Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.2.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.3 Step Response of RC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.3.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.4 Step Response of RL Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.4.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.5 Step Response of Series RLC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.5.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.6 Step Response of Parallel RLC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.6.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6 Steady State DC and AC Analysis and Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.2 Steady State DC Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.2.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.3 Steady State AC (Sinusoidal) Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.3.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
x Contents
6.4 Series and Parallel Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

6.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.4.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.5 Low-Pass Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.5.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6.6 High-Pass Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.6.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
7 Magnetic Coupling and Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
7.2 Dot Convention in Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
7.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
7.2.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
7.3 Turn Ratio of Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
7.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
7.3.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
7.4 Coupling Coefficient of Mutually Coupled Inductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
7.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
7.4.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Appendix A: Drawing Graphs with MATLAB® . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

Appendix B: Root Mean Square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Commonly Used Labaratory Equipmentes
1
1.1 Introduction
This chapter studies the most commonly used devices in the laboratory. Measurement
devices that are used in different laboratories are made by different companies. Working
with each device has its own details. Therefore, you are encouraged to read the user
manual of devices that you will use during the experiments. Another good reference is
your laboratory instructor. Studying the reference [1] is highly recommended as well.
1.2 Digital Multi Meter (DMM)
Digital multimeters are measuring instruments that can measure quantities such as voltage,
current, and resistance. Measured values are shown on a digital display, allowing them to
be read easily and directly, even by first-time users.
Study the user manual of the DMM that you will use in the experiments. Ensure that
you are able to do the followings:
(a) Measurement of resistance.

(b) Measurement of AC/DC voltages.
(c) Measurement of AC/DC currents in the range of Amps.
(d) Measurement of AC/DC currents in the range of milli/micro Amps.
Ask your laboratory instructor to make an explanation to you if you are not able to do
one or more of the above tasks.
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 1

F. Asadi, Electric Circuits Laboratory Manual, Synthesis Lectures
on Electrical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24552-7_1
2 1 Commonly Used Labaratory Equipmentes
1.3 Function Generator (Signal Generator)
A function generator (sometime is called signal generator) is used to generate different

types of electrical waveforms over a wide range of frequencies. Some of the most common
waveforms produced by the function generator are the sine wave, square wave, triangular
wave and saw tooth shapes.
The FG’s are divided into two groups: Analog FG’s and Direct Digital Synthesis (DDS)
FG’s. As the name suggests, the analog FG’s, uses the analog circuits in order to produce
the output waveform. DDS FG’s use digital circuits (i.e. a microprocessor) in order to
produce the output waveforms. Accuracy of DDS signal generators is better than analog
signal generators.
Beside the standard waveforms (i.e. sinusoidal, square, triangular and saw tooth), some
DDS FG’s are able to produce arbitrary waveforms. These type of FG’s are called Arbi-
trary Waveform Generator (AWG). They have software which permits you to draw the
waveform that you want. After drawing the waveform in the software environment, the
hardware of AWG produces the waveform for you.
Output of function generator is connected to the circuit under test with the aid of a
cable (Fig. 1.1). Black wire is connected to the ground of the signal generator as shown in
Fig. 1.2. R1 shows the output resistance of the signal generator which is generally 50 .
Fig. 1.1 Signal generator cable

1.3 Function Generator (Signal Generator) 3
Fig. 1.2 Simple model for

signal generator
Study the user manual of the function generator that you will use in the experiments.
Ensure that you are able to do the followings:
(a) Generation of a sinusoidal signal with amplitude of 5 V and frequency of 50 Hz, i.e.,
v(t) = 5 × sin(2π × 50 × t)V .
(b) Generation of a sinusoidal signal with amplitude of 5 V, frequency of 50 Hz and
average value of 3 V, i.e., v(t) = 3 + 5 × sin(2π × 50 × t)V .
(c) Generation of a sinusoidal signal with peak value of 50 mV, i.e., v(t) = 0.05 ×
sin(2π × 50 × t)V .
(d) Generation of a triangular wave with frequency of 50 Hz and peak value of 5 V
(Fig. 1.3).
Fig. 1.3 Sample triangular

wave
(e) Generation of a pulse with frequency of 50 Hz and duty cycle of 25% (Fig. 1.4).
Fig. 1.4 Sample pulse
1.4 Oscilloscope
An oscilloscope is an instrument that graphically displays electrical signals and shows

how those signals change over time. Scientists, engineers, physicists, repair technicians
and educators use oscilloscopes to see signals change over time. These days generally
digital scopes are used in laboratory.
Study the user manual of the oscilloscope that you will use in the experiments. Ensure
that you are able to do the followings:
(a) Measurement of peak value of a signal.

(b) Measurement of period and frequency of a periodic signal.
(c) Use the cursors to read voltage or time difference between two points.
(d) Observing two waveforms simultaneously.
(e) Measurement of phase difference between two waveforms. Remember that you can
measure the phase difference between two waveform easily with the aid of ϕ =
t ◦
T × 360 formula (Fig. 1.5).
Fig. 1.5 Measurement of phase difference. B leads A by ϕ = t

T × 360
◦
1.6 Breadboard 5
(f) Explain the difference between AC and DC coupling.

(g) Explain the functionality of X1/X10 switch on the probe.
1.5 Power Supply
All the circuits require an energy source in order to work. The power supply (PS) is
responsible for providing the required energy for the circuit. The power supply takes the
AC electric energy from the grid and converts it into a DC voltage. Generally, they provide
the voltages in the 0–30 V range. Generally, the output current could be up to 3 A. The
outputs of a PS are called a “Channel”. So, when we speak about a 3 channel PS, we
mean a PS with three outputs. Generally, the outputs are variable and the user could set
them to the desired value he/she wants. Generally, PS’s have one regulated output with
voltage of 5 V. This output is used to supply digital circuits. Remember that traditional
digital circuits work with 5 V (However this voltage decreased to 3.3 V and even 1.1 V
these days!). So, it is a good idea to use this fixed 5 V when you work with traditional
digital circuits. You can connect a digital circuit to variable outputs of a PS. However,
if you increase the voltage of that variable channel by mistake, then your circuit may be
damaged. So, always use this fixed 5 V when you are working with traditional digital
circuits.
Study the user manual of the power supply that you will use in the experiments. Ensure
that you are able to do the followings:
(a) Generation of 12 V with maximum output current of 0.5 A.

(b) Generation of 12 V with maximum output current of 5 A (Use parallel mode).
(c) Generation of 40 V with maximum output current of 1 A (Use series mode).
(d) Generation of a symmetric voltage for instance +12 V and −12 V with maximum
output current of 0.5 A.
1.6 Breadboard
A breadboard is used to build and test circuits quickly. The breadboard has many holes
into which circuit components like ICs and resistors can be inserted. A typical breadboard
is shown in Fig. 1.6.
Fig. 1.6 Bread board
The breadboard has strips of metal which run underneath the board and connect the
holes on the top of the board. The metal strips are laid out as shown below. Note that the
top and bottom rows of holes are connected horizontally while the remaining holes are
connected vertically (Figs. 1.7 and 1.8).
1.6 Breadboard 7
Fig. 1.7 Connections of breadboard
Fig. 1.8 Inside of a

breadboard
Let’s study an example. Assume that want to make the circuit shown in Fig. 1.9 on
breadboard.
Fig. 1.9 Sample circuit
Let’s start from the left side. Put the resistor R1 on the breadboard (Fig. 1.10).
Fig. 1.10 Resistor R1 is added

1.6 Breadboard 9
Put the resistor R2 (Fig. 1.11).
Put the capacitor C1 (Fig. 1.12).

Fig. 1.12 Capacitor C1 is added
Put the resistor R3 (Fig. 1.13).

1.6 Breadboard 11
Connect the resistor R1 to the positive voltage rail and R2 and R3 to the negative
voltage rail (Fig. 1.14).
Fig. 1.14 Power supply connection are made
Connect the power supply to the breadboard (Fig. 1.15).
Fig. 1.15 Voltage source is added to the circuit

1.6 Breadboard 13
Measurement with cell phone

You can convert your cell phone, tablet or even your smart watch into a digital multimeter,
digital storage oscilloscope (DSO) or a logger with the aid of Pokit meter (Figs. 1.16 and
1.17) or Pokit pro (Fig. 1.18). More information can be found on https://www.pokitinno
vations.com/.
Fig. 1.16 Pokit meter
Fig. 1.17 Pokit meter

Fig. 1.18 Pokit pro
Reference for Further Study
1. Asadi F., Eguchi K., Electronic Measurement: A Practical Approach, Springer, 2021
Resistors
2
2.1 Introduction
Resistors play an important role in electric and electronic circuits. In this chapter you will
learn about different types of resistors, Ohm’ law, how to measure the resistance using
Digital Multi Meter (DMM) and how to convert a current signal into a voltage signal.
This chapter includes 9 experiments.
2.2 Tolerance of Resistors
2.2.1 Introduction
Any component used in a circuit has a tolerance. The tolerance of a component is a

measure of accuracy and indicates how much the measured actual value is different from
its nominal expected value. For instance, a resistor with nominal value of 1 k and
tolerance of 5% may have any value between 1 k × 0.95 = 0.95 k and 1 k × 1.05 =
1.05 k.
In this experiment we will study the tolerance of resistors. Let’s see how value of a
resistor is read. In big bulky resistors there is enough space to write the nominal value
and tolerance code using numbers and alphabet letters. For instance, the resistor shown in
Fig. 2.1 has nominal value of 0.47 and is capable to dissipate 5 W of heat. Therefore,
maximum value of 3.26 A can pass through the resistor. According to Table 2.1, letter J
shows that this resistor has tolerance of 5%. Therefore, actual value of the resistor may
be between 0.95 × 0.47 = 0.45 and 1.05 × 0.47 = 0.49 .

16 2 Resistors
Fig. 2.1 High wattage resistor
Table 2.1 Tolerance

Letter Tolerance associated with the letter
associated with letters
B 0.1%
C 0.25%
D 0.5%
F 1%
G 2%
J 5%
K 10%
M 20%
Using color bands is another commonly used method to show the value of resistors
(Fig. 2.2). This method is used for small non-bulky resistors. Number of color bands may
be 4 or 5. In resistors with 4 color bands, 3 bands show the value of resistor and 1 band
shows the tolerance. In resistors with 5 color bands, 4 bands show the value of resistor
and 1 band shows the tolerance. Values associated with each color code is shown in Table
2.2. It is a good idea to memorize this table.
Fig. 2.2 Value of resistor is

shown with color bands
2.2 Tolerance of Resistors 17
Table 2.2 Digits associated

Color Digit associated with the color
with colors
Black 0
Brown 1
Red 2
Orange 3
Yellow 4
Green 5
Blue 6
Violet 7
Grey 8
White 9
In resistors with 4 color bands, first and second color bands show the first and second
digits and third color band shows the multiplier. Fourth color band shows the tolerance
and usually takes the colors shown in Table 2.3. For instance, assume that third band is
green. In this case first two digits must be multiplied with 105 = 100000. Note that when
third color is gold, the first two digits must be divided by 10.
Table 2.3 Tolerance

Color Tolerance associated with the color
associated with colors
Golden 5%
Silver 10%
For instance, a resistor with brown–green–red–gold color bands shows a 15 × 100 =

1500 = 1.5 k resistor with tolerance of 5%. Actual value of such a resistor changes
from 1.5 k × 0.95 = 1.43 k to 1.5 k × 1.05 = 1.58 k. Table 2.4 shows color bands
of different resistors. In this table, for instance, 5R6 shows 5.6 , 8K2 shows 8.2 k,
330 K shows 330 k, 12 M shows 12 M and 3M9 shows 3.9 M.
18 2 Resistors
Table 2.4 Color bands for different resistors

Band 3
Band 1 Band 2 Gold Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue
Brown Black 1R0 10R 100R 1K0 10K 100K 1MO 10M
Brown Red 1R2 12R 120R 1K2 12K 120K 1M2 12M
Brown Green 1R5 15R 150R 1K5 15K 150K 1M5 15M
Brown Grey 1R8 18R 180R 1K8 18K 180K 1M8 18M
Red Red 2R2 22R 220R 2K2 22K 220K 2M2 22M
Red Violet 2R7 27R 270R 2K7 27K 270K 2M7 27M
Orange Orange 3R3 33R 330R 3K3 33K 330K 3M3 33M
Orange White 3R9 39R 390R 3K9 39K 390K 3M9 39M
Yellow Violet 4R7 47R 470R 4K7 47K 470K 4M7 47M
Green Blue 5R6 56R 560R 5K6 56K 560K 5M6 56M
Blue Grey 6R8 68R 680R 6K8 68K 680K 6M8 68M
Grey Red 8R2 82R 820R 8K2 82K 820K 8M2 82M
In resistors with 5 color bands, first, second and third color bands show the first, second
and thirds digits and fourth color band shows the multiplier. Fifth color band shows the
tolerance and usually takes the colors shown in Table 2.5. Note that when fourth color is
gold, the first three digits must be divided by 10. For instance, green–brown–black–red–
brown (Fig. 2.3) shows 51 k with tolerance of 1%.
Fig. 2.3 Resistor with 5 color bands
Table 2.5 Tolerance

Color Tolerance associated with the color (%)
associated with colors
Brown 1
Red 2
Golden 5
Silver 10
2.2 Tolerance of Resistors 19
A logical question is “How do I know which end of the resistor to start reading from?”.
Following clues help you to find answer for this question:
(A) Many resistors have some of the color bands grouped closer together or grouped
toward one end. Hold the resistor with these grouped bands to your left. Always read
resistors from left to right.
(B) Resistors never start with a metallic band on the left. If you have a resistor with a
gold or silver band on one end, you have a 5% or 10% tolerance resistor. Position
the resistor with this band on the right side and again read your resistor from left to
right.
(C) Basic resistor values range from 0.1–10 M. With that knowledge, realize that on
a four-band resistor the third color will always be blue or less and on a five-band
resistor, the fourth color will always be green or less.
The standard resistor values are organized into a set of series of values known as the
E-series. E24 series is the most commonly used series. In E24 series, all of the values
shown in Table 2.6 multiplied by 10n where −1 ≤ n ≤ 6 are available. For instance, 0.27
, 2.7 , 27 , 270 , 2.7 k, 27 k, 270 k and 2.7 M are available in this series.
E24 series has tolerance of 5%.
Table 2.6 E24 standard

1.0 1.1 1.2
resistor series
1.3 1.5 1.6
1.8 2.0 2.2
2.4 2.7 3.0
3.3 3.6 3.9
4.3 4.7 5.1
5.6 6.2 6.8
7.5 8.2 9.1
In this experiment we will learn how to read the nominal value of a resistor using
color codes and how to measure a resistor value with a DMM. We will study the effect
of temperature increase on carbon resistors as well.
2.2.2 Procedure
Prepare 100 , 1 k, 10 k and 100 k resistors. Write the color bands in Table 2.7.
20 2 Resistors
Table 2.7 Color bands of resistors under test

Nominal value Color of first band Color of second Color of third Color of fourth
band band band (tolerance
band)
100
1 k
10 k
100 k
Fill the Table 2.8 based on the tolerance band of the resistors.
Table 2.8 Maximum and

Nominal value Minimum value Maximum value
minimum values of resistors
under test 100
1 k
10 k
100 k
Use a DMM to measure the values of resistors and write them in the Table 2.9.
Table 2.9 Measured values

Nominal value Value measured with DMM
for resistors under test
100
1 k
10 k
100 k
Ensure that measured values lies between the minimum and maximum values of Table
2.8. Now keep a hot soldering iron behind the resistors for 30 s and measure the resis-
tances again. Write the measured values in Table 2.10. Compare the Table 2.10 with
values measured in room temperature. What is the effect of temperature increase on the
resistance?
Table 2.10 Measured values

Nominal value Value measured with DMM
for heated resistors
100
1 k
10 k
100 k
2.3 Measurement of Low Resistances 21
2.3 Measurement of Low Resistances
2.3.1 Introduction
DMM probes have a resistance in the range of few tenth of the Ohm. When you want
to measure low resistors (in the range of few Ohms) with DMM, the resistance of DMM
probes is added in series to the resistor under test. So, the measurement is not so accurate.
In order to have an accurate measurement, you need to subtract the probe resistance
from the value shown by the DMM. When you want to measure the big resistors (for
instance in the range k), such a subtraction is not necessary because value of the resistor
under test is quite bigger than the resistance of the probes. In this experiment measurement
of low resistors is studied.
2.3.2 Procedure
Prepare a low value resistor. For instance, a 2.2 or 3.3 resistor is good. Use the tolerance
band to calculate the minimum and maximum values of the resistor under test and call
them Rmin and Rmax, respectively.
Now connect the DMM leads to the resistor under test and measure its value (Fig. 2.4).
Call the measured value R1.
Fig. 2.4 Resistor is connected

to the DMM
22 2 Resistors
Connect the test leads together in order to measure the resistance of leads (Fig. 2.5).
Write the value shown on the display and call it R2.
Fig. 2.5 Probes are shorted together. In this figure resistance of leads is 0.4
Correct value of resistance under test is R1–R2. Calculate the R = R1–R2 and ensure
that Rmin < R < Rmax.
2.4 Measurement of Very Low Resistances
2.4.1 Introduction
Very low resistances (for instance, resistance of cables) can’t be measured with DMM.
Very low resistances can be measured with the aid of Ohm’s law: We need to pass a known
current through the resistor under test and measure the voltage drop across it. Ratio of
voltage drop to the current through the resistor gives the resistance. Measurement of very
low resistances is studied in this experiment.
2.4.2 Procedure
Prepare the circuit shown in Fig. 2.6. Value of R1 and V1 are selected such that a few
Amps pass through the wire under test. For instance, for V1 = 12 V and R = 6.8 ,
a current around 12/6.8 = 1.76 A pass through the wire (R1 power rating must be high
2.5 Series and Parallel Connection of Resistors 23
enough to withstand such a current). After passing the current through the wire, a voltage
in the range of few milli Volts is shown by the milli voltmeter. According to Ohm’s law,
the resistance of the wire under test is equal the value shown by milli Voltmeter divided
by the value shown by the Ammeter.
Fig. 2.6 Measurement of a very low resistance
If you have access to a rheostat, you can use the circuit shown in Fig. 2.7 as well. In
this figure R1 is a rheostat and permits us to change the circuit current. Don’t decrease
the value of R1 too much otherwise you make a short circuit the V1 terminals.
Fig. 2.7 Circuit current can be controlled with a rheostat
2.5 Series and Parallel Connection of Resistors
2.5.1 Introduction
You can use series and parallel connection of resistors in order to make a resistor which
is not available in the table of standard resistors. Series and parallel connection of two
24 2 Resistors
resistors are shown in Figs. 2.8 and 2.9, respectively. Equivalent resistance for Figs. 2.8
and 2.9 is R1 + R2 and R1×R2
R1+R2 , respectively.
Fig. 2.8 Series connected

resistors
Fig. 2.9 Parallel connected

resistors
Series and parallel connection of capacitors are shown in Figs. 2.10 and 2.11,
respectively. Equivalent capacitance for Figs. 2.10 and 2.11 is C1 + C2 and C1×C2
C1+C2 ,
respectively.

capacitors

capacitors
Series and parallel connection of inductors are shown in Figs. 2.12 and 2.13, respec-
L1+L2 and L1 + L2, respectively.
tively. Equivalent inductance for Figs. 2.12 and 2.13 is L1×L2
Note that there is no magnetic coupling between L1 and L2 in Figs. 2.12 and 2.13.
In this experiment series and parallel connection of components are studied.
2.5 Series and Parallel Connection of Resistors 25

inductors

inductors
2.5.2 Procedure
Prepare a 1 k and 10 k resistor. Measure the resistance of resistors with a DMM and
write the measured values. Connect the resistors in series (Fig. 2.14) and measure the
resistance between A and B. Compare the measured value with R1 + R2. R1 and R2
show the measured values for 1 k and 10 k resistors, respectively.

resistors
Now connect the resistors in parallel (Fig. 2.15) and measure the resistance between
A and B. Compare the measured value with R1×R2
R1+R2 .
If you have access to RLC meter you can verify the formulas for series/parallel
inductor/capacitors as well.
26 2 Resistors

resistors
2.6 Ohm’s Law
2.6.1 Introduction
Ohm’s law states that the voltage across a conductor is directly proportional to the current
flowing through it, provided all physical conditions and temperatures remain constant.
Mathematically, this current–voltage relationship is written as: V = R × I (Fig. 2.16).
In this equation, the constant of proportionality, R, is called Resistance and has units of
Ohms, with the symbol .
Fig. 2.16 V, I, and R, the

parameters of Ohm’s law
Ohm’s law is an empirical relation which accurately describes the conductivity of

the vast majority of electrically conductive materials over many orders of magnitude of
current. However, some materials do not obey Ohm’s law; these are called non-ohmic.
2.6.2 Procedure
Prepare a 1 k resistor and measure its value. Then make the circuit shown in Fig. 2.17.
2.6 Ohm’s Law 27
Fig. 2.17 Measurement of current and voltage of a resistor
Change the value of variable voltage source V1 in Fig. 2.17 in order to produce the
currents shown in Table 2.11. Then write the corresponding voltage readings for each
current and calculate the resistance using the Ohm’s law for each row. The calculated
resistance is almost constant.
Table 2.11 I–V data for

Value read by milli Value read by Voltmeter R = VI
resistor under test
Ampere meter (I) (V)
1 mA
3 mA
5 mA
7 mA
9 mA
11 mA
13 mA
15 mA
When current through the resistor is 15 mA touch the resistor body with your fingers.
The heat that you sense is the p = R I 2 ≈ 1k × (15m)2 = 225 mW power dissipated in
the resistor.
Now replace the resistor R1 in Fig. 2.17 with a small 12 V car lamp (Fig. 2.18). An
Ammeter is used to measure the circuit current (Note that milli Ammeter is not used).
Fill the Table 2.12. Is the lamp obeying the Ohm’s law? Is it an Ohmic conductor?
28 2 Resistors
Fig. 2.18 Measurement of current and voltage of a small car lamp
Table 2.12 I–V data for lamp

Value read by Ampere Value read by Voltmeter R = VI
under test
meter (I) (V)
1
3
5
7
9
11
13
2.7 Potentiometer
2.7.1 Introduction
A potentiometer is a manually adjustable variable resistor with 3 terminals (Fig. 2.19).

Two of the terminals are connected to the opposite ends of a resistive element, and the
third terminal connects to a sliding contact, called a wiper, moving over the resistive ele-
ment. The potentiometer essentially functions as a variable resistance divider. The resistive
element can be seen as two resistors in series (the total potentiometer resistance), where
the wiper position determines the resistance ratio of the first resistor to the second resis-
tor. If a reference voltage is applied across the end terminals, the position of the wiper
determines the output voltage of the potentiometer (Fig. 2.20).
2.7 Potentiometer 29
Fig. 2.19 A real potentiometer and its structure
Fig. 2.20 Voltage divider

made with potentiometer
You can make a variable resistor with the aid of connections shown in Figs. 2.21 and
2.22.
Fig. 2.21 First method to

make a variable resistor
30 2 Resistors
Fig. 2.22 Second method to

make a variable resistor
Method shown in Fig. 2.21 is better than the method shown in Fig. 2.22. In Fig. 2.22
we leave a pin open and that open pin can act as an antenna to absorb noise. So, if the
potentiometer plays the role of a variable resistor in a sensitive electronic circuit, it is
better to connect the unused pin to one of the side pins like Fig. 2.21.
This experiment studies the circuit shown in Fig. 2.23. Variable resistor R2 is made
with a potentiometer. When value of R2 changes, the potential of point B changes from
0 V up to 2.5 V.
Fig. 2.23 Potential of point B changes with respect to value of R2

2.7 Potentiometer 31
2.7.2 Procedure
Prepare a 10 k potentiometer (Fig. 2.24). Connect the terminal 1 and 3 (Fig. 2.24) to a
DMM (Fig. 2.25) and write the shown resistance. Compare this measured value with the
nominal value printed on the potentiometer. Rotate the potentiometer shaft and observe
that resistance shown by the DMM doesn’t change.
Fig. 2.24 Labels 1–3 are

given to potentiometer
terminals
Fig. 2.25 Measurement of

nominal value of the
potentiometer
Connect the DMM to pin 2 and 3 (Fig. 2.26). Then rotate the potentiometer shaft.
Write the maximum and minimum resistance values that DMM shows.

resistance between center
terminal (wiper) and side
terminal
32 2 Resistors
Now prepare the circuit shown in Fig. 2.27. Rotate the potentiometer and pay attention
to voltage that voltmeter shows. Write the maximum and minimum voltage that voltmeter
shows. The maximum voltage is obtained when the resistance between terminal 2 and 3
is maximum. The minimum voltage is obtained when the resistance between terminal 2
and 3 is minimum.
Fig. 2.27 Measurement of potential of point B
2.8 Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
2.8.1 Introduction
Light Dependent Resistors (LDR) or photo resistors are electronic components that are
often used in electronic circuit designs where it is necessary to detect the presence or the
level of light. Resistance of LDR is a function of the light reaches to it.
A sample LDR is shown in Fig. 2.28. Symbol of LDR is shown in Fig. 2.29.
Fig. 2.28 Real LDR

2.8 Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) 33
Fig. 2.29 LDR symbols
This experiment studies the behavior of LDR.
2.8.2 Procedure
Connect the LDR to the multimeter in order to measure its resistance (Fig. 2.30). Cover
the LDR window with your hands. This decreases the amount of light which reaches to
the LDR. Write the value which is shown by the multimeter. Now use a flashlight to
shed light onto the LDR window. Write the value which is shown by the multimeter and
compare it with the dark case.

LDR resistance
In Fig. 2.30 we used a digital multimeter to measure the resistance of the LDR. Now
we will use an indirect method to measure the resistance of the LDR. Make the circuit
shown in Fig. 2.31. Potential of point B changes with respect to the amount of light
reaches to the LDR. Cover the LDR window with your hands and measure the voltage
of point B. Use the R1R+R
LDR
× V1 = VB ⇒ R = V1V−V
B
R1 formula to calculate the
LDR LDR B
resistance of the LDR. Then shed light onto the LDR window using a flashlight and
measure the voltage of point B again. Calculate the resistance of the LDR for this case
and compare it with the previous dark case.
34 2 Resistors
Fig. 2.31 Voltage divider made with LDR
2.9 Thermistor
2.9.1 Introduction
A thermistor is a resistor whose resistance is dependent on temperature (Fig. 2.32). The

term is a combination of “thermal” and “resistor”. It is made of metallic oxides, pressed
into a bead, disk, or cylindrical shape and then encapsulated with an impermeable material
such as epoxy or glass.
Fig. 2.32 NTC type

thermistor
2.9 Thermistor 35
There are two types of thermistors: Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) and
Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC). With an NTC thermistor, when the tempera-
ture increases, resistance decreases. Conversely, when temperature decreases, resistance
increases (Fig. 2.33). This type of thermistor is used the most.
A PTC thermistor works a little differently. When temperature increases, the resistance
increases, and when temperature decreases, resistance decreases (Fig. 2.34). This type of
thermistor is generally used as a fuse.
Fig. 2.33 Behavior of NTC

type thermistors
Fig. 2.34 Behavior of PTC

type thermistors
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and ANSI symbol for PTC and NTC
are shown in Figs. 2.35 and 2.36, respectively.
36 2 Resistors
Fig. 2.35 Left: IEC symbol for PTC. Right: ANSI symbol for PTC
Fig. 2.36 Left: IEC symbol for NTC. Right: ANSI symbol for NTC
Behavior of thermistors are studied in this experiment.
2.9.2 Procedure
Connect the available thermistor to the DMM and measure its room temperature resis-
tance. Now put a hot soldering iron behind the thermistor and measure its resistance.
Based on the increase or decrease determine the type (PTC or NTC) of the thermistor.
Search the internet to find the datasheet of your thermistor and try to approximate
the temperature of your soldering iron if the datasheet showed the resistance versus
temperature graph.
2.10 Observing the Current Waveform
2.10.1 Introduction
Sometimes you need to observe a current signal. In order to be able to observe a current
signal on the oscilloscope screen, you need to convert it into a voltage signal because
oscilloscopes are able to show voltage signals only.
Let’s study an example. Assume that we want to observe the current drawn by a
computer fan from a 12 V power supply (Fig. 2.37).
2.10 Observing the Current Waveform 37
Fig. 2.37 Current I is draw by

the fan
One way to convert the current signal into voltage signal is to put a small resistor in
series with the load (Fig. 2.38). When the current pass through the sense resistor, it makes
the voltage drop Vsense = R sense × i(t) which is proportional with current pass through
it. Wattage of the Rsense must be big enough to withstand the current pass through it.
Rsense must be small enough to avoid a considerable voltage drop across it as well. This
condition helps us to ensure that nearly all the input voltage reaches the load itself.
Fig. 2.38 Rsense act as a

current to voltage converter
Conversion of current signal into voltage signal with the aid of sense resistor is studied
in this experiment.
38 2 Resistors
2.10.2 Procedure
Make the circuit shown in Fig. 2.39. Set the oscilloscope to see the voltage waveform
across the Rsense. Use Ohm’s law to measure the maximum current pass through the fan.
Fig. 2.39 Observed voltage is proportional to the circuit current
Note: If you don’t have access to a computer fan, you can use the setup shown in
Fig. 2.40. Signal generator V1 generates a sinusoidal signal with amplitude value of 5 V
and frequency of 1 kHz. RO shows the output resistance of the signal generator V1.
Voltage observed on the oscilloscope screen must be divided by 4.7 in order to obtain the
equivalent current for each instant of time.
Reference for Further Study 39
Fig. 2.40 A replacement for setup shown in Fig. 2.39
1. Asadi F., Eguchi K., Electronic Measurement: A Practical Approach, Springer, 2021.
Digital Multi Meter
3
3.1 Introduction
This chapter focused on Digital Multi Meter (DMM) which is one of the important tools
in the laboratory. This chapter shows how to measure the internal resistance of the DMM
in the voltage/current measurement mode, how to measure the test current of a DMM
in resistance measurement mode, how to determine whether the device is a True RMS
device and how to obtain the frequency response of your DMM. This chapter contains 7
experiments.
3.2 Internal Resistance of DMM in Voltage Measurement Mode
3.2.1 Introduction
The internal resistance of the ideal voltmeter is infinity since it should not allow any
current to flow through the voltmeter. Voltmeter measures the potential difference; it is
connected in parallel.
A real voltmeter has a big (usually in the 10 M range) but non-infinity internal resis-
tance. Therefore, a real voltmeter loads the circuit under measurement. In this experiment
internal resistance of a real voltmeter is measured.
3.2.2 Procedure
Prepare a 1 M resistor and measure its resistance with DMM. Then make the circuit
shown in Fig. 3.1.

42 3 Digital Multi Meter
Fig. 3.1 1 M resistor is

connected in series with
voltage source V1
Measure the voltage of node A with a DMM (Fig. 3.2).

potential of node A
Measure the voltage of node B with a DMM (Fig. 3.3).

3.3 Internal Resistance of DMM in Current Measurement Mode 43

potential of node B
Use the RVRMV+R

M
1
V A = VB ⇒ RV M = V AV−VB
B
R1 to calculate the internal resistance of
the voltmeter. RV M , R1 , V A and VB show the internal resistance of voltmeter, measured
resistance for 1 M resistor, voltage measured for node A and voltage measured for node
B, respectively.
3.3 Internal Resistance of DMM in Current Measurement Mode
3.3.1 Introduction
The internal resistance of an ideal ammeter will be zero since it should allow current to
pass through it. The ammeter is connected in series in a circuit to measure the current
flow through the circuit.
A real ammeter has a small (usually in the 0.1 range) but non-zero internal resis-
tance. Therefore, a real ammeter loads the circuit under measurement. In this experiment
internal resistance of a real ammeter is measured.
3.3.2 Procedure
Make the circuit shown in Fig. 3.4. The Ammeter in this figure is the Ammeter that we
want to measure its internal resistance.

circuit current
Prepare a separate voltmeter and measure the voltage drop across the Ammeter
(Fig. 3.5). Voltage drop across the Ammeter is in the milli Volt range. Internal resis-
tance of the Ammeter (R AM ) can be calculated using the Ohm’s law: R AM = VI . Note
that V and I show the voltmeter reading and Ammeter reading, respectively.
Fig. 3.5 Measurement of voltage drop of ammeter

3.4 Test Current of DMM in Resistance Measurement Mode 45
3.4 Test Current of DMM in Resistance Measurement Mode
3.4.1 Introduction
A DMM uses a small test current to measure the resistance of the resistor under test
(Fig. 3.6). The value of current is known. Therefore, the value of resistance equals to the
voltage drop across the resistor under test divided by the current through it.
Fig. 3.6 a A resistor R is

connected to a DMM in Ohm
measurement mode b
Equivalent circuit for (a)
In this experiment we want to measure the value of test current, i.e. the current that
pass through the resistor under test during the resistance measurement. Note that DMM’s
use different test currents for different values of resistors. This is the job of DMM’s CPU
to select the best value for test current.
3.4.2 Procedure
Make the circuit shown in Fig. 3.7. The milli ammeter measures the current through the
resistor under test. Write the current that is passed through the 1 k resistor.

current passed through the
resistor under test
Replace the resistor R1 with a 22 k resistor and pay attention to the current through
it. Is it the same as the test current used for 1 k resistor?
3.5 DC Component (Average Value) Measurement with DMM
3.5.1 Introduction
If you apply a periodic signal to a DMM in DC voltage/current measurement mode, the

DC component (average value) will be shown. Remember that DC component (average
t +T
value) of a periodic signal f (t +T ) = f (t) is defined as T1 t00 f (τ )dτ . t0 is an arbitrary
value and T shows the period.
Let’s study an example. If you apply the voltage shown in Fig. 3.8 to a DC voltmeter,
it will show 5 V. If you apply the voltage shown in Fig. 3.9 to a DC voltmeter, it will show

1 10m
2.5 V since the average value of shown waveform is 2.5 V: 10 0 f (t)dt = 5×5m10m =
2.5 V.
3.5 DC Component (Average Value) Measurement with DMM 47
Fig. 3.8 A purely DC waveform
Fig. 3.9 Square waveform
3.5.2 Procedure
Connect the function generator to an oscilloscope (Fig. 3.10) and produce the waveform
T
shown in Fig. 3.11. Average value of this waveform is T1 0 f (t)dt = 5×5m
10m = 2.5 V.
Fig. 3.10 Function generator

is connected to an oscilloscope
Fig. 3.11 Square waveform generated by function generator FG in Fig. 3.10
Open the connection between function generator and oscilloscope and connect the
function generator to the DC voltmeter (Fig. 3.12). Pay attention to the value shown by
the DC voltmeter. Compare the value shown by DC voltmeter with the average value of
the signal.
Fig. 3.12 Measurement of DC

component with DC voltmeter
Repeat the above procedure for the waveform shown in Fig. 3.13. Average value of
T 1
×10×10m
this waveform is T1 0 f (t)dt = 2 10m = 5V.
3.6 RMS Measurement with DMM 49
Fig. 3.13 Triangular waveform
3.6 RMS Measurement with DMM
3.6.1 Introduction
If you apply a periodic signal to a DMM in AC voltage/current measurement mode, the

RMS of signalwill be shown. Remember that RMS of a periodic signal f (t + T ) = f (t)

1 t0 +T 2
is defined as T t0 f (τ )dτ .t0 is an arbitrary value and T shows the period.
All of the DMM’s are able to show the RMS value of purely sinusoidal signals (i.e.,
Vm sin(ωt + ϕ)) correctly. The RMS of non-sinusoidal signals (for instance the waveform
shown in Figs. 3.14 and 3.15) is shown correctly onlyif the DMM is of “True RMS”
t +T
type. In True RMS type DMM’s, a CPU calculates the T1 t00 f 2 (τ )dτ formula. Price
of True RMS type DMM’s is higher than non-True RMS type DMM’s.

AC voltage/current measurement is studied in this experiment.
3.6.2 Procedure
Connect the function generator to an oscilloscope (Fig. 3.16) and produce the wave-
form
shown in Fig. 3.17. Note that RMS value of the waveform shown in Fig. 3.17 is
1 T
20m 1 2π
T 0 f (t) dt = 20m 0 (2sin(100π t)) dt = 2π 0 (2sin(α)) dα =
2 1 2 2 √2 = 1.41V.
2

FG is connected to an
oscilloscope
Fig. 3.17 Waveform

generated by function
generator FG in Fig. 3.16
Open the connection between function generator and oscilloscope and connect the
function generator to the AC voltmeter (Fig. 3.18). Pay attention to the value shown by
the AC voltmeter. Compare the value shown by AC voltmeter with the RMS value of
the signal. The equivalent circuit for Fig. 3.18 is shown in Fig. 3.19. Note that the 50
resistor shows the output resistance of the function generator. Since the internal resistance
of the AC voltmeter is much bigger than the output resistance of the function generator,
nearly all of the input voltage drops across the AC voltmeter. Therefore, the AC voltmeter
measures the RMS of V1.
Fig. 3.18 AC voltmeter is connected to the function generator

Fig. 3.19 Equivalent circuit for Fig. 3.18
Note: The RMS of a periodic voltage waveform can be calculated with the aid of a
“Measure” menu of digital oscilloscopes. Study the oscilloscope manual or search the
YouTube in order to learn how you can measure the RMS value with your oscilloscope.
Now replace the AC voltmeter with an AC milli ammeter (Fig. 3.20). Equivalent circuit
of Fig. 3.20 is shown in Fig. 3.21. Note that internal resistance of the AC milli ammeter
is around 0 . Therefore, waveform of the current pass through the AC milli ammeter is
similar to Fig. 3.22. RMS value of the current shown in Fig. 3.22 is 40√mA = 28.28 mA.
2
Pay attention to the value shown by the AC milli ammeter. Compare the value shown by
the AC milli ammeter with the RMS value of the current signal.
Fig. 3.20 AC milli ammeter is connected to the function generator

Fig. 3.22 Current waveform for Fig. 3.20
3.7 True RMS DMM’s
3.7.1 Introduction
RMS value of non-sinusoidal signals is shown correctly only if the measurement device is
of True RMS type. In this experiment you will apply non-sinusoidal signals to your DMM
and see whether it is able to measure the RMS value of non-sinusoidal signals correctly.
If your DMM shows the wrong value, then your device is not a True RMS type.
3.7.2 Procedure
Generate the waveforms shown in Figs. 3.23 and 3.24. RMS values of Figs. 3.23 and 3.24
are 3.53 and 5.77 V, respectively. Apply these waveforms to the AC voltmeter and see
whether or not the device shows the expected correct values. If the results are not correct,
the device is not a True RMS device.

3.8 Frequency Response of the AC Voltmeter and AC Ammeter 55
3.8 Frequency Response of the AC Voltmeter and AC Ammeter
3.8.1 Introduction
You learned that not all the DMM’s show the RMS value of non-sinusoidal signals
correctly. In this experiment you will observe one of the other limitations of an AC
voltmeter/ammeter. An AC measurement device (AC voltmeter or ammeter) is able to
measure the RMS value of signals which their frequency falls in a specific range. RMS
of signals which their frequency falls outside of this range will not be measured correctly.
The simple block diagram shown in Fig. 3.25 tries to show this concept. A real AC
measurement device is modelled as series connection of a low-pass filter and an ideal AC
measurement device. The signal pass through the low-pass filter first. Amplitude of the
signal which reaches the ideal AC meter equals to the amplitude of input signal times
the gain filter of filter at the frequency of the input. Gain of the low-pass filter shown
in Fig. 3.25 is always less than or equals to 1. Therefore, the signal which reaches the
ideal AC meter has a smaller amplitude and this cause the shown value to be less than
the correct value. For instance, when input signal has frequency of ω0 Rad
s , gain of filter

is 1jω0 = 1+1 j = 0.707, therefore, the RMS value shown by the ideal AC meter is
1+ ω0
0.707 times the correct RMS value.
Fig. 3.25 Block diagram of a real voltmeter
In this experiment behavior of an AC measurement device to different frequencies are

studied.
3.8.2 Procedure
Connect the function generator to the oscilloscope (Fig. 3.26) and generate a sinusoidal
waveform with peak value of 2 V and frequency of 50 Hz (Fig. 3.27).
Fig. 3.26 Function generator FG is connected to oscilloscope
Fig. 3.27 Waveform generated by function generator FG in Fig. 3.26

Now, put the DMM in the AC voltmeter mode and connect it to the function generator
(Fig. 3.28). Equivalent circuit for Fig. 3.28 is shown in Fig. 3.29. Since the internal
resistance of AC voltmeter is much bigger than 50 , all of the input voltage drops across
it. Change the frequency to the values shown in Table 3.1 and fill the table (Don’t change
the amplitude knob, all of the measurements must be done with a sinusoidal signal with
amplitude of 2 V). Note that the values shown by AC voltmeter decreases as frequency
increases. You can use MATLAB to draw the graph of data shown in Table 3.1 as well
(see Sect. A.7 in Appendix A).
Fig. 3.28 AC voltmeter is connected to function generator

Table 3.1 Readings of AC

Frequency Reading of AC volt meter
voltmeter for different
frequency values 50 Hz
100 Hz
1 kHz
5 kHz
10 kHz
15 kHz
20 kHz
30 kHz
40 kHz
50 kHz
75 kHz
100 kHz
√
Reading of the AC voltmeter for low values of frequency is around √2 = 2 = 1.41V.
√ 2
Increase the frequency until you observe √1 × 2 = 1V on the display. This frequency
2
is the cut-off frequency of the AC voltmeter. 2π times this frequency gives the value of
ω0 in Fig. 3.25 for AC voltmeter.
Now put the DMM in AC milli Amper measurement mode (Fig. 3.30). Equivalent cir-
cuit for Fig. 3.30 is shown in Fig. 3.31. The internal resistance of AC voltmeter is much
smaller than 50 . Therefore, the resistance seen by the function generator is around 50
2
and a current with peak value of 50 = 40 mA pass through the milli Ammeter (Fig. 3.32).
Change the frequency to the values shown in Table 3.2 and fill the table (Don’t change
the amplitude knob, all of the measurements must be done with a sinusoidal signal with
amplitude of 2 V). Note that the values shown by AC milli Ammeter decreases as fre-
quency increases. You can use MATLAB to draw the graph of data shown in Table 3.2
as well (see Sect. A.7 in Appendix A).
Fig. 3.30 AC milli ammeter is connected to the function generator

Table 3.2 Readings of AC

Frequency Reading of AC volt meter
milli ammeter for different
frequency values 50 Hz
100 Hz
1 kHz
5 kHz
10 kHz
15 kHz
20 kHz
30 kHz
40 kHz
50 kHz
75 kHz
100 kHz
Fig. 3.32 Current waveform for Fig. 3.30

Reference for Further Study 61
Reading of the AC milli Ammeter for low values of frequency is around 40√m A
=
2
28.28 mA. Increase the frequency until you observe × 28.28 mA = 20 mA on the
√1
2
display. This frequency is the cut-off frequency of the AC milli Ammeter. 2π times this
frequency gives the value of ω0 in Fig. 3.25 for AC milli Ammeter.
1. Asadi F., Eguchi K., Electronic Measurement: A Practical Approach, Springer, 2021.
Circuit Theorems
4
4.1 Introduction
This chapter studies the Kirchhoff’s laws, Nodal/Mesh analysis, Thevenin’s theorem and
maximum power transfer theorem. You will see that aforementioned tools are really
correct. This chapter contains 5 experiments.
4.2 Voltage Division, Current Division and KCL
4.2.1 Introduction
Consider the voltage divider circuit shown in Fig. 4.1. Using the basic circuit theory
V1 = R1R+R
1
2
Vin and V2 = R1R+R
2
2
Vin .
Fig. 4.1 Voltage divider

circuit

64 4 Circuit Theorems
Consider the current divider circuit shown in Fig. 4.2. Using the basic circuit theory
I2 = R2R+R
3
3
I1 and I3 = R2R+R
2
3
I1 .
Fig. 4.2 Current divider
This experiment studies the voltage and current divider circuits.
4.2.2 Procedure
Prepare three resistors with values of 1 k, 2.2 k and 3.3 k and measure their resis-
tance with a DMM. Then make the circuit shown in Fig. 4.3. Connect the negative
probe (black probe) of the DMM to the ground and measure the voltage of node A,
B and C. Compare the measured voltages with values predicted by theory: V A = 5 V,
2 +R3
VB = R1R+R 2 +R3
V A = 4.235 V and VC = R1 +RR23 +R3 V A = 2.545 V.
Fig. 4.3 V1 voltage is divided

between R1, R2 and R3
4.3 Nodal Analysis 65
Now, make the circuit shown in Fig. 4.4 and measure the voltage of node A and B
(with respect to ground). Compare the measured values with values predicted by theory:
R2 ×R3
R2 +R3
V A = 5V , VB = R ×R V A ≈ 2.85V . Calculate the I 1, I 2 and I 3 with the aid of
R1 + R2 +R3
2 3
V A −V B VB VB
Ohm’s law: I 1 = R1 , I 2 = R2 and I 3 = R3 . Verify that I 1 = I 2 + I 3, I 2 =
R3 R2
R2 +R3 I 1 and I 3 = R2 +R3 I 1.
Fig. 4.4 I1 Current is divided

between R2 and R3
4.3 Nodal Analysis
4.3.1 Introduction
Nodal analysis is a Kirchhoff Current Law (KCL) based method and it gives the voltage
of nodes to us. Let’s review the nodal analysis with the aid of an example (Fig. 4.5).
Fig. 4.5 Given sample circuit

According to the above circuit we have:

⎧
⎪
⎨ I1 = I2 + I3
I2 = I4 + I5 (4.1)
⎪
⎩
I5 = I5
This equals to
⎧
⎪
⎨
5−V A
1 = V A −V
1
B
+ V1A
V A −V B VB V B −VC
= 1 + 1 (4.2)
⎪
⎩
1
V B −VC
1 = V1C
which can be simplified to

⎧
⎪
⎨ 3V A − VB + 0VC = 5
V A − 3VB + VC = 0 (4.3)
⎪
⎩
0V A + VB − 2VC = 0
Matrix form of Eq. (4.3) is:

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
3 −1 0 VA 5
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
=
⎣ 1 −3 1 ⎦⎣ VB ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦ (4.4)
0 1 −2 VC 0
Therefore,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤−1 ⎡ ⎤
VA 3 −1 0 5
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
=
⎣ VB ⎦ ⎣ 1 −3 1 ⎦ × ⎣0⎦
VC 0 1 −2 0
This equation can be solved with the aid of MATLAB commands shown in Fig. 4.6.
Fig. 4.6 MATLAB

calculations
4.4 Mesh Analysis 67
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
VA 1.6667
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
According to Fig. 4.6, ⎣ VB ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦.
VC −0.8333
4.3.2 Procedure
Make the circuit shown in Fig. 4.7. Measure the voltage of node A, B and C ⎡ and write
⎤
VA
⎢ ⎥
them in Table 4.1. Compare the measured values with the calculated values, i.e., ⎣ VB ⎦ =
VC
⎡ ⎤
1.6667
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 ⎦. Try to find the source of discrepancy between the two sets.
−0.8333
Fig. 4.7 Measure the potential of node A, B and C
Table 4.1 Voltage of node A,

Node Voltage
B and C
A
B
C
4.4 Mesh Analysis
4.4.1 Introduction
Mesh analysis is a Kirchhoff Voltage Law (KVL) based method and it gives the current
of meshes to us. Let’s review the mesh analysis with the aid of an example.
According to Fig. 4.8 we have:
⎧
⎪
⎨ −5 + 1 × I1 + 1 × (I1 − I2 ) = 0
−(I1 − I2 ) + 1 × I2 + (I2 − I3 ) = 0 (4.5)
⎪
⎩
−(I2 − I3 ) + 1 × I3 − 5 = 0
which can be written as:

⎧
⎪
⎨ 2I1 − I2 + 0I3 = 5
−I1 + 3I2 − I3 = 0 (4.6)
⎪
⎩
0I1 − I2 + 2I3 = 5
⎡ This
⎤ linear
⎡ system ⎤ can be solved with the aid of MATLAB. According to Fig. 4.9,
I1 3.7500
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ I2 ⎦ = ⎣ 2.500 ⎦.
I3 3.7500
Fig. 4.9 MATLAB calculation

4.4 Mesh Analysis 69
4.4.2 Procedure
Make the circuit shown in Fig. 4.10 and measure the voltage of nodes A, B, C and D.
Write the measured voltages in Table 4.2.
Fig. 4.10 Measure the potential of point A, B, C and D
Table 4.2 Voltage of node A,

Node Voltage
B, C and D
A
B
C
D
Use the voltages in Table 4.2 to calculate the values of currents shown in Fig. 4.11.
−V B −VC −V D
I1 = V AR1 , I1 − I2 = VR4B , I2 = VBR2 , I2 − I3 = VR5C and I3 = VCR3 . You can use an
ammeter to measure the I1 , I2 and I3 instead of using Ohm’s law.
Fig. 4.11 I1 , I2 and I3 currents

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
I1 3.7500
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
Compare the measured values with the calculated values, i.e., ⎣ I2 ⎦ = ⎣ 2.500 ⎦.
I3 3.7500
Try to find source of discrepancy if any.
4.5 Thevenin Theorem
4.5.1 Introduction
Thevenin’s theorem states that for any linear electrical network containing only voltage
sources, current sources and resistances can be replaced at terminals A–B by an equiv-
alent combination of a voltage source Vth in a series connection with a resistance Rth
(Fig. 4.12).
Fig. 4.12 Thevenin theorem
Let’s review the Thevenin theorem with an example. Assume that we want to calculate
the Thevenin equivalent circuit for terminals A–B shown in Fig. 4.13.
4.5 Thevenin Theorem 71
We need to replace the V1 with short circuit (Fig. 4.14) in order to calculate the Rth.
1.5+1 = 390 + 0.6 = 990 .
According to Fig. 4.14, the resistance seen is 390 + 1.5×1
Fig. 4.14 Voltage source V1 is replaced with short circuit
Thevenin voltage equals to the open circuit voltage. According to Fig. 4.15, Voc =
V A − VB = VD − VB = VD . It is quite simple to show that VD = 1V . Therefore,
Vth = Voc = 1V .
Fig. 4.15 Measurement of Thevenin voltage
Thevenin equivalent circuit seen from terminals A and B are shown in Fig. 4.16.
Fig. 4.16 Thevenin equivalent

circuit for Fig. 4.13
Voltage drop across R6 in Fig. 4.13 must be around 1

1+0.99 × 1 = 0.503 V according
to Fig. 4.17.
Fig. 4.17 Addition of resistor

R6 to the Thevenin equivalent
circuit
This experiment studies the Thevenin equivalent circuit.

4.5 Thevenin Theorem 73
4.5.2 Procedure
Make the circuit shown in Fig. 4.18. Measure the voltage drop across the R6 and compare
it with the value calculated using hand analysis (0.503 V). Try to explain the reason of
discrepancy if any.
Fig. 4.18 Given circuit
We want to find the Thevenin equivalent circuit seen from points A and B. Remove the
R6 and measure the open circuit voltage difference between points A and B (Fig. 4.19).
Measured voltage gives the Vth to you.
Fig. 4.19 Measurement of voltage difference between node A and B

Now use an ammeter to measure the short circuit current (Fig. 4.20). Rth equals to the
ratio of open circuit voltage to the short circuit current.
Fig. 4.20 Measurement of short circuit current
Compare the obtained Vth and Rth values with values obtained using hand analysis.
Try to explain the reason of discrepancy if any.
4.6 Maximum Power Transfer
4.6.1 Introduction
The maximum power transfer theorem states that, to obtain maximum external power
from a power source with internal resistance, the resistance of the load must equal the
resistance of the source as viewed from its output terminals.
Note that the theorem results in maximum power transfer from the power source to
the load, and not maximum efficiency. If the load resistance is made larger than the
source resistance, then efficiency increases (since a higher percentage of the source power
is transferred to the load), but the magnitude of the load power decreases (since the
total circuit resistance increases). If the load resistance is made smaller than the source
resistance, then efficiency decreases (since most of the power ends up being dissipated in
the source). Although the total power dissipated increases (due to a lower total resistance),
the amount dissipated in the load decreases.
The maximum power transfer theorem has a close relationship with Thevenin theorem
as well. When you have a network, the maximum power is transferred to the load if the
load equals to the Thevenin resistance seen from the load terminals.
This experiment studies the maximum power theorem.
References for Further Study 75
4.6.2 Procedure
Make the circuit shown in Fig. 4.21. Use the values shown in Table 4.3 and fill it. Note
2
that dissipated power in R6 can be calculated using the VRAB6 . The 960 resistor in
Table 4.3 can be made by series connection of a 470 , 390 and 100 resistors (960
= 470 + 390 + 100 ). When dissipated power in R6 has its maximum value?
Compare this value with the Rth found in the previous experiment.
Fig. 4.21 Measurement of voltage difference between nodes A and B for different values of R6
Table 4.3 Suggested values for R6 and power dissipated in R6

Resistor R6 value 100 470 820 960 2.2 k 4.7 k 10 k 22 k
Voltmeter reading
Dissipated power
References for Further Study
1. Asadi F., Essential Circuit Analysis using Proteus, Springer, 2022.

2. Asadi F., Essential Circuit Analysis using LTspice, Springer, 2022.
3. Asadi F., Essential Circuit Analysis using NI Multisim and MATLAB, Springer, 2022.
4. Asadi F., Electric Circuit Analysis with EasyEDA, Springer, 2022.
First Order and Second Order Circuits
5
5.1 Introduction
In this chapter you will study the behavior of RC, RL and RLC circuits. This chapter
contains 4 experiments.
5.2 Output Resistance of Function Generator
5.2.1 Introduction
A function generator has a limited non-zero output resistance similar to any other source.
This experiment shows how the output resistance of a function generator can be measured.
Most of the function generators have 50 output resistance.
5.2.2 Procedure
Connect the oscilloscope to the function generator (Fig. 5.1) and generate a sinusoidal
waveform with peak value of 2 V and frequency of 1 kHz (Fig. 5.2). Equivalent circuit
for Fig. 5.1 is shown in Fig. 5.3. The input resistance of the oscilloscope (RinScope) is
much bigger than the output resistance of the function generator (RoFG). Therefore, all
of the input voltage drops across the input resistance of the oscilloscope. Write the peak
value of the voltage that you see on the scope screen and call it V p,oc .

78 5 First Order and Second Order Circuits
Fig. 5.1 Function generator is

connected to the oscilloscope
Fig. 5.2 Waveform generated

by function generator
Fig. 5.3 Equivalent circuit for

Fig. 5.1
Now, connect a 56 resistor to output of the function generator (Fig. 5.4) and measure
the peak of the waveform shown on the oscilloscope screen. Call this value V p,loaded .
Equivalent circuit for Fig. 5.4 is shown in Fig. 5.5. Equivalent resistance for parallel
connection of a 56 and a 10 M resistors is 56 . Therefore we can write RoF56 G+56 ×
V
V p,oc = V p,loaded ⇒ RoF G = ( V p,loaded
p,oc
− 1) × 56. Use this formula to calculate the
output resistance of function generator. Generally, the output impedance of the function
generators is around 50 .
5.3 Step Response of RC Circuit 79
Fig. 5.4 Connecting a 56

resistor to output of signal
generator
Fig. 5.5 Equivalent circuit for

Fig. 5.4
5.3 Step Response of RC Circuit
5.3.1 Introduction
Capacitance of an electrolytic capacitor and maximum voltage that can be applied to it

are written on the capacitor directly. For instance, in Fig. 5.6, an electrolytic capacitor
with value of 2200 µF and maximum working voltage of 16 V is shown.
Fig. 5.6 An electrolytic

capacitor
Note that terminal leads of an electrolytic capacitor are not the same: One of the
terminals has a minus sign behind it (see Fig. 5.6). This is terminal is the negative terminal
of the capacitor and it must be connected to lower potential. The other terminal (terminal
without minus sign) is the positive terminal and it must be connected to positive potential.
Otherwise the capacitor is destroyed. Symbol of an electrolytic capacitor is shown in
Fig. 5.7. Note that the negative terminal of an electrolytic capacitor is shown with curved
line.
Fig. 5.7 Symbol for
electrolytic capacitor
If you connect two electrolytic capacitors in series, you will obtain a capacitor with
lower capacitance but higher working voltage. For instance, assume that we connected
two electrolytic capacitors with value of 1 µF and working voltage of 50 V together as
shown in Fig. 5.8. Equivalent capacitor for this series connection is 0.5 µF and 100 V.
electrolytic capacitors
If you connect two electrolytic capacitors in parallel, you will obtain a capacitor with
higher capacitance but working voltage doesn’t change. For instance, assume that we
connected two electrolytic capacitors with value of 1 µF and working voltage of 50 V
together as shown in Fig. 5.9. Equivalent capacitor for this series connection is 2 µF and
50 V.

electrolytic capacitors
In ceramic capacitors, value of the capacitor is shown indirectly. Third number (from
left) shows the number of zeros that must be put in front of the first two numbers (obtained
number is in pF). For instance, in Fig. 5.10, 103 is printed on the capacitor. This means
10,000 pF or 10 nF. Terminal leads of ceramic capacitors are the same. You can connect
the higher/lower potential to either of them. Ceramic capacitors have working voltage of
at least 50 V.
Fig. 5.10 Ceramic capacitor
This experiment studies the step response (i.e., output for unit step input) of first order
RC circuit shown in Fig. 5.11. Unit step input is shown in Fig. 5.12. MATLAB’s step
command calculates the step response with zero initial conditions. Note that the 50
resistor in Fig. 5.11 shows the output resistance of the signal generator.
Fig. 5.11 RC circuit with step

input
Fig. 5.12 Unit step function
Step response of the circuit can be calculated using the commands shown in Fig. 5.13.
Output of this code is shown in Fig. 5.14.
Fig. 5.13 MATLAB code

Fig. 5.14 Output of MATLAB code
Write the KVL for circuit shown in Fig. 5.11 and use the Laplace transform to solve
the obtained differential equation in order to ensure that result shown in Fig. 5.14 is
correct.
Assume that we want to obtain the output of the circuit shown in Fig. 5.11 for signal
shown in Fig. 5.15. This time we need to use the commands shown in Fig. 5.16. Output
of this code is shown in Fig. 5.17. Note that final value of capacitor voltage is 5 V.
Fig. 5.15 Step function with amplitude of 5

You can read a point by clicking on it. For instance, according to Fig. 5.18, voltage of
capacitor reaches 3.15 V after 0.000104 s = 104 µs.
Fig. 5.18 Output is 3.15 at t = 0.000104 s
Remember that capacitor in first order RC circuit is charged up to 63% of source

within one time constant. Source voltage is 5 V and time constant is 105 µs (Fig. 5.19).
Therefore, we expect the voltage to reach 0.63 × 5 = 3.15 V within 105 µs. Figure 5.18
proves this.
Fig. 5.19 MATLAB

calculations
5.3.2 Procedure
Connect the oscilloscope to the output of the signal generator (Fig. 5.20) and generate
the waveform shown in Fig. 5.21 (Role of step signal can be simulated with the aid of a
low frequency square wave). Note that Ro in Fig. 5.20 shows the output resistance of the
function generator.


generated by signal generator
5.4 Step Response of RL Circuit 87
Connect the function generator to the series connection of the R1 and C1 and observe
the capacitor voltage (Fig. 5.22). Compare the waveform on the oscilloscope screen with
Fig. 5.18. Measure the time required to go from 0V to 0.63 × 5 = 3.15V and compare it
with the time constant (τ = (R O + R1 ) × C1 = 105μs) of the circuit.
Fig. 5.22 Square wave is

applied to the RC circuit
5.4 Step Response of RL Circuit
5.4.1 Introduction
Step response of the circuit shown in Fig. 5.23 is studied in this experiment. 50
resistance shows the output resistance of the signal generator.
Fig. 5.23 RL circuit with step

input
Output of the circuit for input shown in Fig. 5.24 can be calculated using the commands
shown in Fig. 5.25 (All of the initial conditions are assumed to be zero). Output of this
code is shown in Fig. 5.26.
Fig. 5.24 Step function with

amplitude of 5

Write the KVL for circuit shown in Fig. 5.23 and use the Laplace transform to solve
the obtained differential equation in order to ensure that result shown in Fig. 5.26 is
correct.
According to Fig. 5.27, value of time constant for this circuit is 9.5238 µs. We expect
the curve reach to 37% of its initial value after one time constant. Let’s test it. Figure 5.28
shows that after 9.47 µs the curve reaches to 0.37 × 5 = 1.85 V.
Fig. 5.27 MATLAB calculations
Fig. 5.28 Output is 1.85 at t = 9.47 µs

5.4.2 Procedure
the waveform shown in Fig. 5.30. Note that Ro in Fig. 5.29 shows the output resistance
of the function generator.


Connect the function generator to the series connection of the R1 and L1 and observe
the inductor voltage (Fig. 5.31). Compare the waveform on the oscilloscope screen with
Fig. 5.28. Measure the time required to go from 5V to 5 − 0.63 × 5 = 1.85V and compare
it with the time constant (τ = R OL+R
1
1
) of the circuit.
Fig. 5.31 Square wave is applied to the RC circuit
5.5 Step Response of Series RLC Circuit
5.5.1 Introduction
Step response of the circuit shown in Fig. 5.32 is studied in this experiment. 50
resistance shows the output resistance of the signal generator.
Fig. 5.32 RLC circuit with step input

5.5 Step Response of Series RLC Circuit 93
Output of the circuit for input shown in Fig. 5.33 can be calculated using the commands
shown in Fig. 5.34 (All of the initial conditions are assumed to be zero). Output of this
code is shown in Fig. 5.35. The response shown in Fig. 5.35 is underdamped. Response
is critically damped for R1 = 2 CL = 632.455 . Write the KVL for circuit shown in
Fig. 5.32 and use the Laplace transform to solve the obtained differential equation in
order to ensure that result shown in Fig. 5.35 is correct.
Fig. 5.33 Step function with amplitude of 5

Let’s study the behavior of the circuit for R1 = 680 as well. Input signal is the
same as Fig. 5.33. The code shown in Fig. 5.36 analyze the behavior of the circuit for
R1 = 680 . Output of this code is shown in Fig. 5.37. The response shown in Fig. 5.37
is overdamped.

5.5.2 Procedure


Connect the function generator to the series connection of the R1, L1 and C1 and
observe the capacitor voltage (Fig. 5.40). Compare the waveform on the oscilloscope
screen with Fig. 5.35. For instance, measure the maximum of the waveform and compare
it with maximum of Fig. 5.35. Try to find the reason if there is a discrepancy.
Fig. 5.40 Square wave is

applied to the RC circuit
Change the resistor to 680 (Fig. 5.41) and repeat the experiment. Compare the
obtained response with Fig. 5.37. Try to find the reason if there is a discrepancy.
Fig. 5.41 R1 is changed to

680
5.6 Step Response of Parallel RLC Circuit
5.6.1 Introduction
Step response of a parallel RLC circuit is studied in this experiment. Consider the circuit
shown in Fig. 5.42. V1 shows a step voltage with amplitude of 5 V (Fig. 5.43).
Fig. 5.42 Parallel RLC circuit
Fig. 5.43 Step function with

amplitude of 5
5.6 Step Response of Parallel RLC Circuit 99
Using the source transformation theorems, the voltage source V1 and resistors Rin and
5
R1 can be replaced with a current source with value of 50+56 = 47.2 mA and a parallel
resistor with value of 50 + 56 = 106 (Fig. 5.44).
Fig. 5.44 Equivalent circuit

for Fig. 5.42
Let’s use MATLAB to obtain the step response of the circuit shown in Fig. 5.44.
MATLAB code shown in Fig. 5.45 draws the waveform of capacitor voltage. Output of
this code is shown in Fig. 5.46.
Fig. 5.45 MATLAB code (Z is the impedance seen by the I1)

5.6.2 Procedure
5.6 Step Response of Parallel RLC Circuit 101


Connect the function generator to the rest of the circuit (Fig. 5.49). Equivalent circuit
for Fig. 5.49 is shown in Fig. 5.50. Observe the capacitor voltage and compare the wave-
form on the oscilloscope screen with Fig. 5.46. For instance, measure the maximum of
the waveform and compare it with maximum of Fig. 5.46. Try to find the reason if there
is a discrepancy.
Fig. 5.50 Equivalent circuit

for parallel RLC circuit

Steady State DC and AC Analysis and Filters
6
6.1 Introduction
This chapter studies the DC and AC steady state behavior of electric circuits. Frequency
response of filters are studies as well. This chapter contains 5 experiments.
6.2 Steady State DC Analysis
6.2.1 Introduction
Steady state behavior of inductor and capacitor in DC circuits is studied in this exper-
iment. In DC steady state, inductors act like short circuit and capacitors act like open
circuit.
Let’s study an example. Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 6.1.
Fig. 6.1 Sample circuit
104 6 Steady State DC and AC Analysis and Filters
DC steady state equivalent of Fig. 6.1 is shown in Fig. 6.2. Therefore, in DC steady
state, the current drawn from the source will be 0 and potential of point A, B and C will
be 5 V.
Fig. 6.2 Equivalent DC steady

state model for Fig. 6.1
6.2.2 Procedure
Make the circuit shown in Fig. 6.3. Measure the voltage of points A, B and C. Voltage of
node C gives the steady state capacitor voltage. Steady state current through the inductor
−V B
can be calculated using I L = V AR1 . Compare the steady state current/voltage values
with values predicted by theory.
Fig. 6.3 Simple RLC circuit

6.3 Steady State AC (Sinusoidal) Analysis 105
6.3 Steady State AC (Sinusoidal) Analysis
6.3.1 Introduction
−j
Impedance of inductors and capacitors equals to j Lω and Cω , respectively. Let’s review
the steady state sinusoidal analysis with two examples.
Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 6.4 as our first example. RO shows the output
resistance of the signal generator. We want to measure the phase difference between
voltage of node B and A. Resistor R1 and capacitor C1 make a simple voltage divider
−j
C1 ω
circuit. So, VB = V A . For instance, for ω = 2π × 1000 = 6283.2 Rad
s and values
R1 + C− jω
1
−j
− j1.5915k ◦
shown in Fig. 6.4, VB = C1 ω
VA = 1k− j1.5915k V A = 0.8467e− j32.143 V A . Therefore,
R1 + C− jω
1
peak value of voltage of node B equals to 0.8467 times peak value of voltage of node A.
Voltage of node B lags voltage of node A by 32.143°.
Fig. 6.4 RC circuit with sinusoidal input

Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 6.5 as our second example. Again, RO shows the
output resistance of the signal generator. We want to measure the phase difference between
voltage of node B and A. Resistor R1 and inductor L1 make a simple voltage divider
circuit. So, VB = R1 j+Lj1Lω ω V A . For instance, for ω = 2π × 1000 = 6283.2 Rad
s and values
1
◦
shown in Fig. 6.5, VB = R1 j+Lj1Lω1 ω V A = 1k+
j62.832
j62.832 V A = 0.0627e
j86.4351 V . Therefore,
A
peak value of voltage of node B equals to 0.0627 times peak value of voltage of node A.
Voltage of node B leads voltage of node A by 86.4351°.
Fig. 6.5 RL circuit with sinusoidal input
6.3.2 Procedure
Make the circuit shown in Fig. 6.6. Ro shows the output resistance of the function gen-
erator. Generate the frequencies shown in Table 6.1 and fill the table. Amplitude of input
voltage is 2 V in all of the measurements.
6.3 Steady State AC (Sinusoidal) Analysis 107
Fig. 6.6 RC circuit with sinusoidal input
Table 6.1 Steady state behavior of RC circuit shown in Fig. 6.6

Frequency 1 kHz 2 kHz 3 kHz 4 kHz 5 kHz
Peak value of Channel B
Phase difference between Channel B and A
Now change the circuit to what shown in Fig. 6.7 and fill the Table 6.2.
Compare the measured values (Tables 6.1 and 6.2) with values predicted by theory.
Fig. 6.7 RL circuit with sinusoidal input
Table 6.2 Steady state behavior of RL circuit shown in Fig. 6.7

Peak value of Channel B
Phase difference between Channel B and A
6.4 Series and Parallel Resonance
6.4.1 Introduction
In this experiment resonance of series and parallel RLC circuits are studied. Let’s start
with the series RLC circuit. Consider the series RLC circuit shown in Fig. 6.8. 50
resistor shows the output resistance of the function generator.
6.4 Series and Parallel Resonance 109
Fig. 6.8 Series RLC circuit
The impedance seen by input source V1 in Fig. 6.8 is Ro + R1 + j L 1 ω +

−j
C1 ω . Magnitude of Ro + R1 + j L 1 ω + C1 ω equals to Ro + R1 + j L 1 ω + C−1 ωj =
−j

1 2 −j
(Ro + R1 )2 + (L 1 ω − C1 ω ) . When ω = √ 1 ,
L 1 C1
j L 1ω + C1 ω = 0 and the impedance
seen by input source is purely resistive with value of Ro + R1 . At ω = √ L1 C the
1 1
impedance has minimum value, therefore the current drawn from the source is maximum.
Resonance frequency of circuit shown in Fig. 6.8 is 5.0329 kHz (Fig. 6.9).

Let’s measure the capacitor’s peak

voltage at f = 5.0329
kHz.
− jCapacitor’s
peak voltage
−j Cω
can be calculated with the aid of C 1 ω V1 = 1 V1 = 1
(Ro +R1 )C 1 ω V1 .
Ro +R1 + j L 1 ω− C j ω Ro +R1
1
Capacitor’s peak voltage is around 6.3246 V according to Fig. 6.10. Note that at resonant
frequency, peak of capacitor (or inductor) voltage is bigger than peak of input source.
Now consider the parallel resonant circuit shown in Fig. 6.11. RL1 shows the resistance
of the inductor. RL1 is assumed to be 0.1 .
V ( jω)
The MATLAB code shown in Fig. 6.12 draws the frequency response of VC11( jω) .
Output of this code is shown in Fig. 6.13. Maximum of Magnitude (dB) graph occurs
at the resonant frequency. The Magnitude (dB) graph is used to determine the resonant
frequency.

Note that in Fig. 6.13, the horizontal axis is in Rad/s. Let’s change it into Hz. Right
click on the graph and click the Properties (Fig. 6.14). This opens the window shown in
Fig. 6.15.
Fig. 6.14 A menu appears when you right click on the graph
Fig. 6.15 Property Editor window

Go to the Units tab and change the Frequency to Hz and click the Close button
(Fig. 6.16). Now the horizontal axis is in Hz (Fig. 6.17).
Fig. 6.16 Hz is selected for Frequency drop down list

Fig. 6.17 Horizontal axis has unit of Hz
Add a cursor to the magnitude graph by clicking on it. Move the cursor to find the
maximum of the graph. Maximum of magnitude graph occurs at 5.04 kHz with value of
−0.00089 dB according to Fig. 6.18. −0.00089 dB equals to gain of 0.9999 (Fig. 6.19).
V ( j2π ×5040)
Therefore, VC11( j2π ×5040) = 0.9999.
Fig. 6.18 Finding the maximum of Magnitude (dB) graph
Fig. 6.19 Conversion of −0.00089 dB to normal gain

V ( jω)
Figure 6.20 shows the frequency response of VC11( jω) for RL1 = 1 . This time the
maximum occurs at 5.07 kHz with value of −0.00865
dB. −0.00865
dB equals to gain
−0.00865 VC1 ( j2π ×5070)
of 10 20 = 0.9990. Therefore, in this case V1 ( j2π×5070) = 0.9990.
Fig. 6.20 Frequency response for RL1 = 1
6.4.2 Procedure
Make the circuit shown in Fig. 6.21. Note that Ro shows the output resistance of the func-
tion generator V1. Change the frequency of the V1 until Channel A waveform reaches its
minimum and Channel B waveform reaches its maximum. Write the value of frequency.
This is the resonance frequency of the circuit. Measure the peak value of capacitor voltage
and compare it with the value calculated in Fig. 6.10.
Fig. 6.21 Series RLC circuit
Now, measure the inductor resistance (RL1 in Fig. 6.11) and make the circuit shown
in Fig. 6.22. Change the frequency until the waveform shown on the oscilloscope screen
reaches its maximum. Write the resonance frequency and peak value of Channel A
waveform and compare it with the values predicted by theory, i.e. MATLAB code.

6.5 Low-Pass Filter 119
6.5 Low-Pass Filter
6.5.1 Introduction
A low-pass filter is a circuit that passes signals with a frequency lower than a selected
cutoff frequency and attenuates signals with frequencies higher than the cutoff frequency.
In analysis of filter circuits Laplace domain (s domain) circuit analysis is a valuable
tool. It permits us to obtain the transfer function ( LL(output)
(input) ) of the filter.
Let’s study an example. The circuit shown in Fig. 6.23 is a low-pass filter (RO shows
the output resistance of the signal generator). In Laplace domain circuit analysis, capacitor
1
C is replaced with impedance of Cs . Therefore, the transfer function of circuit shown in
1
V B (s)
Fig. 6.23 will be VB (s) = C1 s
V A (s) = R1 C1 s+1 V A (s)
1
= 0.0001s+1 V A (s)
1
⇒ V A (s) =
R1 + C1 s
1
1
0.0001s+1 .
Fig. 6.23 Low-pass RC filter
(s)
Frequency response of VVBA (s) = 0.0001s+1
1
can be drawn with the aid of the code shown
in Fig. 6.24. Output of this code is shown in Fig. 6.25. Note that the Magnitude (dB)
graph decreases as frequency increases. This shows that the filter is low-pass.

Cut-off frequency is defined as the frequency which pass band gain decrease by 3 dB.
According to Fig. 6.26, the pass band gain is around 0 dB. You can calculate the pass
band gain of a low-pass filter by putting s = 0 into the transfer function as well. If we
(s)
put s = 0 into the VVBA (s) = 0.0001s+1
1
, the result will be 1. The dB equivalent of 1 is
20log(1) = 0 dB.
Rad
According to Fig. 6.26, the gain reaches to −3 dB at around 1.01×104 s ≈ 1.608 kHz.
Therefore, the cut-off frequency of this filter is 1.608 kHz. This filter passes the
frequencies less than 1.608 kHz, i.e. [0, 1.608 kHz].
Fig. 6.26 Magnitude graph decreases to −3 dB around 10.1 kRad/s
In the code shown in Fig. 6.24 we had no control over the range of the drawn graph.
The code shown in Fig. 6.27 draws the frequency response for [100 Hz, 10 kHz] range
(Fig. 6.28).

You can change the unit of horizontal axis from Rad/s to Hz. with the aid of the
technique shown in Sect. 6.4.
Let’s study another example. The circuit shown in Fig. 6.29 is a low-pass filter as
well. In Laplace domain circuit analysis, inductor L is replaced with impedance of Ls.
R1
The transfer function of circuit shown in Fig. 6.29 will be VB (s) = R1 +L 1s
V A (s) =
(s)
1k
⇒ VVBA (s)
0.01s+1k V A (s) = 0.01s+1000
1000
. You can draw the frequency response of this filter
and measure its cut-off frequency with MATLAB.
Fig. 6.29 Low-pass RL filter
6.5.2 Procedure
Make the circuit shown in Fig. 6.30 and fill the Table 6.3. Note that Ro shows the output
resistance of function generator. Use MATLAB to draw the frequency response graph
(i.e. graph of Peak of Channel B
Peak of Channel A vs. frequency) and ensure that the circuit is a low-pass filter.
You can use the Sect. A.7 of Appendix A if you don’t know how to draw the frequency
response graph with MATLAB.
Fig. 6.30 Low-pass RC filter
Table 6.3 Frequency response for circuit shown in Fig. 6.30

Frequency 50 Hz 100 Hz 300 Hz 500 Hz 700 Hz 900 Hz
Peak of Channel B
Peak of Channel A
PeakofChannelB
PeakofChannelA
Frequency 1100 Hz 1300 Hz 1500 Hz 1600 Hz 1700 Hz
Peak of Channel B
Peak of Channel A
PeakofChannelB
PeakofChannelA
Now change the circuit to what shown in Fig. 6.31. Fill the Table 6.4 and use MATLAB
to draw the frequency response graph (i.e. graph of Peak of Channel B
Peak of Channel A vs. frequency).
6.6 High-Pass Filter 125
Fig. 6.31 Low-pass RL filter

Frequency 50 Hz 500 Hz 1 kHz 5 kHz 10 kHz 15.9 kHz 20 kHz 25 kHz 30 kHz
Peak of Channel
B
Peak of Channel
A
Peak of Channel B
Peak of Channel A
The frequency which Peak of Channel B

Peak of Channel A = 2 = 0.707 is called cut-off frequency of filter.
√1
In this experiment peak value of Channel A is around 2 V. So, we need to change the
frequency until peak value of Channel B is around 1.41 V. Use this technique to measure
the cut-off frequency of studied low-pass filters.
6.6 High-Pass Filter
6.6.1 Introduction
A high-pass filter is a circuit that passes signals with a frequency higher than a selected
cutoff frequency and attenuates signals with frequencies lower than the cutoff frequency.
Let’s study an example. The circuit shown in Fig. 6.32 is a high-pass filter (RO shows
the output resistance of the signal generator). The transfer function of the circuit shown
R1 R1 C 1 s V B (s)
in Fig. 6.32 is VB (s) = 1 V A (s) = R1 C 1 s+1 V A (s) = 0.0001s+1 V A (s) ⇒ V A (s) =
0.0001s
R1 + C
1s
0.0001s
0.0001s+1 .
Fig. 6.32 High-pass RC filter
(s)
Frequency response of VVBA (s) = 0.0001s+1
0.0001s
can be drawn with the aid of the code shown
in Fig. 6.33. Output of this code is shown in Fig. 6.34. Note that the Magnitude (dB)
graph decreases as frequency decreases. This shows that the filter is high-pass.

The pass band gain of high-pass filters can be approximated by studying the behavior of
(s)
the transfer function as s goes toward infinity. For VVBA (s) = 0.0001s+1
0.0001s
, lim ( 0.0001s+1
0.0001s
)=1
s→∞
and dB equivalent of 1 is 20 × log10(1) = 0 dB.
Similar to the low-pass filter, the cut-off frequency is defined as the frequency which
pass band gain decrease by 3 dB. The pass band gain is around 0 dB. According to
Rad
Fig. 6.35, the gain reaches to −3 dB at around 1 × 104 s ≈ 1.592 kHz. Therefore, the
cut-off frequency of this filter is 1.592 kHz. This filter passes the frequencies bigger than
1.592 kHz, i.e. [1.592 kHz, ∞].
Fig. 6.35 Magnitude graph is −3 dB at 10 kRad/s
Let’s study another example. The circuit shown in Fig. 6.36 is a high-pass filter as
well. The transfer function of circuit shown in Fig. 6.36 will be VB (s) = R1L+L
1s
1s
V A (s)
V B (s)
= 0.01s+1k V A (s)
0.01s
⇒ V A (s) = 0.01s
0.01s+1000 .
Fig. 6.36 High-pass RL filter
Let’s draw the frequency response of circuits shown in Figs. 6.32 and 6.36 on the same
graph. This permits us to compare the two graph easily. The code shown in Fig. 6.37 do
this for us. Output of this code is shown in Fig. 6.38. According to Fig. 6.38, the circuit
shown in Fig. 6.32 (RC circuit) has a lower cut-off frequency in comparison to the circuit
shown in Fig. 6.36 (RL circuit).

6.6.2 Procedure
Make the circuit shown in Fig. 6.39 and fill the Table 6.5. Note that Ro shows the output
resistance of function generator. Use MATLAB to draw the frequency response graph
(i.e. graph of Peak of Channel B
Peak of Channel A vs. frequency) and ensure that the circuit is a high pass filter.
You can use the section A.7 of Appendix A if you don’t know how to draw the frequency
response graph with MATLAB.
Fig. 6.39 High-pass RC filter

Frequency 150 Hz 1.5 kHz 1.6 kHz 2 kHz 4 kHz 6 kHz
Peak of Channel B
Peak of Channel A
Peak of Channel B
Peak of Channel A
Peak of Channel B
Peak of Channel A
PeakofChannelB
PeakofChannelA
Now change the circuit to what shown in Fig. 6.40. Fill the Table 6.6 and use MATLAB
to draw the frequency response graph (i.e. graph of Peak of Channel B
Peak of Channel A vs. frequency).
Use the technique studied in previous experiment to measure the cut-off frequency of
filters.
Fig. 6.40 High-pass RL filter

Frequency 500 Hz 5 kHz 10 kHz 15 kHz 15.9 kHz 20 kHz 25 kHz 30 kHz
Peak of Channel B
Peak of Channel A
Peak of Channel B
Peak of Channel A

Magnetic Coupling and Transformers
7
7.1 Introduction
This chapter studies the magnetic coupling and transformers. This chapter contains 3
experiments.
7.2 Dot Convention in Transformers
7.2.1 Introduction
For an ideal transformer with two windings (Fig. 7.1), the dot convention indicates the
polarity of the windings.
Fig. 7.1 An ideal transformer
For voltage, when the excitation of one winding is at a positive maximum with respect to
the dot, the voltage on the second winding will be at a positive maximum with respect to
the dot. For current flow, the transformer obeys the law of conservation of power. Current
flowing into the dot of one winding will cause a current to flow out of the dot on the
other winding provided the transformer is transmitting a power flow.
134 7 Magnetic Coupling and Transformers
Assume that the transformer shown in Fig. 7.2 is given to you. In this experiment we
want to find the location of dots.
Fig. 7.2 Location of dots are

not known
7.2.2 Procedure
Use a signal generator to generate a sinusoidal signal with maximum amplitude and fre-
quency of 50 or 60 Hz. Connect the signal generator to primary windings and connect
one of the secondary windings to ground (Fig. 7.3). Internal resistance of signal generator
V1 is not shown in Fig. 7.3.
Fig. 7.3 Signal generator V1

is connected to the primary of
the transformer
Connect the point A and C to an oscilloscope (Fig. 7.4) and pay attention to the
phase difference between Channel A and B waveforms. Before connecting the node C to
channel B of oscilloscope, use a √DMM and measure the RMS value of voltage of node
C. Multiply the read value with 2 = 1.41 in order to find the peak value of voltage
of node C. Ensure that this value is less than the maximum voltage that oscilloscope can
handle safely.
7.2 Dot Convention in Transformers 135
Fig. 7.4 Voltage of nodes A

and C are monitored with an
oscilloscope
If 180° of phase difference exist between the two channels (Fig. 7.5), then the location
of dots is similar to Fig. 7.6.
Fig. 7.5 180° of phase

difference exists between the
two waveforms
Fig. 7.6 Location of dots for

case shown in Fig. 7.5
If there is no phase difference between the waveforms of the two channels (Fig. 7.7),
then the location of the dots is similar to Fig. 7.8.
Fig. 7.7 The two waveforms

are in phase
Fig. 7.8 Location of dots for

case shown in Fig. 7.7
7.3 Turn Ratio of Transformer
7.3.1 Introduction
I
The voltage and current ratio of an ideal transformer is VVsp = Isp = NNsp , where Vs =
secondary voltage, Is = secondary current, V p = primary voltage, I p = primary current,
Ns = number of turns in the secondary winding and N p = number of turns in the primary
winding.
In this experiment the technique to measure the turns ratio of a transformer is studied.
7.3.2 Procedure
Generate a sinusoidal signal with maximum amplitude and frequency of 50 or 60 Hz.

Connect the signal generator to primary windings and leave the secondary open (Fig. 7.9).
Internal resistance of signal generator V1 is not shown in Fig. 7.9. Use an AC voltmeter
to measure the RMS of primary voltage. Call the measured value V1.
Fig. 7.9 Signal generator V1 is connected to primary winding
Now measure the RMS value of the secondary voltage (Fig. 7.10). Call the measured
value V2. You can calculate the turn ratio with the aid of VV 21 = N 2
N1 .
7.4 Coupling Coefficient of Mutually Coupled Inductors 137
Fig. 7.10 AC voltmeter measures the secondary winding’s voltage
7.4 Coupling Coefficient of Mutually Coupled Inductors
7.4.1 Introduction
In Fig. 7.11 two coupled inductors are connected together using the aiding method. Equiv-
alent inductance for this connection is L eq = L 1 + L 2 + 2M, where L 1 , L 2 and M shows
self-inductance of left coil, self-inductance of right coil and mutual inductance between
the two coils, respectively.
Fig. 7.11 Equivalent inductance is L eq = L 1 + L 2 + 2M
In Fig. 7.12 two coupled inductors are connected together using the opposing method.
Equivalent inductance for this connection is L eq = L 1 + L 2 − 2M. Definition of L 1 , L 2
and M is similar to Fig. 7.11.
Fig. 7.12 Equivalent inductance is L eq = L 1 + L 2 − 2M
The coefficient of coupling is defined as k = √M .

L1 L2
If you connect the coils like
L 1 L 2 −M 2
Figs. 7.13 and 7.14, then the equivalent inductance will be L eq = L 1 +L 2 −2M and L eq =
L1 L2 −M 2
L 1 +L 2 +2M , respectively.
Fig. 7.13 Equivalent

inductance is
L 2 −M 2
L eq = LL 1+L −2M
1 2
Fig. 7.14 Equivalent

inductance is
L 2 −M 2
L eq = LL 1+L +2M
1 2
7.4.2 Procedure
Prepare a coupled inductor (Fig. 7.15) or a transformer (Fig. 7.16). We want to mea-
sure the coupling coefficient between the two coils shown in Fig. 7.15 or primary and
secondary windings shown in Fig. 7.16.
Fig. 7.15 Two magnetically coupled inductors
Fig. 7.16 Transformer
Connect the RLC meter to the left coil/primary winding (wire A and B in Figs. 7.15
and 7.16) and leave the right coil/secondary winding open. Write the value shown by the
RLC meter and call it L1 .
Connect the RLC meter to the right coil/secondary winding (wire C and D in Figs. 7.15
and 7.16) and leave the left coil/primary open. Write the value shown by the RLC meter
and call it L2 .
7.4 Coupling Coefficient of Mutually Coupled Inductors 139
Connect one of the left coil/primary winding terminals to one of the right
coil/secondary windings terminals. The connected two terminals are not important. For
instance, all of the connections shown in Figs. 7.17, 7.18, 7.19 and 7.20 are acceptable.
Connect the RLC meter to the remaining two terminals (A and C in Figs. 7.18 and 7.20
and A and D in Figs. 7.17 and 7.19). Write the value shown by the RLC meter and call
it Leq .
Fig. 7.17 Terminals B and C are connected together
Fig. 7.18 Terminals B and D

are connected together
Fig. 7.19 Terminals B and C

Fig. 7.20 Terminals B and D

Compare the Leq with L1 + L2 . If Leq > L1 + L2 then use the Leq = L1 + L2 +
√ L −L −L
2k L 1 L 2 ⇒ k = eq2√ L 1 L 2 to calculate the coupling coefficient. If Leq < L1 + L2
1 2
√ L +L −L
then use the Leq = L1 + L2 − 2k L 1 L 2 ⇒ k = 12√ L2 L eq to calculate the coupling
1 2
coefficient.
When Leq > L1 + L2 you make the connection similar to Figs. 7.18 or 7.19. When
Leq < L1 + L2 you make the connection similar to Figs. 7.17 or 7.20.

Appendix A: Drawing Graphs with MATLAB®
A.1 Introduction
This appendix shows how to draw different types of graphs with MATLAB.
A.2 fplot Command
Assume that you want to draw the graph of sin(x) for [0, 2π ] interval. The commands
shown in Fig. A.1 do this job for you. Output of this code is shown in Fig. A.2.
Fig. A.1 fplot command can

be used to draw symbolic
expressions
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license 141
to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023
on Electrical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24552-7
142 Appendix A: Drawing Graphs with MATLAB®
Fig. A.2 Output of code in Fig. A.1
You click on any point in order to read its coordinate (Fig. A.3).
Appendix A: Drawing Graphs with MATLAB® 143
Fig. A.3 Reading the points on the graph
A.3 Plotting the Graph of a Numeric Data
In the previous section you learned how to draw the graph of a symbolic function. In this
section we learn how to draw the graph of a numeric data. Plotting the graph of a numeric
data is very simple in MATLAB. You need to use the plot command.
Let’s make a numeric data (Fig. A.4).
Fig. A.4 Making a simple

sample data
The plot command shown in Fig. A.5 draws the graph of the numeric data. Output of
this code is shown in Fig. A.6.
Fig. A.5 Drawing the graph of a numeric data with plot command

You can add the operators shown in Tables A.1, A.2 and A.3 to produce more custom
plots.
Table A.1 Types of lines

MATLAB command Type of line
- Solid
: Dotted
-. Dashdot
-- Dashed
Table A.2 Colors

MATLAB command Color
r Red
g Green
b Blue
c Cyan
m Magenta
y Yellow
k Black
w White
Table A.3 Plot symbols

MATLAB command Plot symbol
. Point
+ Plus
* Star
O Circle
X x-mark
s Square
d Diamond
v Triangle (down)
^ Triangle (up)
< Triangle (left)
> Triangle (right)
Let’s study an example. Values of voltage and current for a resistor is shown in Table
A.4. We want to plot the graph of this data. We want to show the data points with
circles and connect them together using dashed line with black color. The vertical axis
and horizontal axis must have the labels “Current (A)” and “Voltage (V)”, respectively.
The title of the graph must be “I-V for a resistor”. The commands shown in Fig. A.7 do
what we need. The result is shown in Fig. A.8.
Table A.4 V-I values for

V (volt) I (Amper)
resistor R1
0.499 0.10
0.985 0.20
1.508 0.31
1.969 0.41
2.528 0.53
2.935 0.61
3.481 0.73
3.971 0.83
4.486 0.94
4.960 1.04
5.502 1.15
6.007 1.26
6.60 1.38
Fig. A.7 Drawing the graph of data in Table A.4

Fig. A.8. Output of code in Fig. A.7
The commands shown in Fig. A.9 draw the I-V graph of Table A.4. However, it uses
red star for data points and solid black color for connecting the data points together
(Fig. A.10).

A.4 Addition of Labels and Title to the Drawn Graph
Figure A.10 doesn’t have any labels and title. You can add the desired labels and titles to
it with the aid of insert menu (Fig. A.11).
Fig. A.11 Addition of title and labels to the axis
A.5 Exporting the Drawn Graph as a Graphical File
You can copy the drawn graph to the clipboard easily with the aid of Edit> Copy Figure
(Fig. A.12). After copying the graph to the clipboard you can easily paste it in programs
like MS Word® by pressing Ctrl+V.
Fig. A.12 Copying the drawn figure to the clipboard memory
You can save the drawn graph as a graphical file as well. To do this, click use the
File> Save As (Fig. A.13). After clicking, the save as window appears. Select the desired
output format from the Save as type drop down list (Fig. A.14).
Fig. A.13 Saving the graph as a graphical file
Fig. A.14 Selection of desired type of file

A.6 Drawing Two or More Graphs on the Same Axis
Sometimes you need to show two or more datasets on the same graph. You need to use
the hold on command to show two or more graphs simultaneously. Assume that we have
another dataset (Table A.5) and we want to show both datasets (Tables A.4 and A.5) on
the same graph.
Table A.5 V-I values for

V (volt) I (Amper)
resistor R2
0.579 0.10
0.978 0.17
1.598 0.28
1.976 0.34
2.496 0.43
2.953 0.51
3.458 0.60
4.068 0.71
4.450 0.78
4.917 0.86
5.35 0.93
5.75 1.01
6.37 1.11
6.60 1.15
The commands shown in Fig. A.15 draws the graph of both datasets on the same graph.
Output of this code is shown in Fig. A.16.
Fig. A.15 Drawing the graph of Tables A.4 and A.5 on the same graph
You can use the Insert> Legend to show which graph belongs to which resistor
(Fig. A.17).
Fig. A.17 Insert> Legend can be used to add a legend to the graph
After clicking the Insert> Legend, the legend shown in Fig. A.18 will be added to the
graph.
Fig. A.18 Legend is added to the graph
Double click the data1 in the legend box (Fig. A.18) and enter the desired text. Repeat
this for data2, data3 and data4 in Fig. A.18. You can move the legend box by clicking
on it, holding down the mouse button and dragging it to the desired location (Fig. A.19).
You can even right click on the legend box and use the predefined locations (Fig. A.20).
Fig. A.19 Customized legend
A.7 Logarithmic Axis
We used linear axis in order to draw the I-V graph of studied resistors. If you want to
draw the frequency response graphs you need to use logarithmic axis. The linear axis is
not a suitable option for frequency response graphs.
Fig. A.20 Default locations

for legend
Let’s study an example. Assume the frequency response given in Table A.6. This table
shows the frequency response of the circuit shown in Fig. A.21.
Table A.6 Frequency

response of a RC circuit Frequency (Hz) Magnitude VVo ((jω)
jω) Phase VVo ((jω)
jω)
in in
1 1.000 −0.36°
10 0.998 −3.60°
20 0.992 −7.16°
50 0.954 −17.44°
100 0.847 −32.13°
150 0.728 −43.30°
200 0.623 −51.48°
250 0.537 −57.51°
300 0.469 −62.05°
350 0.414 −65.54°
400 0.370 −68.30°
450 0.333 −70.51°
500 0.303 −72.34°
550 0.278 −73.85°
600 0.256 −75.14°
Fig. A.21 Simple RC circuit
The commands shown in Fig. A.22, draws the frequency response of the data in Table
A.6. The command semilogx is used to draw the frequency response graph. Output of
this code is shown in Fig. A.23.

1. Asadi F., Applied Numerical Analysis with MATLAB® /Simulink® , Springer, 2022.
Appendix B: Root Mean Square
B.1 Introduction
An AC voltmeter/ammeter measures the RMS value of applied signal. RMS value has
many applications in electrical engineering. This appendix reviews this import concept.
B.2 Root Mean Square (RMS) of a signal
Consider the simple circuit shown in Fig. B.1. The input source is a periodic voltage
source, i.e., v(t + T ) = v(t). The load is purely resistive with value of R.
Fig. B.1 A resistor is

connected to a periodic voltage
source
The average power consumed by the resistor is:

⎡ ⎤
T T T 2 T
1 1 1 v(t) 1 1
P= p(t)dt = v(t) × i(t)dt = dt = ⎣ v(t)2 dt ⎦ (B.1)
T T T R R T
0 0 0 0
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license 161
to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023
on Electrical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24552-7
162 Appendix B: Root Mean Square
Now consider the circuit shown in Fig. B.2. The input source is a constant DC voltage
source, i.e., v(t) = Vdc .
Fig. B.2 The same resistor is

connected to a DC source
Vdc 2
In this case the power consumed by the resistor is R . Power consumption of both
T
circuits are the same when Vdc = 1
T
2
0 v(t) dt. Since,
⎡ ⎤
T
1⎣1 Vdc 2 1 T
v(t)2 dt ⎦ = ⇒ Vdc = v(t)2 dt (B.2)
R T R T 0
0
T
The T1 0 v(t)2 dt is called Root Mean Square (RMS) or effective value of signal
v(t). So, RMS value of periodic signal v(t) is a DC value which produce the same amount
of heat in the resistive load as the periodic signal v(t).
The RMS can be defined for the current waveforms as well.
T
1
Ir ms = i(t)2 dt. (B.3)
T 0
B.2.1 Example 1
Determine the RMS value of the periodic pulse waveform shown in Fig. B.3.
Fig. B.3 Waveform of Example 1

Appendix B: Root Mean Square 163
Solution
Vm 0 < t < DT
v(t) =
0DT < t < T

1 T 1 DT T 1 √
Vr ms = v(t) dt =
2
Vm 2 dt + 0dt = (V m 2 DT ) = Vm D.
T 0 T 0 DT T
B.2.2 Example 2
Determine the RMS values of the following waveforms (ω = T ).

2π
(a) v(t) = Vm sin(ωt).

(b) v(t) = |Vm sin(ωt)|.
Vm sin(ωt) 0 < t < T2
(c) v(t) = .
2 <t <T
T
0
Solution
(a)
T T
1 1
Vr ms = (V m sin(ωt)) dt = 2
× Vm 2 sin2 (ωt)dt
T 0 T 0
T
Vm 2 T 1 − cos(2ωt) Vm 2 T 1 cos(2ωt)
= dt = dt − dt
T 0 2 T 0 2 0 2

Vm 2 T sin(2ωt) T Vm 2 T
= × − | = × −0
T 2 4ω 0 T 2
Vm 2 Vm
= =√
2 2
(b) RMS value of v(t) = |Vm sin(ωt)| is the same as v(t) = Vm sin(ωt). Since
Vm
(|Vm sin(ωt)|)2 = (V m sin(ωt))2 . So, RMS value of v(t) = |Vm sin(ωt)| is √ . Graph
2
of v(t) = |Vm sin(ωt)| is shown in Fig. B.4. Such a waveform is called Full Wave
Rectified.
Fig. B.4 Full wave rectified sinusoidal waveform
Vm sin(ωt)0 < t < T

(c) Graph of v(t) = 2 is shown in Fig. B.5. Such a waveform is
0 T2 < t < T
called Half Wave Rectified.
Fig. B.5 Half wave rectified sinusoidal waveform

1 T2 T
1
T
=
2
Vr ms (V m sin(ωt)) dt +
2
0dt = × Vm 2 sin2 (ωt)dt
T 0 T
2
T 0
T T T
Vm 2 1 − cos(2ωt)
2 Vm 2 2 1 2 cos(2ωt)
= dt = dt − dt
T 0 2 T 0 2 0 2

V m2 t sin(2ωt) T2 Vm 2 T Vm 2 Vm
= × − |0 = × −0= =
T 2 4ω T 4 4 2
RMS of triangular wave shapes can be calculated using the formulas shown in Fig. B.6.
Fig. B.6 RMS value of triangular waveforms
B.3 Effective Value of Sum of Two Periodic Signals
Consider two periodic waveforms, i.e., v1 (t + T ) = v1 (t), v2 (t + T ) = v2 (t). The RMS

value of sum of two waveforms (v(t) = v1 (t) + v2 (t)) is:
T
1
Vr ms 2 = (v1 + v2 )2 dt
T
0
T T T T
1 1 1 1
= (v1 2
+ 2v1 v2 + v2 )dt =
2
v1 dt +
2
2v1 v2 dt + v2 2 dt
T T T T
0 0 0 0
(B.4)
T T
Sometime the T1 0 v1 (t)v2 (t)dt term is zero. The T1 0 v1 (t)v2 (t)dt is the iner prod-
T
uct of v1 (t) and v2 (t). When T1 0 v1 (t)v2 (t)dt = 0, the signals v1 (t) and v2 (t) are called
orthogonal. Table B.1 shows some of the important orthogonal functions.
Table B.1 Some of the

No. v1 (t) v2 (t)
important orthogonal functions
(ω = 2π 1 sin(n × ω × t + ϕ1 ) sin(m × ω × t + ϕ2 )
T , n = m and k is a
constant) 2 sin(n × ω × t + ϕ1 ) cos(m × ω × t + ϕ2 )
3 cos(n × ω × t + ϕ1 ) cos(m × ω × t + ϕ2 )
4 sin(n × ω × t + ϕ1 ) k
5 cos(m × ω × t + ϕ1 ) k
For instance, according to the second row of the table, sin(n × ω × t + ϕ1 ) and
T
cos(m × ω × t + ϕ2 ) (when n = m) are orthogonal since T1 0 sin(nωt + ϕ1 ) ×
cos(mωt + ϕ2 )dt = 0.
For orthogonal functions,
T T
1 1
Vr ms 2
= (v1 + v2 ) dt =
2
(v1 2 + 2v1 v2 + v2 2 )dt
T T
0 0
T T T
1 1 1
Vr ms 2
= v1 dt +
2
2v1 v2 dt + v2 2 dt
T T T
0 0 0
T T
1 1
Vr ms 2 = v1 2 dt + v2 2 dt
T T
0 0
Vr ms = V1,r ms 2 + V2,r ms 2 (B.5)
RMS value of sum of more than two orthogonal functions (each two terms are assumed
to be orthogonal) can be calculated in the same way:

N T
1
(v(t) = vn (t)∀k, l1 ≤ k ≤ N , o1 ≤ l ≤ N , ok = l, o vk (t)vl (t)dt = 0) ⇒
T
n=1 0

N
Vr ms = V1,r ms 2 + V2,r ms 2 + V3,r ms 2 + · · · = Vn,r ms 2 . (B.6)
n=1
B.3.1 Example 3
Determine the RMS value of v(t) = 4 + 8sin(ω1 t + 10◦ ) + 5sin(ω2 t + 50◦ ) under the
following conditions.
(a) ω2 = 2ω1
(b) ω2 = ω1 .
Solution
(a) When ω2 = 2ω1 , the v(t) = 4 + 8sin(ω1 t + 10◦ ) + 5sin(2ω1 t + 50◦ ). According to
Table B.1, all the functions are orthogonal to each other, so
2 2
8 5
Vr ms = V1,r ms 2 + V2,r ms 2 + V3,r ms 2 = 42 + √ + √ = 7.78V
2 2
(b) When ω2 = ω1 , the v(t) = 4 + 8sin(ω1 t + 10◦ ) + 5sin(ω1 t + 50◦ ). 8sin(ω1 t + 10◦ )
and 5sin(ω1 t + 50◦ ) are not orhtogonal to each other.
√ So, we can’t use the previous

formullas. Note that a × sin(ωt) + b × cos(ωt) = a 2 + b2 sin(ωt + tan −1 ab ). So,

v(t) = 4 + 8sin ω1 t + 10◦ + 5sin ω1 t + 50◦
= 4 + 12.3sin(ω1 t + 25.2◦ )
The two terms of last equation are orthogonal to each other (see Table B.1). So, the
RMS is
2
12.3
Vr ms = 42 + √ = 9.57V .
2
B.3.2 Example 4
In this example we show how RMS values can be calculated with the aid of MATLAB® .
Assume v(t) = 311sin(2π × 60t)+100sin(2π × 2 × 60t)+20sin(2π × 3 × 60t) is given.
The RMS can be calculated easily:
2 2 2
311 100 20
Vr ms = √ + √ + √ = 231.43V
2 2 2
The commands shown in Fig. B.7 calculates the RMS value of given signal. The first
1
two lines sample a period of given signal. The sampling time is 6000 = 166.7 μs. The
rms command is used to calculate the RMS value of sampled signal.
1 steps
Fig. B.7 Calculation of RMS value of v(t) with 6000
The result is 230.283 which is a little bit lower than the expected value of 231.43. if
you decrease the sampling time from 166.7 μs to 16.67 μs you get a more accurate result
(Fig. B.8).
1 steps
Fig. B.8 Calculation of RMS value of v(t) with 60000
B.4 Measurement of RMS of Signals
The cheap multimeters are not suitable devices to measure the RMS value of non-
sinusoidal signals. The cheap multimeters are able to measure the RMS value of pure
sinusoidal signals, i.e. the one shown in Fig. B.9.
Fig. B.9 Pure sinusoidal waveform
Figure B.10 shows one of the methods that cheap multimeter uses measure the RMS
of a signal. VX is the signal under measurement. Assume that VX is a pure sinusoidal
waveform, i.e. a signal such as the one shown in Fig. B.9. Then the capacitor is charged
up to Vm Volts (voltage drop of diode is neglected) where Vm is the peak value of voltage
under measurement. So, Analog-to-Digital converter reads the maximum of input signal.
The read value is simply multiplied by √1 , and the result, i.e., V√m , is the RMS value
2 2
of input signal. This method only works for pure sinusoidal signals and doesn’t produce
correct result if the input signal is not pure sinusoidal.
Fig. B.10 A simple circuit for detection of input AC signal peak value
The expensive multimeters samples the input waveform and uses a processor to calcu-
late the RMS value. So, the wave shape of input signal doesn’t affect the measurements.
Such a multimeter has “TRUE RMS” label on it. So, ensure that your multimeter is
TRUE RMS type if you want to measure the RMS of a non-sinusoidal signal. Digital
oscilloscopes can be used to measure the RMS of non-sinusoidal signals as well.
1. Asadi F., Simulation of Power Electronics Circuits with MATLAB® /Simulink® ,

Springer, 2022.

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Synthesis Lectures on Electrical

Electric Circuits Laboratory

ISSN 1559-811X ISSN 1559-8128 (electronic)

Chapter 7 studies magnetic coupling and transformers. This chapter contains 3

Istanbul, Turkey Farzin Asadi

1 Commonly Used Labaratory Equipmentes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2.8 Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

4.3 Nodal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

6.4 Series and Parallel Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Appendix A: Drawing Graphs with MATLAB® . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

1.2 Digital Multi Meter (DMM)

(a) Measurement of resistance.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 1

1.3 Function Generator (Signal Generator)

A function generator (sometime is called signal generator) is used to generate different

Fig. 1.1 Signal generator cable

Fig. 1.2 Simple model for

Fig. 1.3 Sample triangular

Fig. 1.4 Sample pulse

An oscilloscope is an instrument that graphically displays electrical signals and shows

(a) Measurement of peak value of a signal.

Fig. 1.5 Measurement of phase difference. B leads A by ϕ = t

(f) Explain the difference between AC and DC coupling.

1.5 Power Supply

(a) Generation of 12 V with maximum output current of 0.5 A.

Fig. 1.6 Bread board

Fig. 1.7 Connections of breadboard

Fig. 1.8 Inside of a

Fig. 1.9 Sample circuit

Fig. 1.10 Resistor R1 is added

Put the resistor R2 (Fig. 1.11).

Fig. 1.11 Resistor R2 is added

Put the capacitor C1 (Fig. 1.12).

Fig. 1.12 Capacitor C1 is added

Put the resistor R3 (Fig. 1.13).

Fig. 1.13 Resistor R3 is added

Fig. 1.14 Power supply connection are made

Connect the power supply to the breadboard (Fig. 1.15).

Fig. 1.15 Voltage source is added to the circuit

Measurement with cell phone

Fig. 1.16 Pokit meter

Fig. 1.17 Pokit meter

Fig. 1.18 Pokit pro

Reference for Further Study

2.2 Tolerance of Resistors

Any component used in a circuit has a tolerance. The tolerance of a component is a

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 15

Fig. 2.1 High wattage resistor

Table 2.1 Tolerance

Fig. 2.2 Value of resistor is

Table 2.2 Digits associated

Table 2.3 Tolerance

For instance, a resistor with brown–green–red–gold color bands shows a 15 × 100 =

Table 2.4 Color bands for different resistors

Fig. 2.3 Resistor with 5 color bands

Table 2.5 Tolerance

Table 2.6 E24 standard

Table 2.7 Color bands of resistors under test

Table 2.8 Maximum and

Table 2.9 Measured values