Excel & succeed

Junior secondary

Physics

Student’s book
Form 1
 CONTENTS
Unit 1: physics as science
a. What is science?
b. What is physics?
c. History of physics
d. Branches of physics
e. Physics and other subjects
f. Career opportunities in physics
Unit test 1

Unit 2: Scientific Investigation

a. Methods of studying physics
b. Contribution of physics to development
Unit test 2

Unit 3: Laboratory Safety Measures

a. Laboratory safety rules and regulations
b. First aid
c. Hazard symbols and their meanings
Unit test 3

Unit 3: Measurements
a. Quantities
b. Fundamental an derived quantities of measurements
c. Measuring instruments
d. Measurement of length
e. Measurements of area
f. Measurement of volume
g. Measurement of mass
h. Measurement of time
 i. Measuring temperature
Unit test 4

Unit 5: Particulate Nature of Matter

a. Matter
b. Composition of matter
c. Diffusion
d. Properties of matter
Unit test 5

Unit 6: Changes of States of Matter

a. Heat and temperature
b. Melting and freezing
c. Factors affecting melting point and boiling point
d. The pressure cooker
e. Evaporation
f. Project work
g. The refrigerator
h. Sublimation and deposition
Unit test 6

Unit 7: Force
a. Definition of force
b. Effects of forces
c. Balanced and unbalanced force
d. Friction force
e. Mass and weight
Unit test 7

Unit 8: Work
 a. Work
b. Work done against friction
Unit test 8

Unit 9: Energy
a. Energy
b. Sources of energy
c. Forms of energy
d. Energy transformations
Unit test 9

Unit 10: Electric Current

a. Simple electric circuits
b. Arrangement of bulbs and cells in an electric circuit
c. Electric current
Unit test 10

Unit 11: Voltage

a. Voltage
b. Measurement of voltage
c. Effects of the number of bulbs on the brightness of the bulb
d. Voltages in series and parallel connection
Unit test 11

Unit 12: Electrical Resistance

a. Electrical resistance
b. Determining the resistance of a material
c. Factors that affect resistance of materials
Unit test 12

Unit 13: Effects of Electric Current

a. Heating effect of an electric current
b. Factors affecting heating effect of an electric current
c. Applications of heating effect of an electric current
d. Magnetic effect of an electric current
e. The direction of a magnetic field
f. Simple electromagnet
g. Simple d. c. electric motor
h. Project work
i. Chemical effect of an electric current
j. Chemical cells
Unit test 13

Unit 14: Magnetism

a. Origin of magnetism
b. Poles of a magnet
c. Magnetic and non- magnetic materials
d. Components of magnetic substances
e. The basic law of magnetism
f. Magnetic field
g. The earth’s magnetic fields
h. Storage and uses of magnets
Unit test 14

Sample Test Paper

UNIT 1: PHYSICS AS A SCIENCE
INTRODUCTION
Welcome to the world of science and world of physics. You already have learned a
lot about science in primary school. Therefore the primary science knowledge,
skills and attitudes will be the foundation of their course. Be prepared to acquire
more interesting knowledge, skills and attribute about science in this course. We
will begin this course by reviewing our understanding of what science and how
scientific knowledge, skills and attitudes are developed. Then, we will explore the
different branches of science and the place of physics within these branches. In so
doing, you will be able to increase your understanding of science and physics.

What is science?
The word science is derived from the Latin word ‘scientia” which means
knowledge attained through study and practice.
Thus science refers to a systematic study that uses observation and
experimentation to describe and explain natural phenomena. The word also refers
to the organized body of knowledge people have gained using a system of
observation and experimentation. This system of study is called the scientific
method or scientific investigation.
The purpose of science is to produce useful models of reality which are used to
advance the development of technology, lading to better quality of life for man and
the environment around him.
There are many branches of science and various ways of classifying them. One of
the most common ways is to classify the branches into social sciences, natural
science and formal sciences.
Social science deal with the study of human behavior and society. Natural sciences
deal with the study of natural phenomena, for example (lighting, motion, and
earthquake) which can be observed and tested. Formal sciences deal with
mathematical concepts and logics.
There are various branches of natural science. At primary school level, some
aspects of natural science like human body, heath education, plants weather,
animals, water, soil, food, energy properties of matter and work are learnt as a
single science subject.
At secondary school level, the various branches of natural sciences like agriculture,
biology, physics, chemistry, and geography are learnt separately. This book deals
with one of the branches of natural science called physics.
Figure below shows a summary of the branches of science.
What is physics?
Physics is a natural science that is concerned with the study of matter and natural
forces. In this study, a scientific approach is employed. Scientific approach is
based on systematic experimentation through careful measurements and analysis.
Conclusions are drawn from the analysis. These conclusions are tested to find out
if they are valid. It is from the conclusions arrived at, that general laws and
principles are stated.

History of physics
Physics was born by the first people who started asking why question. For
example, why is there day and night? Why do objects fall downwards instead of
going upwards when released in air? Why, why, why, why? This question always
requires that you give an explanation.
The first people to attempt to answer this question were the Greeks who started
doing this before 400BC. By about one of the greatest physicists of the day,
Aristotle had developed a comprehensive explanation of motion by 1543 Ad,
Nicolas Copernicus had explained that the earth goes round the sun and not the
other way round.
By 1727 Isaac newton explained why objects always fall towards the earth. By
1940 Albert Einstein had explained how nuclear energy can be harnessed form the
centre of the atom. The list is endless. Throughout history, physics has continued
to advance while making invaluable contributions to development of science and
technology.
Branches of physics
Physics is a wide body of knowledge which is studied under several overlapping
branches. The following are the branches of physics:
1. Mathematics
2. Electronics
3. Electricity and magnetism
4. Oscillation and waves
5. Properties of matter
6. Nuclear physics
Physics and other subjects
The various branches of natural science are inter-dependent. The following are
some examples
1. Chemistry mainly deals with the study of salts, acids and their reactions. For
a physicist to understand the working mechanism of chemical cells, help is
sought from a chemist. On the other hand, the reasons behind the various
colours observed in most of the chemical reactions are explained by a
physicist. Petroleum products are dealt with by the chemist, but the
transportation of such products must make use of the principles of physics.
2. The study of living cells and small insects by a biologist requires
magnification. The concept of magnification using simple or compound
microscope is a brain child of a physicist. A good physicist need to have
good health. A biologist will assist a physicist in the awareness of the
following

a. A balanced and nutritive diet

b. Some simple physical exercises to keep fit
c. The various bacteria and viruses normally found in one’s blood system
e.g. malaria, HIV, etc.
d. The possible prevention measures in dealing with people who have been
infected with diseases such as small pox, HIV and AIDS etc.
e. Effects and dangers of drinking excess alcohol, drug abuse etc

3. In weather forecast, a geographer uses a barometer, wind gauge, etc. which

are instruments developed by a physicist
4. In agriculture, the water sprinkler, insecticide sprayer, etc. make use of the
principles developed by physicist
5. The determination of age fossils by historians and archeologists use the
principle developed by physicist
6. The theatrical setup, the audio and visual arrangements are the creations of
physicist
7. In games and sports, accurate measurement of time, distance, weight etc. use
instruments developed by physicists.
Career opportunities in physics
Physics being a practical subject has many applications. These applications lead to
diverse career opportunities depending on one’s skill and aptitude. The most
promising area of job opportunities is in engineering and technology. The various
branches one can look forward to be: laboratory technology, mapping and
surveying, civil engineering, electrical engineering, mechanical engineering,
instrumentation technology, metrology, electronics and telecommunication
engineering, architecture, environmental engineering, aeronautical engineering,
etc. apart from engineering, pure sciences such as physics, geology, astronomy,
astro-physics, etc. also offer suitable and promising careers. In the application of
medical physics, there are career openings in radiology, ultra sound scanning,
medical sports, optometry, etc. in education, one can be a school teacher,
university lecture or a researcher.
A successful physics student can always find a suitable career opportunity, see
figure below showing electrical engineers at work.
Unit summary
 Science is a systematic study that uses observation and experimentation to
describe and explain natural phenomena.
 Physics is a science that deals with the study of matter
 There are various branches of physics:
1. Mechanics
2. Electronics
3. Electricity and magnetism
4. Oscillations and waves
5. Properties of matter
6. Nuclear physics
 Physics creates technology
 There are numerous career opportunities for a physicist.
Unit test 1
1. Physics is the study of
A. Matter and natural forces
B. Principles
C. Biology and energy
D. Matter and branches of science
2. Which one of the following is not a branch of physics?
A. Mechanics
B. Electronics
C. Force
D. Nuclear physics
3. Which one of the following subject is not a natural science?
A. Physics
B. Chemistry
C. Biology
D. Psychology
4. Which one of the following is a direct economic importance of physics?
A. Salary form teaching physics
B. The world is small due to innovations in physics
C. Physics leads to improvement of medical equipment
D. Physics innovation boost security
5. What is science?
6. Differentiate between natural and social science.
7. Define physics. Explain the steps involved in a scientific approach.
8. Name six different branches of physics
9. Give instances where physics interdepend with the following: chemistry,
history and agriculture.
10.Mention four career opportunities of a physicist.
UNIT 2: SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

In primary school science, we learnt that light travels in a straight line. We also
learned that metals are good conductors of heat while non-metals such as wood are
not; that the world is spherical and revolves round the sun such that one complete
revolution takes 365.25 days etc.
We also know that equipment’s such as radios, cellphones, television, cameras and
cars work using some concepts in science. How did people come up with this
knowledge? How did they come up with laws and theories in science? They did
this through a process known as scientific investigation.
In this unit, we will discuss the steps involved in scientific investigation. We will
try to understand what is generally required in scientific investigation.

Methods of studying physics

Scientific investigation is a systematic process of testing ideas or finding out
answers to questions and observations. All scientific investigations are carried out
using a common process.
The process are observations, question, hypothesis, experiments and explanation.
They form a cycle as shown in figure below
It is important as a young physicist to be keen on observing things happening
around you with a view to understanding how and why they happen.

Observation
This is the beginning step of scientific knowledge and investigation. Scientists
make observations every day, for which they wish to get answers and explanations.
The following is an example of an observation
“An iron pin is able to lie on the surface of water without sinking, when it is
placed very carefully”.

Question
Scientists ask questions from the observation they make. The questions may take
several forms such as why, how, what and when. A good question that can be
answered through scientific investigation should be well defined, testable,
measurable and controllable.
The following is an example of a scientific question:
“What is the relationship between the weight of a locating object and that of the
liquid it displaces when floating?”

Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a guessed possible answer to the question. It can come from
experience or existing scientific knowledge. It must however be testable in order to
approve or disapprove it. Note that it is possible to have more than one hypothesis
to one question.
The following is an example of a hypothesis:
“Wood floats on a paraffin because its density is lower than that of paraffin.
Experiment
This stage involves carrying out the experiment to test the hypothesis. The scientist
chooses one variable which will be measured (known as the dependent variable).
This variable is contained in the hypothesis. There must also be another variable
which the scientist will be changing (the independent variable) in order to get the
values of the dependent variable. This variable is the one that researcher suspects
to be affecting the dependent variable. This variable is the one that researcher
suspects be affecting the dependent variable.

An experiment usually takes the following format:

1. Title of experiment
This gives the aim of experiment clearly stating what the experiment is set to
investigate e.g. “Experiment to investigate the relationship between rate of cooling
of a liquid (water) and the change in temperature above room temperature”.

2. Apparatus and materials

The apparatus to be used need to be listed

3. The procedure to be followed:

The procedure is a step by step description of what need to be done. It also
includes a well labelled diagram on how the apparatus should be setup.
It should include a series of statement indicating what quantities will be measured
and the instrument to be used for each quantity. The procedure should also indicate
what quantities should be held constant and their value at the time of investigation

4. Observation
Presentation of the results: this is usually a table with columns each labelled with
the quantity to be measured and the unit of measurement. Example see table below
 Volume (cm3 ) Mass (g)
1 0 0
2 50 50
3 100 102
4 150 148
5 200 208
6 250 252
7 300 302

The values of the quantities to be held constant should also be shown.

5. Analysis of results
This may involve drawing an appropriate graph, calculating some quantities etc.
the graph may be a straight line or a curve. To get a smooth curve or a straight line
may sometimes require drawing the line or a curve of best fit. When the analysis is
done by calculation, the average of the results for each set of measurement is used.
Quite often, the gradient, intercept or area under a graph is considered.

6. Conclusion
The stage evaluates the analysis and gives a statement of the findings showing
whether the original hypothesis has been supported. Sources of error are also
discussed at this stage and possible ways of minimizing the error suggested where
possible the final findings should be compared with that of expert opinion (usually
obtained from acceptable data sources).

7. Explanation
This is the statement that justifies your answer. That is have the result proved your
hypothesis or disproved your hypothesis? What explanation do you give for these
results? It is important to note that a single measurement is unreliable for making
scientific claims. Hence, scientists make measurements form the same experiment
in order to be sure of the accuracy of the measurements.
Contribution of physics to development
Physicist search for reliable information and then organize in into fundamental
laws and principles. On the basis of these laws and principles, the engineers and
technologists. For example, windmills make drawing of water from deep wells
easier.

The advancement of technology has led to the manufacture of motor cars,

aeroplanes, communication satellites, the figure below shows a communication
satellite.
The concept of generation of electricity using simple copper wire and magnets was
applied to develop dynamos and later electrical power generators
 Transport where high speed electrical trans larger and more fuel efficient
marine vessels (e.g. ships) faster and safer automobiles have been
developed.
 Manufacturing sector where labour efficient robots and other gadgetry have
been developed
 Communication using radio waves an dearth and space satellites
 Medicine where development of better equipment in surgery and use of safer
diagnostic techniques (such as MRI) have been developed.
 Recreation and sporting where better equipment for recreation and training
are continuously being developed.
 Physics continue to play an invaluable role in all activities that relate to
energy and its interaction with matter. The principles and laws of physics
continue to be used in all areas of human activities such as engineering,
medicine, transport, food processing, communication and many other areas.
Here is a list of some of the milestones of advancements that have been achieved
by application in physics:
  Computers
 The internet
 GPS
 Digital sound
 Digital video
 Artificial satellite
 Jet engine
 Nuclear energy
 Solar power
 TV
 Space craft
 Electron microscope

Unit summary
 Scientific investigation is a systematic process of testing ideas or finding out
answers to questions and observations
 The main steps in scientific investigation are observations, questioning,
developing a hypothesis, experimenting and explanation
 The main elements of an experiment are; the title, set up of apparatus,
procedure, data analysis and conclusion
 Physics concepts and laws are used in the development of the technology.
Unit test 2

1. Which is of the following is not a stage of a scientific investigation?

A. Experimentation
B. Observation
C. Definition
D. Hypothesis
2. In a scientific investigation, several values or same experiment has to be
repeated because of
A. Increasing accuracy
B. Improving skills
C. Getting more values
D. Correction
3. Which of the following areas is the knowledge of physics not directly
applied
A. Car manufacture
B. Flying aeroplanes
C. Dancing
D. Ice skating
4. Physics has helped the world to develop and advance technology but some
human beings will ill motives misused some technologies to harm innocent
people and the world. Which of the following branches of the following
branches of physics have been misused by such people?
A. Nuclear physics
B. Electronics
C. Waves
D. Heat and energy
5. What is scientific investigation?
6. Why is the step of making observation in the process of scientific
investigation very important?
7. How is scientific different from non-scientific investigation? Give examples.
8. Discuss the meanings of the following word
A. Hypothesis
B. Prediction
UNIT 3: LABORATORY SFAETY MEASURES

Introduction
Scientific investigation is about finding out. The activity of finding out in scientific
investigation is known as experimentation and the physical quantities recorded are
measurements. A setting or place where experiments are carried out is known as a
laboratory. There are two types of laboratories: formal and informal laboratories. A
formal laboratory is a facility and often in form of a building specifically designed
and constructed for the purpose of carrying out scientific research, experiments and
measurement.
An informal laboratory refers to any other facility, place or space where
experiments may be carried out other than designated building. Thus the open
ground, classroom and halls can also serve as informal laboratories in some
circumstances. The beauty in learning physics lies in conducting experiments,
recording measurements and making sense out of the measurements. This is so
because it allows you to think, talk, discuss, handle and write at the same time. Are
you prepared for these activities?
All laboratories are generally designed to be safe places to work in. however
everyone working in laboratory has an additional responsibility of increasing the
safety of the laboratory, the people, equipment, material and chemicals as well as
preventing pollution of the environment. People, laboratory (building, equipment,
materials and chemicals) and the environment are at the heart of the safety rules
and regulations.

Laboratory safety measures

Laboratory safety measures are the safety set of rules or regulations that guides the
daily activities in the laboratory to minimize accidents
The list of laboratory rules and regulations is quite long and you will be learning
more rules and regulations throughout your study in physics
Generally, the rules and regulations fall under seven main categories as
summarized in the table below
Name of category Safety rule and regulations
1. Personal  Read labels carefully
safety rules  Follow instructions to the latter
 Long hair or loose clothes must be tied back or
confined
 Clean up your work area before leaving
 While inside the laboratory, do not run, play or
throw things
 Never chew, eat or drink in the laboratory
 Inform the teacher at once about accidents
2. Emergency  Know the location of the fire extinguisher, eye wash
response and safety shower in your laboratory
safety rules  Attend training by the teacher on how to use fire
extinguisher, eye wash and safety shower
 Inform your teacher immediately at the occurrence
of an injury, fine or explosion and spillages
3. Common  Before responsible for your safety and that of others
sense safety including the laboratory as a whole
rules  If at any time you are not sure of how to handle a
particular situation, feel free to get advice from your
teacher or laboratory assistant
4. Equipment  Follow instructions on how to use an equipment
safety rules carefully before using it
 Use the appropriate equipment for the appropriate
purpose of laboratory activity
 Report to the teacher any damage to an equipment as
well as any faculty equipment
 Never heat glass bottles and containers with the
stoppers on as build up pressure could cause an
explosion
5. Electrical  Report to the teacher the presence of loose electrical
safety rules wires
 Switch on electricity only when instructed by the
teacher or laboratory assistant
 Your hands must be dry when working with
electricity
 Open live electrical circuits should be avoided under
all circumstances
  Always ensure that the electric socket is switch off
before plugging in any electrical device
 Never try to connect anything other than the proper
plug into the mains socket.

6. Chemical  Follow instructions on how to use the chemicals in

safety rules any laboratory activity
 Keep your skin away from contact with chemicals
 Ensure that you do not taste chemicals in the
laboratory
 Never handle radioactive material with bare hands
(use tongs and forceps)
7. Other safety  Only experiments authorized by the teacher should
rules be conducted in the laboratory
 Conducting experiments in groups require team spirit
 Cleanliness is next to Godliness; ensure the
laboratory is clean and organized
 All experiments must be completed before you can
change places
 Be honest with your work and data

Since it is impossible to eliminate the risks of an accident, it is your responsibility

to minimize them and ensure that you are able to take appropriate action should
any occur. In case of an accident, despite taking all precautions, the most important
consideration at all times is human safety. You should act quietly and
methodically. Common sense is the best judge.

First aid
The purpose of the first aid is to make the victim secure and comfort. This prevents
his/her condition from becoming worse until professional assistance is available.
All physics students need to have adequate knowledge of first aid. The physics
laboratory should have a fire extinguisher and first aid kit containing the following
items
 A pair of blunt-ended scissors
 An assortment of bandages
  Adhesive plaster
 Sterilized cotton wool and gauze
 Mild antiseptic solution
 Safety pins
 Forceps
 Gloves

3.3 Hazard symbols and their meanings

Signs and symbols are meant to help us quickly identify the risks we are likely to
be exposed to when handling equipment’s, apparatus and chemicals.
The following are some of the common hazard symbols in a laboratory.
Applying safety measures in the laboratory
Safety measure in the laboratory are the set of safety guidelines that are supposed
to be followed in case of an emergency or accident in the laboratory. Table below
shows some of the emergencies and accidents in the laboratory and emergency
responses
Emergency or accident response
1. Fire outbreak  Move to fire assembly points
using fire exit points
 Inform the teacher or the
instructor
 If you can, use the fire
extinguisher to put the fire off
 If you can, switch off the main
switch of the laboratory wiring
system
 Note: do not scream, run
randomly
2. Electric shock  Switch off the power at the
socket first
 Pull out the victim from the
appliances
 Give the victim first aids
 If the victim Is not breathing, tap
three times his or her left side of
the chest
 If not breathing, give a kiss of
life i.e. help the victim to breathe
 Seek the medical assistance from
a medical personnel
3. Suffocation  Take the victim out of the
laboratory to open air for fresh
air
 Open all windows and doors
 Seek assistance from the medical
personnel
 4. Chemical spillage on the skin,  Pour a lot of pure water to the
floor, table etc. affected part to dilute the
chemical
 In case the chemical is in contact
with your eye, use the eye wash
 If you tasted the chemicals, drink
clean water
 Seek medication immediately
5. Breaking of equipment  The teacher should guide the
students to use equipment’s
correctly
 Inform the teacher immediately
 With the help of the teacher or
instructor collect the pieces of
broken apparatus
6. Breaking of general safety  Guide and counsel the students
 Use school disciplinary
committee to correct the student

Unit summary
 Though physics is fun, the laboratory safety rules should always be
observed.
 The laboratory should have a first aid kit
 Hazard symbols warn us of the likely danger when handling equipment and
chemicals

Unit test 3
1. Suppose you are in the laboratory and have seen an acid flowing on a table,
what should you do?
A. Shout to others
B. Inform the teacher
C. Run away
D. Throw the bottle away
2. Which one of the following should NOT be found in the first aid kit?
 A. Adhesive plaster
B. Safety pins
C. Gloves
D. Goggles
3. Explain why it is important to observe laboratory rules and regulations.
4. State 5 laboratory safety rules and regulations
5. You are working in the laboratory and you see the hazard symbols shown in
fig below

a. Describe the meaning of each symbol

b. Describe the steps you would take to guard against the hazard depicted by
each symbol
6. In every school there is a procedure to be followed by every member of the
school community in case of fire. Describe the procedure to be followed in
your school. You may need to consult your teacher and other sources to
answer this question.
7. Give three measures in case of fire outbreak.
UNIT 4: MEASUREMENTS

Quantities
Excursions and field trips play a vital role in the teaching and learning of science.
When planning such trips the common questions that come to our minds are: how
far is the field site from the school? How long will take it to reach the destination?
What total mass of the students and their luggage that the school bus can carry?
These questions are concerned with quantities or measurements. Quantities can be
compared in terms of “more”, less or equal or by assigning a numerical value in
terms of a unit of measurement.

Fundamental and derived quantities of measurements

Fundamental quantities
A quantity may have been defined as any observable property or process in nature
with which a number may be associated. This number is obtained by the operation
of measurements. The number may be obtained directly by a single measurement
or indirectly, say for example, by multiplying together two numbers obtained in
separate operations of measurement. Fundamental quantities are those quantities
which choose not to define in terms of other quantities. In physics there are 7
fundamental quantities of measurements namely length, mass, volume, time
temperature, electric current, amount of substance and luminous intensity. In this
book we will study the following 5 fundamental quantities: length, mass, time,
temperature and electric current.

SI units and symbols

In order to measure any quantity, a standard unit (base unit) or reference is chosen.
The standard unit chosen must be unchangeable, always reproducible and not
subject to either the effect of aging and deterioration or possible destruction.
Before 1960, there were several systems of measurements in use around the world.
In 1960, international system of units was established. This system is called the
international system of Units (SI). The table below shows the fundamental physical
quantities, their SI units and symbols.
 Fundamental SI unit Symbol
quantity
1. Length Metre m
2. Mass Kilogram Kg
3. Time Second s
4. Temperature Kelvin K
5. Electric Ampere A
current

Derived quantities
Quantities which are expressed in terms of the fundamental quantities are referred
to as the derived quantities. Area and volume are derived quantities of length. Area
refers to the amount of space that a surface or region covers. Volume is the amount
of space occupied by a substance.

The SI units of derived quantities are obtained from equations using mathematical
expressions as follows.
a. Density = mass (kg). The SI unit of density in symbols is kg/m3
Volume (m3)

b. Velocity = displacement (m) = the SI unit of velocity in symbols is m/s

Time taken (s)

c. Acceleration = change in velocity (m/s). The SI unit of acceleration in

symbols is m/s2
Time taken (s)
Some derived units have been given names. For example, force is measured in kg
m/s2 and has been given a named unit called a newton (N). Table below shows
some quantities and names of their derived unit.

Quantity Name of Symbol of Base units

unit unit
Force Newton N kg m/s2
Work Joule J kg m2
Energy Joule J kg m2/s2
Power Watt W kg m2/s3
Pressure Pascal Pa kg/m2
Charge Coulomb c As

Prefixes for SI units

Physical quantities are wide range of magnitudes. For example the mass of earth is
about 6, 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000kg while the diameter of a molecule is
0. 000 000 0001m. Writing such quantities is very tedious and clumsy. Some
words have been used with SI units as short-cut to writing such magnitude. These
words are associated with certain magnitude. For example a word like mille stands
for 1
1000, kilo for 1000. Since these words are used or fixed before the SI units there
are called prefixes. The table below shows some common prefixes and their
symbols.
Prefix Symbol Magnitude
atto a 10-18
femto f 10-15
pico p 10-12
nano n 10-9
micro µ 10-6
mill m 10-3
centi c 10-2
deci d 10-1
deca da 101
 hector h 102
kilo k 103
Mega M 106
Giga G 109
Tera T 1012
Peta P 1015
Exa E 1018

It is common to hear the megabytes, tera bytes etc. when dealing with computer
wares. A flash disk of 2GB has more space than that of 2MB when expressed in
this form.

Measuring instruments
Measurements involve the comparison of nay unknown quantity with a known
fixed unit quantity (standard unit). This measurement consists of two parts, the unit
and the number indicating how many units there are in the quantity being
measured.in order to obtain various measurements, early scientists had to develop
measuring devices. A measuring device has a scale marked in the standard or
multiple units of the quantity to be measured. The choice of the instrument to be
used depends entirely on the quantity being measured and the level of accuracy
needed.
In this unit, we shall learn how to use accurately the metre rule and tape measure
for the measurement of length, beam balance for the measurement of mass, stop
clock or stop watch for the measurement of time and measuring cylinder, pipette,
and burette for the measurement of volume and thermometer for measuring
temperature.

Measurement of length
Length is measured in metres. One metre is the distance between the two marks on
a standard platinum-iridium bar kept at Paris (France).
Although the metre is the standard unit of length, it is sometimes too big to
measure some distances and too small to measure others. We therefore need other
larger and smaller units to the metre to carry out some measurements. Table below
shows the SI units of length and its relationship with other larger and smaller units
of length.

Unit Symbol Comparison with

metre
1 kilometre Km 1 000 m
1 metre M 1m
1 centimetre Cm 0.01 m
1 millimetre Mm 0.001 m
1 micrometre µm 0.000 001 m

Metre rule
Straight distances which are less than one metre in length are generally measured
using metre rules. Metre rules are graduated in millimeters (mm). Each division on
the scale represents 1 mm unit

To demonstrate how to use a metre rule

Experiment: to measure the length, of a wooden block

Apparatus
 A metre rule
 A block of wood

Procedure
 Place the metre rule in contact with the block as shown in figure below. The
zero mark on the scale is placed at the age of the object.
  Position your eyes vertically above at the other end of the block as shown in
figure below position (a) read off the measurements.

 Repeat the procedure this time measuring the width (W) and height (h) of
the block. Record your reading in a table
Length (cm) Width (cm) Height (cm)

Note that it is not always necessary to start the metre rule at zero as shown in
figure above. You may use any two points of the scale, make your readings and
obtain the required length by subtraction

Experiment 4.2: to measure the diameter of a spherical object using a metre rule

Apparatus
 A metre rule
 A metal ball
 Two set squares
Procedure
 Place a cylindrical object on a metre rule as shown in fig 4.3
 Use two set squares to determine the boundaries of the ball
 Calculate the diameter of the ball.

Observation
Taking the metre rule’s readings, we get X= 5.0 cm
Y = 6.2 cm

Discussion
The diameter of the ball can be found by subtracting X form Y
The diameter of the spherical ball = (Y-X) cm
= (6.2-5.0) cm
= 1.2 cm
The diameter of any spherical or cylindrical object can be determined by
subtracting the final reading and initial reading on the metre rule.
Exp-eriment 4.3: to measure the diameter of a wire using a meter rule
Apparatus
 A copper wire of about 15 cm
 A boiling tube
 A metre rule

Procedure
 Using the wire provided, make a number of turns, n, closely wound as
shown in fig 4.4
 Measure the length l, using a metre rule.

Observation
The diameter of the wire, d, is given by:
Length,l l
d= = 𝑐𝑚
Number of turns,n n

Conclusion
The diameter of a wire is found by diving the length of the wire by the number
of turns the wire makes with object.

Tape measure
A tape measure or a measuring tape is a flexible form of ruler. It consist of a
ribbon of cloth, plastic, fiber glass or metal strip. Its design allows for a
measure of great length to be easily carried in the pocket and permits one to
measure around curves or corners.
Figure 4.5 shows various types of tape measures. Surveyors use tape measures
in length of over 100 m.

The type of tape measure to use depends on the distance to be measured. For
example, to measure the length of a laboratory bench, one would use the
carpenter’s type. To measure the distance covered in track events, the
appropriated tape measure would be surveyor’s type.
Estimation of length
Estimates are used when we do not have any measuring instruments ready or
we do not need very accurate answers for our measurement. In daily life, we
often encounter situations that require the estimations of length. We usually rely
on our senses and experience to make these estimates.
Lengths may be estimated by relating something real like the average height of
a student, the length of stride of a student, etc. with a metre. For example the
length of a classroom we may mentally divide the length of the room into 1
metre portions or count how many strides will cover the whole length. We can
also estimate it by trying to know how many students lying horizontally head to
foot may cover the whole distance.

Measurements of area
Area refers to the measure of the extent of spread of a surface. The SI unit of
area is square metre (m2).area is a derived quantity. Table below shows the unit
of area, its symbol and its relationship with the SI unit of area (m2).
Unit Symbol Comparison with m2
1 square kilometer km2 1 000 000 m2
 1 square metre m2 1 m2
1 square centimeter cm2 0.000 1 m2
1 square milimetre mm2 0.000 001 m2

Area of regularly shaped objects

The area of a regularly shaped objects may be obtained by measuring the relevant
dimensions and then applying the appropriate formula. The table shows some of
the formula used in the measurement of area.
name shape Formula (area)
Square A = Lx L
Le Length (L)

Length (L)
Rectangle A=LxW

Width (w)
Length (L)
Triangle A = ½ (b x h)

Circle A = 𝜋𝑟2

Area of irregularly shaped objects

The area of an irregularly shaped object can be estimated by diving it into small
squares and adding them up. In complete squares of area half or more the area of
one square are considered as complete squares and those of area less than half the
area of one square are ignored. Use:
a. 1 cm squares
b. ½ cm squares
Exercise 4.1
1. Distinguish between a fundamental (base) quantity and a derived quantity.
Give one example of each
2. Name three fundamental quantities and their SI units
3. Give a reason why it is necessary to establish SI units
4. How many micrometres are there in 4 cm?
5. Express the following in millimeters
a. 2.7m
b. 26.9cm
c. 356µm
6. Name the instruments you would use to measure each of the following:
a. Length of a football field
b. The height of a 20 litre jerrican
c. The circumference of your waist
7. Describe with the aid of a suitbale diagram how you would measure the
diameter of a thin thread using a metre rule and a uniform cylindrical object.
8. Explain clearly how you would measure the following surface areas
a. A laboratory bench
b. A cylindrical object
c. The outline of the map of Africa.
9. A cylindrical has a diameter of 4.2 cm. how many times would a thread of
132 cm can be wound around the cylinder?
10.Trace the outline of a leaf on a graph paper and estimate its area.
11.A page of a book measures 14.5 cm by 21.4 cm. what is its area in square
millimeters?
12.The diameters of a cylindrical pencil is 9mm. calculate the cross-sectional
area in square centimeters.
13.A compact disk (CD) accidentally drops and a piece of the CD flies off.
Briefly explain how you would determine the surface of the remaining CD.

Measurement of volume
Volume is the amount of space occupied a substance. The SI unit of volume is
cubic meters (m3). Like area, volume is also derived quantity. Table 4.8 shows the
SI unit of volume and is relationship with other unit of volume and capacity.
 unit symbol Comparison with m3
1 cubic kilometers km3 1000 000 000 m3
1 cubic metres m3 1 m3
1 cubic centimetres cm3 0.000 001 m3
1 litre l 0.001 m3
1 millimetre ml 0.000 001 m3

Example
A car uses 1 litre of petrol to cover a distance of 13km. how long, in metres would
such a car cover with 30cm3 of petrol?
Solution
1 litre = 1 000 m3
I km = 1 000m
13 km3 covers 13 000 m
Therefore, 30cm3 would cover 13 000 x 30 = 390 m
1 000

Volume of regular shaped solids

The volume of a regularly shaped solid may be determined by measuring the
required dimensions and then applying the appropriated formula. Table below
shows some of the solids and the formulae to find their volumes
Volume of liquids
Instruments for measuring volume
Instruments for measuring volume include: measuring cylinders, burettes and
pippetes. These instruments are already calibrated (marked) in the units of volume
(cubic centimetres cm3) or capacity (millimeters, ml).
Measuring cylinder
Measuring cylinder come in different columns or capacities. They have a scale
marked either in cm3 or ml ((1 cm3 = 1ml). they measure the counted column of the
liquid. It is for this reason that they are graduated from zero upwards.
How to use a measuring cylinder
Pour some water into a measuring cylinder. Observe the shape of the liquid
surface. You will notice that the liquid surface is curved. The curved liquid surface
is called meniscus. Read the level of the bottom of the meniscus with your eyes at
the horizontal level

Burette
A burette consists of a long graduated glass tube fitted with a tap which opens and
closes easily. Burettes are mostly used when a known volume of a liquid is to be
run off. The scale, graduated in cm3 or ml, runs from zero downwards since the
volume required is run off from the bottom. (Fig. 4.13)
How to use a burette
Pour a liquid into the burette with the help of a funnel. Make sure that the level
goes well beyond the zero. Open the tap and allow the level to come to the zero
mark. (This is to ensure that even the lower part of the tap is filled with the liquid).
Run off the required volume of the liquid by opening the tap.

Pipette
Pipette like a burette, is used to run off known volume of a liquid. There are two
types of pipettes commonly used in school laboratories. They are: graduated
pipette and one mark pipette.
The graduated pipette can deliver various amounts of known volumes of a liquid.
One mark pipette derivers only one known volume of a liquid say 25ml in case of a
25ml pipette. (Fig. 4.14)
How to use a pipette
Dip a 25 ml pipette in a beaker containing clean water. Suck in the water to a level
above the mark. Close the mouth of the pipette with your thumb and slowly allow
the liquid level to drop to the one mark. Run of the liquid into a measuring
cylinder. Compare the volume delivered by the pipette and the volume read of a
measuring cylinder. The two volumes should be the same.
Exercise
1. Define volume and state its SI unit.
2. A tank full of a liquid has a volume of 6.0 m3. Find the volume of the tank
in:
a. Litres
b. Cubic cm
c. Ml
3. A metal block measures 5cm by 4cm by 10cm. calculate
a. The volume of the block
b. The number of blocks each measuring 2 cm by 1 cm by 5 cm that have
the same volume as that of the metal block
4. A beaker of radius 5cm contains water to a height of 10cm
a. What is the volume of the water in the beaker?
b. When a stone is completely immersed in the beaker, water rises to a
height of 19cm. what is the volume of the stone?
5. Give one advantage of using burette over a one mark pipette in measuring
volume of a liquid.
6. Explain why burettes are more accurate than measuring cylinders
7. What is
a. The minimum volume of a liquid that can be measured by the measuring
cylinder shown in figure below
b. The volume of the liquid in the measuring cylinder?

8. The tap of a burette is adjusted such that water comes out in drops. What
would be the reading on the burette if60 drops of water fall from the burette?
Take the average volume of the drop to be 50mm3.
Measurement of mass
Mass is the amount of matter in a substance. The Si unit is kilogram (kg). The
standard kilogram is the mass of a block of platinum iridium alloy kept at the
office of weighs and measures in Paris. Other masses are measured by comparing
them directly or indirectly with the mass. Table shows the relationship between the
SI unit of mass (kg) and other smaller units of mass.
Unit Symbol Comparison with kg
1 tonne t 1 000 kg
1 kilogram kg 1 kg
1 gram g 0.001 kg
1 milligram mg 0.000 001 kg

Balance for measuring mass

There are many kinds of balances used for measuring mass (Fig. 4.19)

In the laboratory, the mass of an object can be found using a beam balance and a
set of standard masses (Fig. 4.20)
The beam balance consists of a beam B, which swings freely about the lower edge
of a small wedged-shaped crystal C. two scale pans X and Y hang from the upper
edges of the crystal. The beam is zeroed before using. This involves making sure
that the pointer P is at the middle of the scale S and the plumber L is just touching
pillar M. this is done by adjusting the screws W and W’ respectively. When the
beam balances, the masses on the scale- pans are equal. The mass to be measured
is placed on one scale-pan which is then balanced by using known or standard
masses on the other scale pan. After weighing, the beam balance is gently lowered
so that it rests on the support T, which takes the load off the delicate wedges.

Estimation of mass
The mass of an object may be estimated by lifting it and comparing its heaviness
with a mass of an item whose mass is known. For example, the mass of a book
may be compared with the feel of the mass of 1 kg of meat, the mass of 1 liter of
milk. Etc. the mass of a person may be compared with the mass of a bag of cement.
The answers you get are not accurate but are in the correct order of magnitude.

Exercise 4.3
1. Define mass and state its Si unit
2. Draw and explain how a beam balance works
3. Which is heavier, one kilogram of lead or one kilogram of feather?
4. 600 pages of a book have a total mass of 0.6kg, calculate the mass of each
sheet of paper in the book in (a) kilograms (b) milligrams

4.8 Measurement of time

Time is the duration for a particular event to take place. The SI unit of time is the
second and its symbol is s.
Stop clock and watches
All living things have an inbuilt biological clock which seems to control the
rhythm of their life cycle. For example, the cock will crow only at specific time
intervals. Regardless of whether we are located or what we are doing we are
always aware of the idea of passage of time. This passage of time is noticed in
many ways, for example by the heartbeat, the sun, seasons etc. the measurement of
time is based on rhythm.
Time is measured by watches that are controlled by oscillations of a balance wheel
and hairspring or electrical oscillations of a quartz crystal.
Table 4.11 shows the SI unit of time ant its relationship with other larger and
smaller units of time.
Table 4.11
Unit Symbol Comparison with SI
unit
1 hour h 3 600 s
1 minute min 60 s
1 second s 1s
1 millisecond ms 0.001 s
I microsecond µs 0.000 001 s

How to use a stop watch or clock

 Start the stopwatch and time how long it takes to write a certain sentence
e.g. my fvaourite subject is physics.
 Stop the watch, reset and repeat the experiment about four times. Find your
average time for writing the sentence.

Estimation of time
Time may be estimated, for example, by knowing many heartbeats there are in one
second or how long it takes to pronounce a certain word.
Take a stopwatch and count, say, one hundred… etc. until 60 seconds (1 min) are
over. Repeat the counting without looking at the time. How far was your estimated
minute from the actual minute?

Exercise 4.4
1. What is the SI unit of time?
2. A student used the stop watch shown in figure to measure time taken by an
athlete to cover 100 m. what is the time taken by the athlete?

3. A wheel of a car is rotating uniformly makes 400 revolutions in one minute.

How long will the wheel take to make one revolution?
4.9 Measuring temperature
A piece of ice is very cold while boiling water is very hot. The degree of coldness
of hotness of a body is called temperature
The commonly used unit of measuring temperature is degree Celsius (o C) named
after a Swedish scientist called Celsius. The SI unit of temperature is kelvin (K),
named after the physicist Lord kelvin.

Thermometers
A thermometer is an instrument for measuring temperature. There are various
types of thermometers in use. The liquid in glass thermometer is most common one
the others are electrical, digital and gas thermometers. The main difference
between them is in the property of the thermometric substance. In this book we
shall discuss liquid in glass thermometers only.

Liquid in-glass thermometers

A liquid in-glass thermometer uses their mercury or coloured alcohol as the
thermometric substance

Mercury –in-glass thermometer

The thermometer consists of a thin walled build, containing mercury and a thin
capillary tube (bore) of uniform cross-sectional area. There is a space above
mercury which is usually evacuated to avoid excess of pressure being developed
when mercury expands.
How to use a thermometer
When using the thermometer, the bulb is kept in contact with the body whose
temperature is to be measured. Sufficient time is given for the mercury level in the
tube to become steady. The thermometer reading is the temperature of the body.
Some important precautions are taken in the construction of this type of
thermometer. They include:
1. The walls of the bulb are thin. This is to ensure that the mercury can easily
be heated.
2. The quantity of mercury in the bulb is small that the mercury takes little time
to warm up
3. The thin capillary tube is of uniform cross-section so that the mercury levels
moves uniformly along its length.

Alcohol-in-glass thermometer
The alcohol-in-glass thermometer uses coloured alcohol instead of mercury.
Volume of alcohol changes uniformely and easily when heated. The change in
volume of alcohol is about six times more than of mercury for the same change in
temperature. The range of temperatures that can be measured with this
thermometer is limited, as alcohol freezes at -115o C and boils at 78o C. however
this thermometer is ideal for measuring low temperatures.

Clinical thermometer
A clinical thermometer is an instrument designed for measuring the human body
temperature. It consists of a thin walled bulb containing mercury. The capillary
bore is very narrow and of uniform diameter. This thermometer has a narrow
constriction in the tube just above the bulb and has a limited range (see Fig. 4.25)
Celsius and kelvin scales
The lowest possible temperature that can be reached is known as absolute zero.
Any matter whose temperature is above this temperature, has some heat energy.
Experiments on gases show that absolute zero is approximately -273oC.
The kelvin temperature scale starts form absolute zero. To convert
temperature from Celsius scale (o C) to Kelvin scale temperatures (in k), add 273 to
the Celsius scale temperature
Temperature in K= temperature in o C + 273
Temperature in o C = temperature in K-273
o
C K
100 o C 373 K
xoC (273 + x)
K
0oC 273 K
-273 o C 0K

Unit summary
 Length is the distance between two points. The SI unit of length is the metre,
m. length is measured using a metre rule, tape measure, etc.
 Time is the duration between any two events. Its SI unit is the second, s. it is
measured using a stop watch/clock
 Mass is the quantity of matter in a substance. Its Si unit is the kilogram, kg.
Mass is measured using a beam balance.
 Length, time and mass are fundamental quantities of length.
 Area and volume are the derived quantities of length
 Volume may be measured using a measuring cylinder, burette, pipette, etc.
 Temperature is measured using a thermometer. The Si unit of temperature is
the kelvin (K).
Unit test 4
1. The Si unit for length is
A. Grammess
B. The square metre
C. The metre
D. The millimeter
2. Volume is equal to length multiplied by width by
A. Height
B. Length
C. Area
D. Mass
3. A matchbox has length l= 2cm, width, w = 1.5cm and the thickness, h = 1.0
cm calculate its volume.
A. 3.5 mc3
B. 3.5cm2
C. 4.5cm3
D. 4.5cm2
4. A flash disk has 8megabytes (MB). This means that the flash disk has
A. 8x106 bytes
B. 8x103 bytes
C. 8x1012 bytes
D. 8x10 bytes

5. Explain how you would measure:

a. The volume of a single drop of water from a burette
b. The time taken by an ant to cover a distance of 1 m.
6. Explain how you would measure the external diameter of a measuring
cylinder.
7. Drops of water coming from a crack in a water pat are collected at regular
intervals as shown in figure below
a. What is the volume of water collected?
b. Figure above shows the time taken to fill the measuring cylinder. What is
the time taken to collect this volume?
c. The measuring cylinder used has a capacity of 25ml. what is the time
taken to fill the measuring cylinder?
8. Explain the difference between the following measurements 46.0cm and 46
cm.
9. Estimate the volume of air in your classroom
10.A solid cube of aluminium of side 10 cm
a. Calculate its volume
b. What mass in kilogram of aluminium has a mass of 100 gram?
11.A Eureka can of each cross sectional area of 60cm2 is filled with water to a
height of 10cm. a piece of steel is lowered carefully into the can as shown
below. If the height of the wire dropped to 7cm. determine the volume of
steel metal.

12.Define the following terms:

a. Mass
b. Temperature
13.Convert each of the following into their SI units
i. 6434.2 g
ii. 0.00000046 t
iii. 40065µg
14.List two types of thermometers
15.Explain why:
a. A clinical thermometer has a constriction
b. Liquid in glass thermometer has thin glass capillary tube
16.Convert each of the following temperatures into kelvin
a. -274oC
b. 74oC
17.Define the term absolute temperature.
UNIT 5: PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER
Matter
Matter is anything and everything that we come across in this world. Matter can be
a piece of rock, a grain of maize, a piece of paper, water or air which we breath. In
science ‘matter’ is defined as anything that occupies space and has mass. Matter
can be classified into three states namely: solids, liquids and gases.

Composition of matter
Matter is made up of tiny (small) particles.
Experiment: cutting a sheet of paper into small bits
Apparatus
 An A4 size paper
 A pair of scissors/ students to use their hands

Procedure
 Take a large sheet of paper. Cut into small bits
 Take one of the small bits and cut it further into small bits
 Repeat this process several times. How far can you proceed in this exercise
of cutting smaller bits of paper.

Observation
Pieces of paper become too small that cannot be cut any more

Experiment: dissolving potassium permanganate solution

Apparatus
 A crystal of potassium permanganate
 A 500ml beaker
 A white background
  A boiling tube
 10ml measuring cylinder

Procedure
 Place a crystal of potassium permanganate in a test tube and add water
 Dissolve the crystal completely by shaking the tube vigorously (make sure
that the open end of the test tube is closed). What is the color of the
resulting solution? We see a deep purple colour.
 Transfer 1cm3 of this solution into a large beaker. Add 100 cm3 of water,
noting the colour of the solution each time. At one stage it becomes very
difficult to see the colour of the solution. Where has the deep purple colours
gone?

Observation
When potassium permanganate is dissolved in water contained in the test tube, the
piece of crystal is broken down into small pieces. The colour is uniform as there
small pieces are distributed uniformly through put the liquid. In the 1 cubic
centimetres of the solution, only a fraction of these small pieces are present.

The fewer pieces present in 1 cubic centimeter are distributed over a larger volume
of the solution and hence it is difficult to see the colour
Discussion
The single crystal is made of very many small pieces. These small pieces are called
particles. The observations show that matter is made up of very many small
particles.
The particulate nature of matter can be seen with the scanning tunneling
microscope. This microscope is capable of showing the details of the arrangements
of the particles in matter.

An English chemist called John Dalton proposed in 1808 that matter is made of
tiny indivisible identical particles called atoms. An Italian scientist called
Avogadro in 1811, suggested the word molecule to represent a collection or group
of atoms.
Matter such as a piece of rock, a grain of maize, paper, air, is referred to as
macroscopic. On the other hand, matter such as particles is referred to as
microscopic.

Conclusion
Matter is made up of tiny particles i.e. very small particles called atoms.
The three states of matter
Matter may exist in three states: solid, liquid and gas. The main difference between
these three states of matter is on particle or atom arrangements and how they are
bound together.
Although the main focus in this book is on three states of matter, it is important to
know that there is a fourth state of matter. The fourth state is known as plasma.
Plasma is formed when temperatures are so high that the outer electrons of the
atoms are removed from the orbits.
Motion of particles in matter
Solid state
An experiment done on solids show that there is no movement of particle from the
body of the solid to the surrounding. The particles of a solid are tightly held
together. The molecules of a solid have fixed positions and are closely packed in
an orderly manner. These molecules are not at rest but continuously vibrate to and
fro about their fixed positions.

Because the molecules are closely packed, there is large force of attraction holding
them together. A large force is needed to change the size or shape of a solid. This
is why a wire cable of a lift can carry a load of passengers without snapping. (Fig.
5.3)
Liquid state
Experiment: to demonstrate the motion of molecules in liquids

Apparatus
 Pollen grans
 A microscope or a hand lens
 Lycopodium powder
 Water in a beaker

Procedure
 Fill a beaker with water. Sprinkle the fine, tiny pollen grains of a plant
evenly on the surface of water
 Cover the beaker with a thin transparent lid
 Using a bright light, observe what happens to the pollen grains on the
surface of the water. You may need a hand lens or a microscope to magnify
the observed area.

Observation
The pollen grains are seen moving about in a random manner.

Discussion
The pollen grains are moving in a random manner. Tiny invisible water molecules,
moving in different directions with different speeds, collide with the pollen grains
and force them to move. This experiment suggests that the invisible, tiny
molecules of water are in a constant random motion.
As seen in this experiment, the liquid molecules move freely, unlike the molecules
in a solid. The distance between molecules of a solid. The molecules of aliquid are
loosely packed unlike those of the solid. The force of attraction between the
molecules is lower than the force of attraction between the molecules of a solid.
Conclusion
Molecules in liquids are always in a constant random motion.

Gaseous state
Experiment: to investigate the movement of the molecules in a gas

Apparatus
 A microscope
 A smoke cell

Procedure
 Collect some smoke (from a smouldering wick or by lighting the top end of
a drinking straw) in a small glass container (called the smoke cell)
 Close the cell and place the cell under a microscope and adjust the
microscope to focus the inside of the smoke cell
 Switch on the cell to illuminate the cell with concentrated light from a
powerful light bulb from the side
 View the cell through the microscope, what do you observe?
Observations
Tiny illuminated particles are seen moving rap[idly or dancing randomly in
different directions with different speeds.

Discussion
These tiny, bright specks are the illuminated smoke particles moving in a zigag or
random path. The density of smoke is less than air and the greyish smoke particles
tend to rise inside the cell. This suggest that the smoke particles are being hit by
the invisible particles of air. The smoke particles are forced to move in a zigzag
manner
The air particles are also moving at random in different directions making the tiny
smoke particles to move in the same manner. This constant random motion of the
particles of air is called Brownian motion, name after a Scottish scientist Robert
Brown.
Conclusion
From this experiment we can summarise the following:
The distance between the molecules of a gas is large and the force of attraction
between the molecules is very small (almost negligible). These molecules move
about freely in all directions.

The force of cohesion between the molecules of a gas is extremely small and as
they move, they collide with each other and also with the walls of the container

Diffusion
Is the process in which the molecules of a fluid spread from regions of their higher
concentrations to regions of their lower concentration.

Experiment: to investigate diffusion in liquid

Apparatus
 A bottle
 Concentrated solution of potassium permanganate
 A trough
Procedure
 Fill a bottle with a concentrated solution of potassium permanganate and
leave the top open
 Place this bottle in a larger glass container and pour water carefully from the
side till the water level is well above the open top of the bottle. (Fig. 5.8 (c))

 Leave the set-up undisturbed for some time. Observe what happens to the
colour of the solution inside the bottle and to the water outside surrounding
the bottle. You may have to watch this for a long times.
Observation
 The coloured solution of potassium permanganate rises upwards and spreads
to the entire space occupied by the water.

Discussion
The spreading continues in such a way that the molecules of the solution move
form a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration. This is
diffusion in liquids. The spreading stops when the concentration of the entire
solution becomes the same all over.

Conclusion
Particles in liquids diffuse from one point to all other parts of the liquid.

Experiment: to demonstrate diffusion in gases

Part 1
Apparatus
 Two jars
 Lime water
 A glass plate
 Carbon dioxide gas
 Two gas jars

Procedure
 Take two jars, one filled with carbon dioxide gas and the other with air
 Introduce lime water into these jars and observe what happens

Observation
The lime water turns milky in the jar containing carbon dioxide. There is no effect
in the other jar. This is the test for the presence of carbon dioxide which will be
used in part b.

Part 2
Procedure
 Take two jars one filled with carbon dioxide gas and the other with air
 Arrange the two jars with a glass plate separating them as shown in figure
below
 Leave the set-up undisturbed for a few minutes and then carefully remove
the glass plate. Introduce a few drops of lime water into the jar that
contained only air. What happens to the lime water?
Observation
The limewater turns milky in air jar B

Discussion
The above effect shows the presence of carbon dioxide gas in the top jar, which
contained only air. That is why lime water turned milky.
As soon as the glass plate is removed, the dense molecules of carbon dioxide gas
rise upwards and spreads to the region of air of low density. The molecules of the
two gases inter-mix with each other. The spreading continues until the mixture
acquires a uniform density

Conclusion
The observation shows that molecules in a gas move from a region of higher
concentration to the region of lower concentration. This is diffusion in gases.
Diffusion in gases takes place more quickly than in liquids. The molecules of a gas
move more freely than those in liquid. In a solid, the molecules can only vibrate to
and fro in their fixed positions. This is the process by which volatile substances
e.g. perfumes, kept at distance are sensed if they have odour.

5.4 Properties of matter

1. Shape of matter
Experiment: to investigate the shape of matter
a. Liquid
Apparatus
 A 250 ml beaker
 A 250 ml round bottom flask
 Water

Procedure
 Take a 250 ml beaker and fill it with water. Note the shape taken by the
water. Repeat the experiment using a 250ml round bottom flask.

Observation
The liquid take the shapes of a beaker and round bottom flask

Discussion
A liquid has no definite shape. It occupies the entire volume of any container taken
the shape of the container
Conclusion
Though liquids have definite size (volume), they have no particular shape. They
take the shape of the container. Molecules in a liquid vibrate but can change
position.

b. Gas
Apparatus
 Solid carbon dioxide
 A glass lid
 A 250ml beaker
 A tumbler

Procedure
 Place solid carbon dioxide at one of the bottom corner of a beaker covered
with a glass lid. What happens to the solid carbon dioxide
 Place a tumbler that has a mouth the size as the beaker on top of glass cover
 Remove the glass cover. What happens to the fumes of carbon dioxide?
Observation

 The solid carbon dioxide turns into a gas that fills the beaker
 The fumes of carbon dioxide spreads and fills the tumbler
Conclusion
Carbon dioxide gas takes the shape of the beaker and tumbler

c. Solids
Apparatus
 Plasticine
 Cuboid
 Cube
 Cylinder

Procedure
 Take plasticine (or wet clay soil) and mold it into several shapes i.e. cubes,
cuboid and cylinders (See Fig. 5.12)

Observation
You will observe that solids have definite shape i.e. has its own shape

Flow of matter
Experiment: to investigate the ability of matter to flow
Apparatus
 Laboratory water taps
 Stopwatch/ stop-clock

Procedure
 Turn on the water taps in your laboratory for 30 seconds. Observe what
happens (see fig. 5.13)

Observations
Water flows from the tap to the sink

Conclusions
The ability of liquids to flow is called viscosity. Gases flow fastest since the
intermolecular forces between its particles are very weak.
Solids do not flow at all because their particles are strongly held together. Oil and
molten metal flow slowly because they have relatively strong intermolecular
forces.
3. Compressibility
Experiment: to show the compressibility of matter
Apparatus
 Syringe

Procedure
 Take a syringe and close the open nozzle with a finger (Fig. 5.14)

 Push the piston down; now take the piston upwards. What do you observe
about the magnitude of force required?
 Repeat the experiment with water

Observation
We observe that a small force can change the volume of the trapped air inside the
cylinder

Discussion
This shows that air is compressible. The distance between the air molecules is
large and the force of attraction between air molecules is small.
Results show that water (liquid) is incompressible
Similar experiment designed for solid shows that solids, like liquids are
incompressible.
Conclusion
 Solids and liquids are incompressible while gases are compressible.

Unit summary
 Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass
 Matter consists of tiny particles called atoms
 Matter can be classified into three states: gases, solids and liquids
 A gas has neither definite size nor shape. They fill the volume of containers.
Its molecules move about randomly. The distance between gas molecules is
about 10 times more than that of a solid or a liquid. They are easy to
compress.
 Solids have definite size and shape. The atoms of a solid vibrate to and fro
about their fixed positions. Solids are incompressible
 Liquids take the shape of the container or vessel. Their molecules move
freely inside the liquid. They are compressed
 Brownian motion explains the random movements of the gas molecules
 Diffusion in fluids is due to spreading of molecules from a region of higher
concentration to that of a lower concentration. Diffusion takes place more
quickly in gases than in liquids.

Now we can summarize the properties of the three states of matter

Property Solid Liquid Gas

Shape Keeps own Takes shape of Take shape of
shape container container
Volume Keeps own Keeps own volume Takes volume of
volume container
Density High to very Medium to high Low
high
Can be Not at all Only a little A great deal
compressed
 Force between stronger strong Weak
particles
Motion of Vibrate fixed with Vibrate Vibrate more
particles respect to each Move within anywhere
other liquid volume

Unit test 5
1. Which one of the following is not a state of matter?
A. Solid
B. Density
C. Liquid
D. Gas
2. A girl sitted at the corner of the class has a strong perfume. Through which
process does the perfume reach the teacher in front of the class
A. Radiation
B. Transportation
C. Diffusion
D. Dilution
3. Which one of the following can be compressed
A. Gas
B. Liquid
C. Solid
D. Plasma
4. What makes dust particles to remain suspended in the atmosphere?
A. Diffusion
B. Osmosis
C. Particles of air vibrating
D. Dust particles being hit by unseen air particles moving randomly
5. The movement of particles from region of their high concentration to a
region of their low concentration is called
A. Diffusion
B. Osmosis
C. Vibration
D. Dilution
6. A. What is matter? B. give three examples of matter
 7. Explain the meaning of the terms macroscopic and microscopic in relation to
matter, giving a suitable example in each case.
8. Distinguish between the three states of matter. You answer should include a
reference to the spacing, ordering and movement of the molecules
9. Fill the spaces by choosing suitable term in brackets. After the passage.
The molecular model of matter suggest that all matter is made up of
______________ particles bonded together by inter molecular forces. In solids the
sizes of the inter molecular forces are __________ and the molecules
___________ about their fixed positions. In liquids these forces are __________
that in solids and the molecules move ____________ within the liquid and hence a
liquid has no _____________ shape. In gases the molecules are able to move
___________ at high speeds. (Freely, randomly, vibrate, less, great, tiny, fixed).
10.Draw the diagram to show how one air molecule moves in a closed
container.
11.Explain the following
A. It is possible to compress gases but not solids and liquids
B. A perfume sprayed at one corner of a room spreads quickly to the entire
room
12.What does the term Brownian motion mean?
13.A smoke cell contains a mixture of trapped air and smoke. The cell is
brightly lit and viewed through a microscope. Small bright specks are seen
dancing in a random manner.
A, what are these small bright specks?
Why do they move in the manner described above?
UNIT 6: CHANGE SOF STATES OF MATTER

Heat and Temperature

We learnt in Unit 4 that temperature is the degree of coldness or hotness of a body.
Therefore, temperature is also a measure of the kinetic energy of the molecules in a
body, we know that molecules in boiling water (1000C) move faster than molecules
in ice (0C). This means that boiling water contains more energy than ice. The SI
unit of temperature is the Kelvin (K).
If hot water is poured into a bowl containing ice at 0C, the temperature of ice and
the bowl increases. The fact that the temperature has increased suggests that ice
and the bowl have gained heat energy. Heat is a form of energy which passes from
a body of high temperature to a body of low temperature. The SI unit of heat
energy is the joule (J).
The following experiment will enable us to understand the difference between heat
and temperature

Experiment: to investigate the difference between heat and temperature

Apparatus
 Cooking oil
 Two identical test tubes
 Two identical thermometers
 A beaker
 A stirrer

Procedure
 Take equivalent masses of water and of cooking oil in two identical test
tubes fitted with two identical thermometers.
 Place these tubes in a large beaker containing water. (Fig. 6.1)
  Note the initial temperature of both water and oil in the tubes. Heat the water
in the beaker and make sure that the heat is disturbed uniformely by stirring
the water
 After some time, note the temperature of water and oil in the tubes. Are the
two temperatures the same?

Observation
The temperature of water is observed to be lower than that of oil.
Discussion
When the tubes are heat for the same time, i.e. the same heat energy will pass from
the burner to the tubes. Both oil and water have gain equal amount of heta energy
but are at different temperatures.

Conclusion
Therefore, two substances can have equal heat energy supplied but be at different
temperatures.

Effects of heat on matter

When heat is supplied or removed from matter, various effects can be observed.
One of them is the change of state of matter.

Melting and freezing

Melting is a process in which a solid changes into a liquid at a constant
temperature. Freezing is the reverse of melting i.e. the process in which a liquid is
changed into a solid at constant temperature.

Experiment: to show the heating curve for ice

Apparatus:
 A 500g of pure ice
 A copper calorimeter
 Source of electric power
Procedure
 Take 500g of pure crushed ice at about -100C
 Put the ice in a well-insulated copper container as shown in figure below
 Record the initial temperature of the ice. Close the switch S and start the
stop watch at the same time

 Record the temperature of ice at 30 seconds intervals until the temperature

of the container is about 100C. record your results as shown in table below
Time 0 30 60 90 120 140 160 180 200
(s)
Temp.
(oC)

Table: relationship between temperature and time

What happens to the amount of ice as heating continues?
 Plot a graph of temperature against time. Explain the shape of the graph

Observation
 The temperature rises steadily during the first few seconds
 The temperature remain constant for some time
 Then the temperature starts rising again.

Discussion
Figure below shows the graph of temperature against time.

The graph shows that:

 1. The temperature of ice rises steadily from -100C to 00C. during this time,
along AB, the ice remains as solid.
2. At 00C, along the line BC, the temperature remains constant for a period of
time. During this period, the ice is observed to be melting. At C all the ice
has melted and it becomes water.
3. After all the ice has melted, the temperature of water starts rising again as
seen along the line CD of the graph
4. From 00C, the temperature of ice at 00C starts to drop steadily.

The above experiment shows that, when a substance is changing its state from
solid to liquid, heat is required. Thermal energy absorbed during the melting
process is called lantent heat. The term ‘lantent’eans ‘hidden’ and no change of
temperature occurs, as shown in the part BC of the graph, until all the ice has
melted. Conversely if water at 00C is cooled steadily to ice at 00C, it must give out
the same heat energy.
During the change of state (solid to liquid to gas), the temperature remains constant
although heat is continuously being added. The heat added as the substance
changes from one state to another is used to increase the distance between
molecules or atoms and the energy needed in the next state.

Conclusion
If pressure remains unchanged, a solid substance melts and freezes at a specific
temperature. This temperature is called the melting point of a substance. The
melting pint of pure ice is 00C and the freezing point of pure water is also 00C
under standard atmospheric pressure.

Boiling
Boiling is a process in which a liquid is changed to vapour at a constant
temperature.

Experiment: to show the heating curve of water

Apparatus
 Round bottom flask
 Tripod stand
 Thermometer
 An L shaped delivery tube
 Source of heat
 Stop watch

Procedure
 Take some pure water at room
temperature in a glass heating flask and
insert a thermometer and a steam escape
tube as shown in the figure below
 Note the initial temperature of the water
 Heat the water steadily and note that the
temperature at regular intervals of time
 Continue heating for about 2 to 3 minutes
even after the steam is seen to escape
from the team escape tube.
 Record your results in a tabular form as
shown in table below
Time 0 30 60 90 120 140 160 180 200
(s)
Temp.
(oC)

What happens to the temperature of water in the initial stages? What is the
temperature when the steam is seen to escape from the escape tube? What happens
to the mass of water as boiling continues?
 Plot a graph of temperature against time. Write down your observation from
the graph.
Observation
 The temperature of water rises steadily
 Then, temperature remains constant for some time
 Finally, the temperature rises again
Discussion
Figure shows the graph from the boiling process

The graph shows that:

1. The temperature of water rises steadily from room temperature. During this
time, along AB, water remains as liquid
2. At 1000C, along this line BC, the temperature remains constant for a period
of time. During this period, water is observed to be boiling. At C all water
has turned into water vapour.
3. After water has turned into vapour, the temperature of vapour rises again as
seen along the line CD of the graph.
Experiment shows that when a substance is changing its state from liquid to
gaseous state heat is required. Thermal energy absorbed during the boiling process
is called the lantent heat of vaporization. There is no change in temperature, as
shown in part BC of the graph, until all the water vaporized. Conversely if steam at
1000C is cooled, i.e. water vapour condenses to water at 1000C, it must give out the
same heat energy.
As the steam escape tube is kept open throughout the experiment, it is obvious that
the pressure inside the flask is equal to the pressure outside, which is the
atmospheric pressure.

Conclusion
If pressure remains unchanged a liquid substance always boils at a fixed
temperature. This temperature is called the boiling point of the liquid. The boiling
point of water is 1000C under standard atmospheric pressure.

Experiment: to show the cooling curve for naphthalene

Apparatus
 Fume cupboard
 Test tube
 Thermometer
 Source of heat
 A stand, clamp and boss
 Naphthalene
 Beaker
 Tripod stand
 Stirrer
 Stop watch

Precaution: this experiment should be carried outside or where possible ia a fume

cupboard
Procedure
 Take some naphthalene in a test tube
 Place the test tube in a beaker containing boiling water as shown in figure
below. Leave the test tube for some time until all the naphthalene has melted
and its temperature is well above its melting point. Remove the test tube
from the hot water and clamp is as shown in the figure. Note the temperature
of naphthalene.
 Record the temperature of naphthalene at 30 seconds intervals until all
naphthalene has solidified and cooled below its freezing point. Shield the
test tube from draught while it is cooling and keep stirring to ensure even
solidification.
 Record the temperatures at which the Naphthalene change the state from
liquid to solid.

 Draw a graph of temperature against time. Describe the shape of the graph
and explain what happens to naphthalene at each stage.
Observation
 Temperature falls at first, then becomes constant and lastly falls again
 It is fund that naphthalene melts at 780C.
Discussion

 If a graph of temperature (0C) against time t (s) drawn, we have;

The graph above shows the results obtained from such an experiment. Kinetic
theory of matter may be used to explain the cooling curve for naphthalene

1. The curve AB represents the naphthalene in liquid state. The temperature

falls as the liquid is above the temperature of the surroundings. As a result
the molecules lose both their kinetic and potential energies. This results in a
decrease in speed of the molecules and they come close together.,
2. The straight line section of the graph BC represents the mixture of
naphthalene in liquid and solid states. At B it is mainly in the liquid state and
at C is mainly in the solid state. As its temperature is still above the
temperature of the surroundings, heat is given out, but at a constant
temperature.
3. The curve CD represents naphthalene in solid as it continues to cool since its
temperature is still above room temperature.

Experiments with other substances show a similar behavior like that of

naphthalene.

Conclusion

Figure shows the cooling curve of naphthalene.

This is because the lantent heat is being released from inside naphthalene as it
changes from liquid state to the solid.

Factors affecting melting point and boiling point

Factors affecting melting point of a substance

Pressure

Under standard atmospheric pressure, a pure substance always melts at a definite

temperature. The melting point, however changes with the change in pressure
acting upon a substance. The change in the melting point due to change in pressure
is, however not large.

Experiment: to show the effect of pressure on the melting point of ice

Apparatus

 Two stools or two cement blocks

 Ice block
 Wire

Procedure

 Rest a large block of ice at 00C on two stools or two cement blocks
 Hang a thin copper wire around the block and attach two equal heavy
weights to the ends of the wire as shown below
  Observe and record what happens to the wire and the block of ice

Observation

Is the ice in piece or two pieces?

The wire completely cuts right through the block of ice and the weights fall to the
soft pad on the floor.

Discussion

In the above experiment it is also observed that initially as the pressure of the wire
on the ice increases, the melting point of ice decreases and so the ice melts. The
water flows above the wire. The latent heat required from the melting of ice comes
from the copper wire.

The water above the wire is no longer under pressure. As the pressure is released,
the water which is at a temperature below zero freezes again binding the two
pieces of ice together. During freezing, heat is given out by water and this heat is
conducted down through the copper wire. This provides heat for further melting of
the ice under the wire. At one stage, the wire cuts right through the block of ice and
falls to the floor, leaving ice still in a solid block.
This phenomenon where ice melts results when pressure is increased and again
solidifies (freezes) when the pressure is reduced is called regelation. (again: gelare,
freeze).

Conclusion
Ice contracts on melting. An increase in pressure would help it in its contraction
and hence we should expect a decrease in the melting point of ice as pressure on its
surface is increased. The melting point of ice decreases with the increase in
pressure.
For substances like wax, gold, silver etc. which expand on melting, an increase in
pressure would make its expansion difficult. These substance have to be heated
more in order to melt. As a result, we should expect an increase in the melting
point, as pressure is increased. For such substances, the melting pint increases with
the increase in pressure.

Impurities
Experiments show that impurities decrease the melting point of a substance.
Though pure water freezes at 00C, salty water would remain as water even at -10C.
The extent to which the freezing point is lowered depends upon the concentration
of impurities dissolved into the liquid. For example when slat is added to ice, its
melting point is reduced to a value as low as -100C. This method is used to
defreeze roads in cold countries during winter. Antifreeze material is added to the
water in the car radiators to stop water from freezing when temperature falls below
00C.

Factors affecting boiling point of a liquid

Pressure
Under standard atmospheric pressure, pure water boils at 1000C. The boiling point
of water, however, changes with the change in pressure acting upon its surface.

Experiment: to show the effect of pressure on boiling point of water

Apparatus
 A thermometer
 A round bottom flask
 A vacuum pump
 A tripod stand

Part 1
Procedure
 Take some warm water in a glass bottom flask fitted with a two-holed rubber
bung
 Pass a thermometer through one hole and short glass tube through the other

 Connect the glass tube to a vacuum pump. Note the initial temperature of the
warm water
 Start pumping out air inside the flask. What happens to the water? Observe
the thermometer reading as more and more air is pumped out of the flask.
Observation
Water begins and the thermometer shows rapid fall in temperature. This
experiment shows that decreasing the pressure on the water surface decreases its
boiling point. Since no heat is being supplied from outside, the heat which is
necessary for water to boil, is taken from the water itself. Therefore water cools
and the temperature shown by the thermometer drops rapidly.

Conclusion
Lowering the pressure, lowers the boiling point of water. The converse is also true.
Increasing the pressure on a liquid surface increases its boiling point. Hence
boiling point increases with water increase in the pressure.

Part II
Procedure
 Modify the set up in Experiment to be as in figure below to show the effect
of increase of pressure on the boiling point of water.

Discussion
When the water in the flask is heated, without the delivery tube, water boils at
1000C under standard atmospheric pressure. When the delivery tube is fitted with
its other end dipped in mercury, water vapour cannot escape and the pressure on
the water surface in the flask increases. The thermometer shows a rapid rise in
temperature showing than the boiling point of water has increased.

Conclusion
This shows that the boiling increases with increase in pressure. Using the same
argument, a cooking pot with a lid on cooks faster than one without a lid
It is common to see cooking pots being covered with lids to quicken the process of
cooking food.
Experiment: To show the effect of pressure on boiling point of water

Apparatus
 Two beakers
 A source of heat
 A stopwatch
Procedure
 Take two beakers and half fill them with water. Heat one beaker an dtime
how long it takes for the water to boil (See Fig. 6.11 (a) )

 Repeat the experiment with the second beaker but put this time cover the
mouth of beaker tightly with a lid (See Fig. 6.11 (b))
 Compare the time taken for the water in the two beakers to boil

Observation
The beaker with a lid takes less time to boil than the uncovered beaker
Discussion
The boiling point of the liquid in the beaker with lid slightly higher. A pressure
cooker use this idea.

Conclusion
Boiling point of water increases with increase in pressure
Impurities
Experiments show that impurities increase the boiling point of water. Pure water
boils ta 1000C under standard atmospheric pressure. If impurities like salt is added
to water, it is seen that impure water boils at a higher temperature.

The pressure cooker

The pressure cooker
The pressure cooker is an appliance which uses the fact that boiling point of water
is directly proportional to the pressure. The pressure cooker is made of an
aluminum container with a lid having a rubber sealing ring called the gasket. This
ring makes it air tight. When the cooker is used to cook food, a space of not less
than 1/3 of the atmospheric pressure. A loaded pin valve is used to release some
steam in order to maintain the required pressure and avoid an explosion due to too
much built up pressure inside the cooker. The pressure in the cooker can be
regulated using weights place don the pin valve. The more the weights the greater
is the pressure inside the cooker. Due to high pressure the water boils at about
1200C which makes the food cook faster. Air pressure at the top of a mountain
such as Mt. Kenya is much lower than the standard atmospheric pressure. It would
take a lot of time and fuel to cook up there in the mountain. It is better to use a
pressure cooker under such conditions. Figure below shows the parts of a pressure
cooker while figure b shows a commercial pressure cooker.
In case the pin valve malfunctions and fails to release the steam at high pressure,
the steam forces itself through the safety valve which can melt quite easily. Extra
care must be taken to ensure that pressure cooker is always in good working order
and handled properly. A malfunction of the cooker can cause serious
environmental damage.

Exercise
1. Describe and explain an experiment to show that the boiling point of water is
lowered by lowering the pressure on its surfaces
2. With the aid of a diagram describe the essential parts of a pressure cooker.
3. Explain the processes of boiling and melting
4. Explain how impurities affect the melting and boiling points of a substance
5. Explain the functions of the following parts in a refrigerator: compressor,
condensing coil, evaporating coil, thermostat
6. Explain the term ‘regelation’.
c. Two small blocks of ice are rubbed with their flat surfaces together. On
removing the pressure, it is seen that the two blocks stick to each other.
Explain this observation.
7. Explain why
a. A heavily loaded copper wire hung around a large block of ice does not
cut it into two halves, yet it passes through the block
b. It is difficult to cook quickly with an open vessel at mountain tops
Evaporation
We have seen earlier that boiling is a process in which a liquid is converted to
vapour at a fixed temperature. Like boiling, evaporation is a process in which a
liquid is converted to vapour but at all temperatures. Evaporation of a liquid occurs
from the surface of a liquid. Wet clothes spread outside in the sun become dry. The
same wet clothes spread inside the house during rainy season becomes eventually
dry, but takes longer time. Similarly. However y water in a shallow dish placed in
open air gradually diminished and ultimately disappears altogether. A puddle of
water on the roadside always clean up in dry and sunny weather. However the
puddle last longer in cold weather, but eventually clears up.
Molecules move freely within a liquid and the energy is mainly kinetic. However
there is a small force of attraction between the molecules. The molecules are
continually breaking through the surface of the liquid, but most of these are
attracted back to the liquid by the cohesive forces. Some escape from the surface of
the liquid. The gradual loss of molecules in this way is known as evaporation.
Since the fast moving molecules escape, the average kinetic energy of the
remaining molecules is reduced. As temperature is a measure of the average kinetic
energy of the molecules, the temperature of the liquid falls during evaporation.
Thus evaporation. Thus evaporation causes cooling.

Experiment: To show that evaporation causes cooling

Apparatus
 A wooden block
 A bicycle pump
 Metal container
 Ether

Procedure
 Pour a drop or two of water over the surface of a wooden block and place
upon it a small metal container with some ether in it.
  Blow a rapid steam of air through the ether with the help of air bellows or a
bicycle pump
 After a few minutes, try to lift the beaker off the wooden block. What has
happened? - The container is stuck to the wooden surface.
Observation
The ether evaporates and the vapour is quickly carried away as the bubbles rise to
the surface and burst. The rate of evaporation increase.

Discussion
The sudden change from the liquid to the vapour requires latent heat of
evaporisation which comes from the internal energy of the liquid itself. This cause
the liquid to cool well below. At the same time heat is being conducted from the
water drops underneath through the metal container and water also cools to 00C.

Conclusion
The water at 00C, the, begins to lose latent heat of fusion and finally freezes.
Therefore the container is stuck to the wooden block. This experiment proves that
evaporation causes cooling i.e. evaporation has a cooling effect
Factors affecting the rate of evaporation
Temperature
An increase in temperature increase the rate of evaporation since the molecules
gain more kinetic energy which enables them to escape from the surface of the
liquid.

Surface area
Evaporation takes place only at the surface of a liquid. Increasing the surface area
of a liquid increases the rate of evaporation. This is why hot tea placed in a flat
dish gets colder quickly

Pressure
If the pressure acting on the surface of a liquid is decreased, more and more
molecules can escape from this surface. Therefore a decrease in pressure increases
the rate of evaporation of a liquid. This is why in a vacuum, the evaporation is
extremely rapid.

Draught (air current)

Draught or air currents moving over the surface of a liquid increases the rate of
evaporation. This is why wet clothes get dry faster on a windy day.

Nature of rapid
The boiling point of a liquid depends upon the nature of the liquid. Thus, ether
having a low boiling point will evaporate more easily than the same quantity of
water under similar conditions

Similarities and differences between evaporation and boiling

Similarities
Both evaporation and boiling are processes where a liquid changes its state to
vapour.
For both processes, the latent heat of vaporization is required.

Differences
Evaporation Boiling
 Evaporation takes place at all  Boiling takes place only at a
temperatures fixed temperature known as the
boiling of the liquid
 Evaporation takes place at the  Boiling takes place throughout
surface of the liquid the mass of the liquid
 Once evaporation takes place,  Once boiling takes place, the
there is a fall in temperature temperature of the liquid remains
which causes a cooling effect a constant
 Evaporation is a slow and a  Boiling is a rapid and noisy
calm process process

Applications of cooling effect caused by evaporation

1. Water kept in an earthen pitchers (clay or mud pots) is colder than the one is
a metal container. The earthen porous and water seeps through the pores and
escapes.
The required latent heat of evaporation is being removed from the internal energy
of water inside the pot. This causes water inside the pot to cool well below room
temperature. If a wet cloth is wrapped around the
pot., the rate of evaporation can be speeded up and
more cooling effect produced

2. If a little eau-de- cologne or methylated spirit

is sprayed on the hand, the hand feels cold.
The spirit has a low boiling point and can
change from ‘liquid to vapor quite easily at
room temperature. Such liquids are called
 volatile liquids. To change from liquid to vapor, the required latent heat of
vaporization is removed from the hand. The hand loses heat and cool
3. Human beings sweat (perspire) on a hot day or after a severe exercise. Dogs
pant, i.e. hang out their tongue, since their bodies are not porous. The
sweating effect or panting is to keep the body cool.
4. When we perspire in hot weather, we prefer to sit below an electric fan.
Cooling effect is produced due to rapid evaporation
5. In hot weather, the sprinkling of roads with water not only lays down the
dust particles from the road, but also produces a cooling effect by
evaporation
6. If we expose ourselves to wing with wet clothes on a rainy day, we feel
intense cold to the evaporation of water
7. The cooling effect caused by evaporation is also applied in the working of a
refrigerator, which will be discussed in the following section
Evaporation is an essential part of water cycle. Evaporation of water occurs when
the surface of the liquid is exposed, allowing molecules to escape and form water
vapor, this water vapor can then rise up and form clouds. The atmosphere always
contain water vapor due to evaporation which goes on continuously from oceans
and other water surfaces. The amount of water vapour in air depends on the
temperature. If warm air is cooled the excess vapour is converted into water. This
process is called condensation. This is the process by which rain is caused. By this
process, water is moved from the original sources such as lakes, oceans to animals
and plants far away from the source.

The refrigerator
A refrigerator is an appliance from keeping items cold. The operation of a
refrigerator depends on two facts:
1. When a liquid evaporates it takes up its latent heat
2. When a vapour condenses it gives out its latent heat
Figure a. below shows the essential parts of a domestic gas type refrigerator.
Figure B shows a photograph of a commercial refrigerator. The main parts of a
refrigerator are: the compressor, the condenser, evaporator and the expansion
valve. The compressor and the condenser are outside the refrigerator while the
evaporating coil and expansion valve are inside it. The ‘ refrigerant’, i.e. the liquid
used in the refrigerator’s circulatory system is Freon (dichloro-difluoro-methane)
which is nonpoisonous and odourless.

The refrigerant vapor (gas) is ‘drawn in by the compressor. It is then compressed

and passed into the condensing coil, which is air cooled by a fan. The gas gets
liquefied losing its latent heat of evaporisation. This liquid refrigerant is made to
enter the evaporating coil, where the pressure is relatively low. The liquid
evaporates at once at lower pressure and the latent heat of vaporization required for
the change of state is taken from the air in the freezing compartment and other food
items stored in it. As a result of this, the temperature of the air in the refrigerator
cabinet is lowered to about 70C, an ideal temperature for storing most of food
items. The temperature quite close to the evaporating coil falls below the
temperature of the ice due to large surface area of the coil. The gas goes back into
the compressor, gets liquefied and the cycle repeats itself
There refrigerator cabinet is well insulated so that no heat is conducted from
outside into it. The temperature inside the cabinet is controlled by a thermostat (a
bimetallic strip). When the temperature rises a few degrees above 70C, the
thermostat makes electrical contact and starts the motor. When the temperature
inside falls by the desired amount, the circuit is broken by the thermostat and the
motor stops working.

Sublimation and deposition

Sublimation is when a solid is transformed directly into a gas without passing
through liquid state when heated. Deposition is the opposite of sublimation. A gas
is transformed into a solid without passing through a liquid state when cooled.
Deposition releases energy and in an exothermic phase change.

Liquid
Melting
Condensation
Vaporisation freezing
Sublimation
Gas Solid
Deposition
Project work
Suggested materials
1. Metal wire mesh of 0.5 cm smaller (fig below). Sufficient mesh to make a
large cube of side 20 cm and another smaller cuboid of sides 15 cm x 15 cm
x 20cm.
2. Sufficient quantity of charcoal pieces.
3. Supply water
4. 4 pieces of long thick cloth (blanket) about 20 cm x 3.0 cm
5. 2 cardboards pieces about 17 cm x 17 cm
6. A liquid (milk) in a tightly closed container
Assembly
 Make a cube with wire mesh of side 20 cm with open top and another open
cuboid of side 15cm x 15cm x 20cm
 Place one cardboard piece inside the cube to act as a base from the liquid
container to be placed.
 Lower the small cuboid centrally into the larger cube as shown below

 Place the container of liquid inside the cuboid. Close the top of the cuboid
with another cardboard
 Keep pouring water so that the charcoal is wet at all the time
 Alternatively, place the arrangement of the cube in such a way that water
from a tap drips lowly and continuously on the cloth on one side. The
experiment has to be carried out in a place where there is good air draught.
 After about two hours, remove the container of the liquid and note its
temperature. What do you notice?
The temperature of the liquid I slower than the outside temperature. What causes
the fall in the temperature

Unit summary
 Heat is a form of energy
 Temperature is a measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a body
 Heat flow from region of high temperature to a region of low temperature
 At high temperature, particles have more kinetic energy than at low
temperature
 SI unit of heat is the joule (J)
 SI unit of temperature Is the kelvin (K)
 When heat is supplied to matter, melting, evaporation, boiling, sublimation
or deposition may occur
 When heat is removed from matter, freezing, deposition or condensation
may occur
 During change of state of nay matter temperature remains constant
 Pressure, altitude and impurities affect the boiling point of matter

Unit test 6
1. Which of the following instruments is used to measure temperature?
A. Barometer
B. Force meter
C. Thermometer
D. Metre-rule
2. The boiling point of pure water is
A. 1000C
B. 750C
C. 00C
D. 10000C
3. Which of the following process is witnessed in the change of state of matter
A. Diffusion
B. Melting
C. Contraction
D. Vibrating
4. The process by which liquid changes into vapor at all temperatures is called?
A. Deposition
B. Boiling
C. Fusion
D. Evaporation
5. Give the SI unit for the following quantities?
A. Temperature
B. Heat
6. Name 3 factors that affect the boiling point of substances
7. Explain the following quantities in terms of particles:
A. Melting and freezing
B. Evaporation
C. Boiling
8. Define the terms:
A. Sublimation
B. Deposition
Explain how a pressure cooker works
9. Explain why:
A. Boiling maize on top of a mountain takes longer than when doing so at
the foot of the same mountain.
B. Refrigerator have coiled condensing coil
10.List four factors that affect the rate of evaporation
11.Describe how evaporation is useful on human being’s body
12.Give three differences between evaporation and boiling
UNIT 7: FORCES
Definition of force
In our daily lives, it is common to see things being pushed or being pulled. For
example a donkey pulling a cart, a car being pushed to start, pushing wheelbarrows
in a building site, pushing a lawn mower cutting grass, etc see figure below

These activities and many more involve either pushoing or pulling. In physics, a
pull or a push is called a force.
The SI unit of force is the newton N, named after the famous physicist Sir Isaac
Newton (1642-1727)

Effects of forces
The effect of a force depends on the size, nature, how and where the force is
applied.
The following are some activities used to illustrate the effect of forces on bodies.

A force can distort or change the shape of an object. For example, stretching a
rubber band or a spring when compressed by a force and squeezing a balloon.
Clay and plasticine are examples of substances whose shapes change easily when a
force acts on them.
Activity 7.4

In summary, the following are the effects of forces:

 Force can cause change in the state of bodies, i.e. force can start, stop,
increase or reduce, motion and change the direction of a body motion
 Force can change the shape of a body, I.e. force can distort, stretch,
compress motion
 Force can cause turning effect. Examples are a see saw and a beam balance
 Force can cause rotation in the bodies e.g. a steering wheel
 Force can cause heating effect, i.e. frictional force cause heating, e.g.
lighting a matchstick
 Frictional force causes noise when rough surfaces are rubbed together
Measuring force
Force is measured by an instrument called a force meter or a spring balance

Experiment: To determine the size of a force required to move a body

Apparatus
 A wooden block
 A metal block
 A spring balance
Procedure
 Place a wooden block on a bench
 Hook the spring balance to the block. Pull the block until the block is just
about to move
 Record the value of this force. The pointer shows the force that is required to
move the block
 Repeat the experiment with a metal block made of lead see figure belo,
record your observations
Observation
To move a lead block, you need to apply a bigger force than in moving a wooden
block of the same dimension.

Conclusion
For a body to move, a force must be applied and the size of force depends on the
mass of an object

Balance and unbalanced force

1. Consider a book placed on a table top. The gravity pulls the book vertically
downward while the table support the book with a force acting vertically
upwards.
Since the two forces are equal magnitude and in opposite directions, they balance
each other. The book is said to be equilibrium. There is no unbalanced force acting
upon the book and therefore the book maintains the state of rest. There is no
change in motion.
2. If you compete in arm wrestling competition with someone who is just about
as strong as you are and both of you are pushing as hard as you can, but your
arms stay in the same place, this is an example of balanced forces. The force
exerted by each person is equal, but they are pushing in opposite directions.
The resulting force is zero and there is no change in motion.

3. In a tug of war, if the two teams have equal strength or force the, rope will
stay in the same place

When two unbalanced forces are exerted in the same direction, their combined
force is equal to the sum of the two forces and act in the direction of the two force,
however, when two unbalanced forces are exerted in the opposite directions, their
combined force is equal to the difference between the two forces and is exerted in
the direction of the large force
When working with unbalanced force:
a. Forces in the same direction combine by addition
b. Forces in the opposite direction combine by subtraction

Resultant force
In figure below the two forces are unbalanced. The sum or difference between two
forces is known as a resultant force.

Two unbalanced forces are equivalent to a single force. It is this single force which
is called the resultant force. When forces are balanced, the resultant force is zero
and the body is either at rest or moves with constant speed. Any resultant force
above zero, makes the body to accelerate (increase speed) in every second.

Frictional force
Friction in solids
Experiment: To demonstrate friction in solids

Apparatus
  Wooden block
 A light spring
Procedure
 Place the wooden block with the spring attached on the bench
 Pull a wooden block using a light spring across a bench and observe what
happens

 Place a pencil on a horizontal bench and give it a push. Observe what

happens

Discussion
At first, the spring extends without the wooden block moving and then the block
starts to move. At first there is a force preventing the stationary block of wood to
move. This force is called frictional force. The force of friction exists whenever
two bodies which are in contact move or tend to more relative to one another. If the
two bodies are solid, the force is called solid frictional force. It does not matter
which body is in motion. When a pencil is placed below the wooden block, it is
easier to pull the wood

Conclusion
Frictional force always acts in such a direction as to oppose the motion of an
object. There are two types of frictional force, dynamic and static friction.
Dynamic friction is the force opposing motion when there is relative motion.
Static friction is the force opposing any possible motion between surfaces when the
surfaces are just about to move.
Origin of friction
No matter how smooth a surface may appear to be, there are always ridges and
bumps that can only be seen under a microscope

The ridges and bumps hold on each other (entangle) and prevent the movement of
the two surfaces. When enough force is applied, they release each other
(disentangle) and the movement becomes possible. The type of ridges and bumps
depends on the nature of the material in contact. It is for this reason that the
frictional force depends on the nature of the surface and not on the area in contact.

Advantages and disadvantages of friction

Advantages:
Friction has very many uses in life. Some of the uses are given below.
i. The friction between the soles of our shoes and tyres of cars provide a grip
on the ground
ii. The brakes in a car use pads made from material that offer a lot of friction
iii. The conveyer belts in factories do not slip because of friction
iv. Nults, bolts, vices, screw jacks etc. make use of friction to work effectively
v. Nails are able to hold two pieces of wood tightly together because of friction
vi. Writing on a paper, chalkboard etc. utilizes friction
Disadvantages
Friction can be a nuisance. A lot of energy is wasted in overcoming friction
between the moving parts of machines
As the parts rub against each other in machines, they wear out quickly an dneed
constant replacement
The use of lubricants e.g. oil and grease reduces friction. The lubricants cushion
the moving parts of a machine. In heavy machinery, ball bearings are used to
overcome friction since the rolling friction is less than the sliding friction. The
polishing or making the surface smooth reduces friction.

Measurement of friction in solids

Apparatus
 A spring balance
 A wooden block
 A bench

Procedure
 Arrange the apparatus as shown in figure below. Pull the spring balance
gently. What happens to the spring balance and the wooden block?

 Continue pulling the spring balance and observe what happens? Observe
carefully what happens to the spring balance once the block start to slide.
Observation
 Although the spring balance shows some reading, the block does not move.
The applied force is equal to the reading on the spring balance
 The reading on the spring balance increases to a point where the block starts
to slide
 The reading reduces slightly and remains at the value as the block moves

Conclusion
When the block is just about to move the frictional force present is called the
limiting or static frictional force (fs). The limiting or static frictional force is the
maximum force between any two surfaces. When the block is in motion the
frictional force present is called kinetic or dynamic force (fk). The dynamic
frictional force is always less than the static frictional force

Factors that affect friction in solids

Experiment: To investigate the factors that affect friction in solids
1. Surface area

Apparatus
 A wooden block
 A hardboard
  A spring balance
Procedure
 Place a rectangular block of wood resting on its largest area on a piece of
hardboard placed on a bench. Attach a spring balance as shown below

 Pull the cardboard and measure the frictional force. Repeat the experiment
with the block of wood resting on its smallest area. Compare the two values
of the frictional forces.

Observation
The two values are equal

Conclusion
This shows that friction is independent of the area of surfaces in contact

2. Load
Repeat experiment with additional of a similar block of wood on top of the first
block. What do you notice? See Fig. 7.18.
 Figure 7.18: Frictional force

Observation
Friction increases with the load

Conclusion
Friction is directly proportional to the load being pulled

3. Nature of surfaces in contact

Apparatus
 A sand paper
 A wooden block
 A spring balance

Procedure
 Stick a paper on the wooden block. Place the wooden block on the bench
with sand paper in contact with the bench
 Repeat the experiment, but in this time the umbrella closed as shown in Fig
7.19 (b). Note the time taken to move the same distance.
 Fig. 7.19: Friction due to air
Observation
The frictional force is higher

Conclusion
 The frictional force depends on the nature of the surfaces in contact.
 From experiment, we notice that frictional force depends on:
 The nature of the surfaces in contact i.e. friction increases with the
roughness of the surface and reduces with the smoothness of the surface in
contact
 The load (weight of the body) i.e. frictional force increases with increase in
the load and vice versa.

Friction produces heat

If you rub your hands together and place them on your cheeks, they feel warmer.
Striking a match stick on the match box produces fire. The brake pads or linings
will feel quite hot after the brakes have been applied. All of these and more
demonstrates that friction produces heat
Friction in air
Experiment: To demonstrate friction due to air

Apparatus
 An umbrella
 A stopwatch
Procedure
 Run with an open umbrella as shown below. Record the time you take to
move a given distance\
 Repeat the experiment but this time with the umbrella closed as shown in
figure b below. Note the time taken to move the same distance.

Observation

With the open umbrella, the taken is more than with closed umbrella

Conclusion
This shows that air offers hindrance to the movement. This hindrance is due to air
resistance. Frictional force in air is called viscous drag.

Mass and weight

Mass is the quantity of matter in a substance. The force of gravity on a mass is
commonly referred to as the weight of the body.
Experimentally, it has been established that the eart pulls a mass of 2kg with a
force of 10N.
The weight W of a body of mass, m, is: m x 10N
Thus, the weight = mass x 10N
10Nkg is a constant called gravitational field strength (g)
Weight = mass x gravitational field strength
W = mg
However the value of 10N/Kg varies with distance from the centre of the earth.
Also the value of 10N/kg varies depending on the surface the body is placed e.g.
moon, earth and other planets. It’s also about 1.7 N/kg on the moon surface.

Difference between mass and weight

Table below shows the main differences between mass and weight
Mass Weight
Is the quantity of matter contained in a It is the pull of gravity on a body
body
SI unit is a kilogramme (kg) SI unit is a newton (N)
Constant everywhere Changes from place to place
Measured using a beam balance Measured using a spring balance

Difference between mass and weight

Example: a bicycle of mass 10kg is authorized to carry 2 passengers. If the average
mass per passenger is 50 kg, calculate
a. The weight of the bicycle
b. The weight of all passengers
c. The total weight of the bicycle and the passengers

A. W = (10 x 10) = 100 N

B. W = 100N + 1 000 N = 1 100 N
C. W = (50 x 2) x 10 = 1 000 n

Example 2
The weight of a block of wood is 8.25N. What is its mass?
Solution
W= mg m = w = 82.5 N
g 10 N/kg

= 8.25 kg

Unit summary
 Force is a push or pull. The SI unit of force is the newton (N)
 Forces can cause changes of state and shape. Forces can also cause a turning
effect
 Unbalanced forces causes acceleration
 Frictional force is that force that opposes motion
 Mass is the amount of matter in a substance and does not change from place
to place. Weight is the pull of gravity on a body.
 Weight = mg

Unit Test 7
1. Force that opposes motion is called ____________.
A. Friction force
B. Thrust
C. Up thrust
D. Upward force
2. A spring balance measure __________.
A. Volume of the object
B. Mass of the object
C. Weight of the object
D. Turning effect of a force
3. A refugee camp received two tonnes of maize and beans. The weight of the
maize and beans was
A. 2 000 N
 B. 20 000 N
C. 2 N
D. 0.0002 N
4. A first aid kit box used at a fire accident scene has a weight of 2 500 N. what
is its mass?
A. 25 000kg
B. 250 N
C. 25 000 N
D. 250kg
5. A self-proclaimed HIV and AIDS patient gained a weight of 125 N after
embarking on healthy eating. What mass did the patient gain?
A. 12.5 kg
B. 12 500 N
C. 1 250kg
D. 1.25kg
6. The mass, weight and density of chalk is not change of by grinding it into
powder, but air friction is greater when the powder falls towards the ground.
Explain.
7. Calculate the weight of the following. (take g= 10N/kg)
A. 300 g mass of water
B. 700 kg mass of sand
C. 0.05 mass of wool
8. A metal bob of mass 20 g is suspended using a light thread. Calculate the
tension developed in the thread. (take g = 10N/kg)
9. What effect of a force is shown in figure below

Fig. 7.20
10.Name four advantages of frictional force
11.Find the resultant force of the following forces:
a. 150 N due East and 200 N due West
 b. 450 N due North and 250 N due South
12.Give four differences between mass and weight
13.Moon’s gravitational pull is 1/6 of the earth’s gravitational pull calculate the
weight of a body whose mass is 40kg on:
a. The moons’ surface
b. The earth’s surface
UNIT 8: WORK
WORK
In everyday life usage, the word work means any activity that a person does. This
includes reading, writing, solving problems, digging, walking, lifting things up,
pushing things about, dragging objects etc. in all these activities one feels tired as a
result of the activity.
In science the term “work” has a precise meaning. Working is said to be done on a
body whenever an unbalanced force produces a displacement on the body. This
displacement must be in the direction of the applied force. Consider the following
examples. (See Fig 8.1)

In (a) and (d) work is done while in (b) and (c) no work is done although the
person gets tired. Work is only done when a force moves an object from one
position to another.
In science, work done (w) by a constant force (F) on a point that moves a
displacement d in the direction of the force is given by the product of the force and
the distance moved
Work done (w) = force x distance (d) moved in the direction of the force
W=fxd

But 1 NM is equal to a joule, hence the SI unit of work is the joule (J) named after
the scientist J.P Joule of work is done when a force of 1 newton (N) moves the
point of application through distance of 1 metre (m)

Experiment: to demonstrate what work done depends on

Apparatus
 A metal block
 Metre rule
 A spring balance

Part 1
Procedure
 Arrange the apparatus as shown in figure below

Fig. 8.2
  Move the metal block steadily. Note the force (F) and measure the distance
AB
Observation
A metal block moves from A to B on the horizontal table

Discussion
Work done is the product of force required to move a body horizontally from A to
B.
Work done = F x d

Part ii
Procedure
 Raise a body through distance AB. Measure the distance AB = h.

Observation
The value of force on the spring balance is more than that in part I.
Discussion
Work done in this case, is the work done against gravity. F, is more than the F in
part I
Work done = F x h
= mg x h

Conclusion
Work done depends on:
 The distance moved by the body which the force is being applied
 The magnitude of force

Note:
1 Joule = 1 NM
Larger units are:
1 Kilojoule = 1KJ = 1 000 J (or 103J)
1 Mega joule = 1MJ = 1, 000,000 J (or 106J)
The Newton –metre (Nm), although used as the measuring unit for work should
not be used as this can be confused with the newton-metre, which is the
measurement unit of the turning effect of a force.
In all the cases shown in figure below, 1 joule of work is done. Assuming no
frictional forces
Example:
1. Calculate the work done on a block if the block is pulled steadily through a
distance of 3 m by a force of 60N.
W=Fxd
= 60 N x 3m
= 180Nm or 180J

2. A bucket of mass 2kg is pulled out of a well, 50m. Find the work done
against force of gravity.
W=Fxh
= mg x h
= 20 N x 50 m
= 1 000NM or 1 000 J

3. A builder climbs a staircase of height 4 m. find the work done by the builder
in raising herself through his height, if her mass is 60 kg.

W = F x h = mg x h
= 60 x 10 x 4m
= 600 x 4
= 2 400 J

Exercise

1. Define work
2. State the SI unit for work
3. Calculate the work done by a force of 15 N when it moves a body
through a distance of 5 m in the direction of that force.
4. Chikondi lifts up a child of mass 10kg through a vertical height of 2.3
m. how much work is done by chikondi.

WORK DOLNE AGAINST FRICTIONAL FORCE

When a force is applied on a body resting on a surface, frictional force is
developed between the surfaces in contact and tries to oppose the motion of the
body. Hence work has to be done to overcome friction. (Fig. 8.5)

Apply a force Fa to a body so that the body moves with uniform speed, through a
distance d in the direction of force. As the body moves with uniform speed, the
frictional force is Ff. therefore:
Work done by the applied force = Fa x d
Work done against friction force = Ff x d

In this case, the useful work done is zero and the work done by applied force is
dissipated as heat and sound energy.
Now apply a force, Fa (Fa > ) and displace the body through a distance d in the
direction of the applied force.
Now work done by the applied force = Fa x d
Work done against friction = Ff x d
Useful work done = Fad- Fd
This useful work done accelerates the body in the direction of motion

Example
1. A force of 40 N is applied on a body. The body moves a horizontal distance
of 7 m. calculate the work done on the body.
Solution
Work done = F x d
= 40 N x 7 m = 280 J

2. A box of mass 30kg is pushed with a uniform speed by force of 130 N up an

inclined track of length 14 m onto a platform
 Calculate the:
a. Work done by the force of 130 N
b. Work done, if the box was listed vertically upwards. Comment on the
answer in pat (a) and (b)
c. Frictional force between the box and the inclined plane

Solution
a. Work done by the force of 130 N
W=Fxd
= 130 W x 14m
= 1 820 J

b. Work done in lifting the box vertically upwards

W = weight of box x h
= 30 kg x 10 N/kg2 x 4.8 m
= 1 440 J
The two are different. Some work is used to overcome friction

c. Since the speed is uniform

Applied force = Frictional force
Frictional force = 130 N

Exercise

1. Explain why in trying to move a rigid wall, a person is said to be doing no

work.
2. A builder of weight 600 N uses a ladder to raise a brick of mass 3 kg to
the top of a building as shown below
Find the:
a. Length of the ladder
b. Work done against gravity by the builder in raising the brick on the top of
the building
c. Work done by the builder in raising himself to the top of the building
3. Figure below shows a block of mass 6.0 kg which is being pulled across a
rough horizontal surface by a horizontal force of 40 N. the maximum
frictional force which the table can extend on the block is 10N.

a. Copy the diagram and indicate all the forces acting on the block.
b. Find the work done by each of the forces if the block moves through a
horizontal displacement of 1.5m
4. Figure below shows a block of mass 60 kg sliding
down an incline of length 10 m. the frictional force
acting between the block and the ramp is a constant
100 N.
How much work is done by the
a. Weight of the block?
b. Frictional force?
 Unit summary
 Work is the product of force and distance moved in the direction of the
force
 Formula for calculating work is
W=Fxd
 SI unit of work is the joule
 I J = NM
 Work can be done against friction

Unit test 8
1. The Mathematical expression for work is
A. Work = Force
Distance

B. Work = distance
Force

C. Work = Force x distance

D. Work = Force
Area

2. A force of 50N was used to move a body through a distance of 2m. what
amount of work was done?
A. 100 J
B. 100 kg
C. 100 N
D. 25 J
3. Work done is measured in
A. Newtons
B. Kilograms
C. Joules
D. Metres
4. Who among the following is working?
A. A boy pushing the wall
B. A girl sitting on a stone
C. A man pulling s stationary train
D. A woman lifting a bowl
5. Describe the relationship between force and work.
6. A worker pulls a handcart with a force of 1 000 N through a distance of
100m. Calculate the work done by the worker.
7. Work done in lifting 50 kg bag of cement is 20J. through what distance is
the bag raised?
8. A force of 12N is used to move a body through a distance of 6 m. how much
word is done.
9. A body of mass 100kg is raised through a distance of 3m as shown in figure
below

Find the work done along the inclined plane.

10.Frictional force acting on a body is 2kg. if the body moves 22m, calculate
the work done against the frictional force.
11.A block of mass 5kg was raised to a height 20 m above the ground using the
crane. Calculate the total work done by the crane
UNIT 9: ENERGY
Energy
In unit 8, we learnt that work is the product of force and distance moved in the
direction of the force (W = F x d). What happens when work has been done on a
body? Consider a person lifting a stone from the ground to a height, h. I fthe stone
is released, from this height to the ground it can do work e.g. driving a nail into the
gr. Thus, in raising the stone to a height h, the stone gained the ability to do work.
This ability to do work is called energy. We also say energy is the capacity to
perform work. See Fig. 9.1

The SI unit of energy is the Joule (J)

Sources of energy
Energy can be obtained from several sources. These sources are classified into two
groups, renewable and non- renewable sources of energy.

Renewable sources of energy

These are sources which can be replaced fairly fast. These include solar,
geothermal, biomass, tidal, biogas and wind energy.
Solar energy
This is the energy from the sun. The energy is used by plants and animals. Solar
energy comprises of light and heat energy. Light energy can be trapped in solar
cells and stored in accumulators as electrical energy. Heat may be trapped by solar
heaters which are used to heat water. See Fig. 9.2.

Geothermal
Some regions of the earth’s core have very high temperatures. Water trapped
between rocks may get near these regions. The vapour from the heated water
which is at very high pressure may find its way to earth’s surface. This vapour can
be used to generate electricity. Electricity generate this way is called geothermal
electricity. The figure shows a geothermal power station.
Biomass and biogas
Biomass and biogas is the energy obtained from degradation of organic materials
such as animal waste, agricultural waste and industrial effluents. Biogas may be
trapped using a biogas plant. A biogas plant is made up of a fermentation chamber,
a floating gas chamber, an inlet and an outlet pipe. The figure shows a biodigester
Animal waste and human waste are fed into fermentation chambers. The gas
formed by fermentation process is called methane. The by-product of fermentation
(sludge) is collected from the bottom of the fermentation chamber by an outlet
pipe.
Tidal energy
The gravitational forces between the earth and the moon cause tides. The high
level of water at high-tide is trapped and then used as a source of potential energy

Wind energy
Wind contains energy which is trapped to provide driving energy to a number of
machines. Such machines include wind mills which drive water pumps or
dynamos.

Non-renewable sources of energy

These are energy sources that will take millions of years before they are replaced
e.g. fossils energy and nuclear energy.
Fossil energy
This is the energy trapped by plants from the sun light through the process of
photosynthesis millions of years ago. Through the decay process many millions of
years ago, plants have been converted to coal, oil and natural gas. Over the last 200
years we have consumed the majority of the oil and gas reserves. It is for this
reason that we need to rely on other sources of energy. Fossil fuels are the main
source of energy for motor vehicle and industrial manufacturing plants.

Nuclear energy
Nuclear energy is increasingly replacing the fossil fuel. This energy is available in
limitless quantity. However replacing the fossil fuel. This energy is available in
limitless quantity. However its harnessing, management and risk of damage to life
are very high. Some of the commonest elements used in the production of this
energy are uranium, radium, plutonium and hydrosonium (heavy water). These
elements are radioactive, i.e. they emit rays which can harm human beings. The
energy is produced in power stations called nuclear reactors. Nuclear energy is
used in the generation of electricity, propelling of nuclear war planes, spaceship
submarine etc.
The disposal of nuclear waste products poses a big threat to mankind and other
forms of life. Human beings should stay far away from such waste if it is carelessly
disposed

Forms of energy
Energy is not visible, it occupies no space and has neither mass nor any other
physical property that can describe it. However it exists in many forms. The forms
include mechanical, chemical, thermal, sound, light, electrical and nuclear.

Mechanical energy
Mechanical energy is divided into potential energy (P.E.) and kinetic energy (K.E.)
Potential energy
Is a form of stored energy in a body when it is in a particular state or position.
Bodies which are able to fall down have stored energy called gravitational
potential energy. This energy depends on the position of objects above the ground.
Potential energy is the energy that a body possesses due to its position in a field of
force.
If a stone of mass m is lifted upwards through a height h, and placed on a table
work is done against gravity. See 9.6.

The work done to overcome gravity is equal to the gravitational potential energy.
Work done = force x distance
= weight x height
Work done = mgh
But, potential energy = work done
Therefore, PE = mgh
Examples
1. A stone of mass 0.01 kg is projected vertically upwards and reaches a height
of 80m. find the potential energy (PE) at this height (take g = 10m/s2)
Solution
P.E. = mgh; s=h

= 10 x 10 x 80
1 000
=8J

2. A carne is used to lift a body of mass 30 kg through a vertical distance of 6.0

m.
a. How much work is done on the body?
Work done = F x d = mgh x d = 30 x 10 x 6 = 300 x 6 = 1 800 J

b. What is the P.E. gained by the body at this height?

Work done = potential energy
Thus potential energy gain = 1 800 J

Elastic potential energy or strain energy

A compressed or stretched spring goes back to its original shape when released.
The work done on stretching or compressing the spring is called elastic potential
(strain) energy. This is the energy due to the state of strain of an object. See Fig.
9.7.

 Compress the spring by pushing the trolley towards A. release the trolley
and observe what happens
On releasing the trolley, it moves very fast towards B. compressed spring posses
elastic potential energy or restoring energy that will push the trolley towards B as
the spring regain its original shape.

Kinetic energy
When a resultant or unbalanced force acts on a moving body, the body accelerates
in the direction of that force. The work done on the body results in increased
motion energy. This motion energy is called kinetic energy (K.E.). kinetic energy
is the energy possessed by a body due to its motion
Example
1. Explain why flooded rivers carry large objects like trees

Solution
Flooded rivers have moving water that possesses kinetic energy that is responsible
of carrying large objects.

Chemical energy
This is a form of stored that is released when needed, by a conversion process
called chemical reaction. Chemical energy is therefore a form of potential energy.
Food is our source of chemical energy. Fossil fuels like coal, petrol, oil and natural
gas are sources of energy. The stored energy in them is released by a burning
process. For example, when petrol is burnt in the engine, it releases energy that
drives a car. All batteries are stores of chemical energy.

Thermal energy
This is energy due to difference in temperature i.e. heat energy. Heat flow from a
region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature. The figure shows
the wax melts after sometime
Sound energy
This is the energy due to mechanical vibrations such as ringing bells, hitting drums
and other musical instruments and so on.

Electrical energy
Electrons are made to go round an electric circuit by providing them with energy
from a battery or a generator. As they move round a circuit they carry electrical
energy form one point to another. This energy due to flow of charges is called
electrical energy.

Nuclear energy
It is the energy stored in the nuclei of atoms. The energy is released when a heavy
nucleus is split into lighter nuclei (nuclear fission). The nuclear energy may also be
released when smaller nuclei combine to form larger one (nuclear fusion). It is
interesting to note that the energy from the sun is due to nuclear reactions (nuclear
fusion) which release enormous amount of energy.
Light energy
This is the energy which enables us to see. It comes from luminous sources such as
the sun, electric bulbs, wood fire, fire flies, candle etc.
In most energy transfer processes, the initial amount of energy is transferred to
some other forms of energy and rest of the energy is used to do useful work
Examples
a. A bulb converts electrical energy to light and heat
b. Hammering a nail, potential energy is converted into heat, sound an dwork is
done to drive the nail
c. Swinging a simple pendulum

The pendulum at points A and C only possess P.E. at point B, it possesses K.E.
while between A and B and B and C it possesses both KE and PE.
Exercise
1. Discuss the energy transformations in figure below
 2. Distinguish between the terms gravitational potential energy and elastic
potential energy.
3. Give one example of a body with potential energy due to its state
4. In fig below, three positions of a monkey swinging on a branch of a tree are
shown

a. What kind of energy does the monkey have ta each position?

b. What happens to the energy when the monkey is midway between A and
C?
c. In which position does the monkey have:
i. The least PE energy?
ii. The maximum KE energy?
5. A 150 g ball falls vertically down from a height of 1.8m on horizontal plane.
Calculate the potential energy just before the ball starts falling down.

Energy transformation
Work done by a machine is a measure of the energy the machine has transferred or
converted from one form to another. A device that converts energy from one form
to another is called a transducer.
Figure below shows a chart of some energy transformation in our day to day
activity.

Law of conservation of energy

In all the above cases, energy is converted from one form to other forms of energy.
This is the law of conservation of energy which states that energy can neither be
destroyed nor created but can be converted into other forms of energy.
Project work 1
Energy saving stove (jiko)

In most developing countries, wood is the most important source of energy

mainly for cooking. The amount of wood consumed depends on the climate,
culture and availability. Most people use open, three stones fireplaces for
cooking. The fireplaces are often dirty, dangerous and inefficient. The smoke and
soot settles on utensils, walls, ceiling and people. The smoke produced in fire
places irritates people posing danger to health. The fire places have been found
to be about 10-15% efficient.

In view of the above, energy saving stoves (jikos) have been designed. Most of
these stoves use charcoal. Charcoal is preferred to wood in urban areas because
of its portability, convenience and cleanliness. In designing energy saving stoves,
one should try to minimize energy losses to the surrounding. One of the many
advantages of a charcoal stove, is that the rate of charcoal burning can be
controlled.

Materials
Metal sheets and clay

Construction
 Cut the metal sheet into a circular sheet. the radius AO will depend on the
size of the stove required
 Repeat the procedure to construct lower compartment. But this time make
AC and DB shorter

 Bring the component together and join them by riveting. Cut off a small
section of the lower compartment and construct a gate. Mould clay in such
a shape that it fits the upper compartment. Make the air holes while the
clay is still wet
  Allow the clay to dry. Construct the stands for holding the cooking pot. A
complete stove should look like the one shown below:

Larger stove can be made by cutting the sheet as shown in this figure below.

Project 2
Solar heater

Solar energy can be trapped with the help of solar heater and utilize to heat
water. The most common type of solar water heater incorporates a flat-plate solar
collector and a storage tank. The tank is positioned above the collector. Water
from the tank is circulated although the collector and back to the tank by means
of convectional currents caused by the heated water.

Construction of a solar heater

Suggested materials
A 20 litre jerry can container, plastic pipes, cellophane paper, half open 20 litre
jerry can, black paint or smoke soot and a wire mesh

Assembly
Heat collector

Paint the plastic pipe black. Use a wire mesh

and curve the plastic pipes as shown in figure
9.18. The size of the wire mesh should be able
to fit into an open 20 litre jerry can container.

Heat exchanger
Use another 20 litre jerry can container and
open at the top to allow the pipes to enter and then
seal it using the same material and a hot object. The
hot object will make the materials to fuse together.
Make provisions for water to enter and leave the
heat exchanger when required.

Join pipe 1 of the heater collector to pipe 1 of the

heat exchanger. Do the same with pipe 2. Make
sure the collector is inclined at a certain angle to
allow water from the heat exchanger to flow freely.
Cover the heat collector with a cellophane paper

How to use
Fill the pipes of the heat collector with water and expose them to sun. Allow
water from a reservoir to fill the heat exchanger.
Unit summary
 Energy is the ability to do work. SI unit of energy is the joule (J).
 Potential energy (PE) is the energy due to state or position of an object. P.E.
= mgh
 Kinetic energy KE is the energy due to the motion of the body KE = ½ mv2
 Energy can neither be destroyed nor created. It can only be changed from
one form to another
 A device which can change energy from one form to another is called a
transducer
Unit test
1. Energy is measured in
A. Joules
B. Newton’s
C. Kilograms
D. Metres
2. Which one of the following energy is correctly matched with its source
A. Geothermal-steam from underground
B. Solar energy- wind
C. Tidal energy-sun
D. Nuclear energy-dead living organisms
3. Mechanical energy involves
A. Potential and chemical energy
B. Potential and kinetic energy
C. Solar and geothermal energy
D. Wind and solar energy
4. The device that converts sound energy to electrical energy is
A. Loudspeakers
B. Drums
C. Thermocouples
D. Microphones
5. A ball of mass 0.6kg is dropped from the top of a cliff. The ball strikes the
water below at 10m/s2
A. Find the kinetic energy of the ball just before hitting the water
B. What was the potential energy of the ball before it was dropped?
 C. from what height was the ball dropped
6. State the law of conservation of energy?
c. Differentiate between renewable and non -renewable resources of energy.
Give two examples of each.
d. Explain the energy transformation in a hydroelectric power station
7. Name transducers in each of the following cases given
A. Heat to electrical
B. Sound to electrical
C. Chemical to electrical
D. Electrical to light
E. Potential energy to kinetic energy

8. A factory worker lifts up a bag of cement of mass 50kg, carries it

horizontally then up a ramp of length 6.0 m onto a pick-up and finally drops
the bag of cement on the pick- up (figure below)

Explain the energy changes in the various stages of the movement of the worker.
9. A bullet is fired towards the block of wood hanging freely as shown in
figure below. The bullet remains embedded in the wood.

A. Name the type of energy possessed by the bullet in motion

B. How can you prove that the bullet possesses energy.
C. Name other two forms of energy that are operative when there during
firing a bullet
10.Name four forms of energy
C. Describe the energy transformations when:
i. A piano is played
ii. A match stick is struck
D. A tennis ball of mass 20 g is released from the rest at a height of 4.0 m
above the ground. On hitting the ball rebounces to a height of 3m.
i. Find the energy loss
ii. Explain what happens to this energy
11.A ball of mass m, is dropped from a height, h, and compresses a spring
through a distance y as shown in figure below. The spring is of negligible
mass.

A. Express y in terms of h and y the potential energy of the ball

B. Calculate y if m= 3.0 kg, h=4 m and k = 300 N/m
12.A ball of mass 0.3 kg is thrown vertically upwards to a height 410m.
A. Find the potential energy at the highest point
B. Explain what happens to the energy when the ball hits the ground
13.Figure below show a block resting on a frictionless surface. The spring is
compressed and then released.

i. Explain why the block moves when the spring is released.

UNIT 10: ELECTRIC CURRENT
Simple electric circuits
Electrical energy is carried through wires. The transfer of energy is due to the flow
of change. Electrical conductors such as metals have free charge carriers called
electrons. The complete path along which the charges flow is called electric circuit.

Experiment: to set up a simple electric circuit

Apparatus
 A dry cell
 A bulb
 Two connecting wires

Procedure
 Connect the setup as shown in figure below. What do you observe?

Observation
When the bulb is connected to the cell as shown in the diagram above, the bulb
lights
Discussion
The cell provides electrical energy needed to li9ght the bulb. The bulb converts
electrical energy into light and heat energy. A cell is a kind of a ‘pump’ which
provides electrical energy needed to drive charges along the wire through the bulb
and back again

Conclusion
Figure 10.1 constitute a simple electric circuit
Basic circuit symbols
When drawing diagrams of the electric circuits, we represent the actual
components with symbols. Table 10.1 shows some symbols used in electric circuit
diagrams
Circuit components and their symbols
The simple electric circuit in figure below can be drawn as shown below using
symbols.

Experiment: to demonstrate an open and closed circuit

Apparatus
 A dry cell
 A bulb
 Connecting wires

Procedure
 Connect the electric circuit as shown in figure 10.3
  Disconnect wire A from the positive terminal of the cell. What happens to
the bulb?
 Reconnect wire A and disconnect wire B from the negative terminal of the
cell. What happens to the bulb?

Observation
 The bulb light goes off when wire A is disconnected
 The bulb light goes off when wire B is disconnected.

Discussion
Charges need a medium to travel along. When we remove one of the connecting
wires, we break the circuit. Charges cannot flow and so the bulb light goes off.
Repeat the above experiment, but disconnect wires A and B form the bulb one at a
time. The same effect is observed. This shows that it does not matter where the
break occurs. It can be before after the bulb. To turn the circuit on or off, we need
to connect or disconnect one of the wires. It is however, much easier to introduce a
switch. A switch is simply a gap in a circuit which can easily be opened or closed.
(figure 10.4 (a) and (b).
Conclusion
Figure 10.5 shows an open and closed electric circuit. In a closed electric circuit,
the bulb lights, but in the open electric circuit, the bulb does not light.

Exercise
1. Draw circuit diagrams for the following connections in figure 10.6

2. Draw suitable diagrams to explain open and closed circuits.

3. Why is it necessary to use symbols for electrical components in drawing
circuit diagrams?
4. What is the function of a switch in an electric circuit?
5. Why is a cell needed in an electric circuit?

Arrangement of bulbs and cells in an electric circuit

Bulbs and cells may be connected either in series or in parallel in electric circuits.
Bulbs in series
Experiment: To observe the brightness of two bulbs in series

Apparatus
 A switch
 Two identical 1.5 V torch bolt
 Connecting wire
 A 1.5 V dry cell

Procedure
 Connect the set up as shown in fig. 10.7 (a). Close the switch and note the
brightness of the bulb.
 Now connect the circuit with 2 identical bulbs as shown in fig 10.7 (b). close
the switch and note that the brightness of the bulbs

Observation
 The two bulbs A and B in figure 10.7 (b) are of the same brightness but are
dimmer than the bulb X in fig 10.7 (a)

 Remove the experiment with the switch connected between the two bulbs
and observe the brightness of the bulbs. The position of the switch does not
affect the brightness of the bulbs.
Discussion
 Bulbs A and B are said to be connected in series. In this connection, the
energy provided by the cell is shared equally between the two identical
bulbs. Hence the bulbs are dimmer
 The same effect is observed
Conclusion
The bulbs in series in the same circuit are dim

Bulbs in parallel
Experiment: To observe the brightness of two bulbs in parallel

Apparatus
 A dry cell
 Three identical torch bulb
 Connecting wires
 A switch
Procedure
 Connect one circuit with one bulb as shown in figure 10.8 (a) and another
circuit with two bulbs as shown in figure 10.8 (b)
 Close the switches e.g. of the two circuits and compare the brightness of the
two bulbs A and B in fig 10.8 (b) with the brightness of bulb X in fig 10.8
(a)
Observation
All the three bulbs have the same brightness

Discussion
 All the three bulbs have the same brightness. The bulbs in fig 10.8 (b) are
said to be connected in parallel. In this connection, the same energy from
the cell is provided to each of the tow bulbs and hence the brightness of bulb
A and bulb B is the same as the brightness of bulb X.

Conclusion
Bulbs in parallel in the same circuit have equal brightness

Cells in series
Experiment: To illustrate the effect of two cells in series

Apparatus
 Three identical dry cells
  Two 1.5V torch bolt
 Connecting wires
 Two switches

Procedure
 Set up two circuit diagrams as shown in figure 10.9 (a). in fig. 10.9 (b),
connect two cells in series

Observation
 Close the switches and compare the brightness of bulb A and B. The
brightness of bulb B is more than the brightness of bulb A.
Discussion
The energy provided by cells in series is more than energy form one cell

Conclusion
Cells in series in the same circuit increases the energy supplied
Cells in parallel
Experiment: To illustrate the effect of two cells connected in parallel
Apparatus
 Three identical dry cells
 Two identical bulbs
 Two switches
 Connecting wires
Procedure
Repeat Experiment above using two identical cells connected in parallel as shown
in figure 10.10 b

Observation
The brightness of bulb B is the same as the brightness of bulb
Discussion
When the cells are connected in parallel, the energy they provide does not change.
It is the same as using only one cell
Conclusion
Number of cells in parallel does not have any effect on energy supplied
Electric current
In electric circuits, bulbs light because charges (electrons) flow through them. The
quantity of charge (Q) flowing in unit time i.e. the rate of flow of electric charge is
called the electric current (I).

Current (I) = quantity of change (Q)

Time (t)
I=Q
t
Since the unit quantity of charge is the coulomb, C, and the unit of time is the
second, s, then the unit of current, I, is the coulomb per second (C/s). 1 coulomb
per second is also called 1 ampere (A). The SI unit of electric current is the ampere
(A). Smaller currents are measured in mill amperes (mA) and microamperes (µA).

1
1mA = A = 1 x 10 A, 1µa = 1 x 10 -6 A
1 000

Direction of the flow of electric current

The direction of the flow of electric current is usually shown by an arrow in an
electric circuit (fig 10.11). Conventionally it is from the positive terminal to the
negative terminal of a cell. However electrons move from negative to positive.
Measurement of electric current
The instrument for measuring electric current is called an ammeter. Ammeters are
usually connected along the path of the electric current as shown in figure below
the experiment. There are other types of ammeters that measure very small current
e.g. milli ammeter and micro ammeters.

Experiment: To measure current in a circuit

Apparatus
 An ammeter
 A switch
 A bulb
 A dry cell

Procedure
 Connect the circuit as shown in figure 10.12

 Close the switch and observe what happens to both the bulb and the pointer
of the ammeter (in case of a digital ammeter, what happens to the display on
the screen?)
  Repeat the experiment but connect the ammeter to the right of the bulb as
shown in figure 10.13. observe what happens on the bulb and the ammeter
reading

Observation
 The bulb lights and the ammeter records some reading
 The same effect is experienced by the bulb and the ammeter

Conclusion
From these experiments, we can conclude that the ammeter does not consume or
produce any electric current

Controlling current by bulbs

In experiment above, it was observed that when two identical bulbs are connected
in series they are dimmer than when only one bulb is connected. We can say that
two bulbs offer more hindrance to the flow of electric current than one bulb.
In experiment 10.4, the brightness of the bulbs is the same but the brightness is
more than that of the two bulbs in series. The two bulbs in parallel offer less
hindrance to the flow of electric current than the two bulbs in series
The hindrance to the flow of an electric circuit is called electric resistance, and the
device that offers this resistance is called a resistor. Resistors may be fixed or
variable. In a fixed resistor, the resistance cannot be changed while in a variable
resistor, the resistance can be changed.

Controlling current by a variable resistor

Experiment 10.8: T illustrate how a variable resistor works

Apparatus
 A 1.5 dry cell
 A variable resistor
 An ammeter
 A bulb
Procedure
 Set up the circuit as shown in fig. 10.14

 Vary the resistance of the variable resistor and observe what happens to the
ammeter reading and the brightness of the bulb
Observation
When the resistance is increased, the brightness and the ammeter reading decreases
and vice versa.
Discussion
A variable resistor control the current flowing in the circuit. An ammeter measures
the amount of electric current in a circuit

Conclusion
A variable resistor helps in setting a certain current to pass through the circuit by
varying it.

Current flow in series and parallel circuits

In a series circuit all the components are connected one after the other such that
there is a single path for the current to follow. The current does not have a choice
of the path to follow. The reading in A1 and A2 is the same (figure 10.15)

In parallel circuits, each bulb is connected across the cell such that there is more
than one path for the current to follow. The reading of ammeter A2 and ammeter A3
add up to the reading of ammeter A1 or ammeter A4
Exercise
1. Define electric current and state its SI unit
2. Name the instrument used to measure electric current
3. Calculate the electric current flowing in an electric circuit if the charge
passing each point is
a. 5 coulombs in 4 seconds
b. 270 coulombs in 6 minutes
4. Using suitable circuit diagrams, explain the term parallel and series
connection
5. a. What is the conventional direction of flow of the electric current?
c. Draw a circuit diagram involving two bulbs in parallel with a cell.
Indicate the direction of the flow of electric current in each bulb.
6. You have been provided with a torch cell, two switches, two torch bulbs and
connecting wires. Draw a possible circuit diagram that would allow the two
bulbs to be switched on independently.
7. Which of the ammeters in figure 10.17 will record the same reading of the
electric current?
 8. You have been provided with the following electrical components: two dry
cells, three bulbs, a switch and connecting wires. Draw a circuit diagram
using:
a. Two bulbs in series with one cell
b. One bulb in series and two bulbs in parallel with one cell
In each case show the position of the switch for all bulb (s) to light at the same
time.
9. Figure 10.18 shows some circuit diagrams. Which of the diagrams are:
i. Series circuit
ii. Parallel circuit
iii. Incomplete circuit
10.Three identical bulbs are connected as shown in fig. 10.19. compare the
brightness of the bulbs B and C with the brightness of bulb A when:
a. The switch is open
b. The switch is closed
Explain your answer in (a) and (b)
11. use the two circuits shown in figure 10.20 (a) and (b) to complete the table
10.2

Switch A Switch B Bulb C Bulb D

Open Open

Open Close

Close Off

Close On

12.Two identical bulbs, A and B are connected as shown in fig 10.21. Switches
S1 and S2 are used to control the bulbs. Copy and complete the table below
 Position of s1 Position of s2 Bulb A Bulb B

Left Left OFF

Left Right

Right Left ON

Right Right

13.Draw a circuit diagram to show how 3 lamps can be connected to a cell so

that 2 lamps are controlled by the same switch while the third lamp has its
own switch.

Unit summary
 An electric circuit is a complete path followed by electric charges
 Electrical components in electrical circuits are represented by symbols e.g.
is the electric symbol for a dry cell
 Electric current (I) is the rate of flow of electric charges (Q) i.e. I = Q
T
 The Si unit of electric current is the Ampere (A)
 Electric current is measured by an ammeter
 Variable resistors control the amount of current in the circuit
 Electric cells provide energy to drive an electric current in a circuit

Unit test 10
1. Which of the following symbol is a bulb?
2. The SI unit of current is

A. An ampere
B. A volt
C. Coulomb
D. A second
3. A charge of 20 C flow through a wire in 10 seconds. The current flowing is
A. 200A
B. 2 A
C. 200 C
D. 2 C
4. In a circuit, three identical bulbs are in series, if one of the bulb dies, what
will happen to the other bulbs?
A. They go off
B. They go on lighting
C. They become dim
D. Nothing happens
5. Identify the circuit symbols numbered i-vi in figure below
 6. Define the following terms
A. electric current
B. Parallel circuit
C. Electric circuit
D. Series circuit
7. Give 4 electric symbols
8. Draw electric circuits to illustrate:
a. components of electric circuit
b. parallel circuit of cells and resistor
c. series circuit of cells and resistor
d. how ammeters and voltmeters
e. conventional direction of
i. electric current flow
ii. electrons flow
9. A current of 30 mA flows in a circuit for 4 minutes. Calculate the amount of
charge that flows.
10. Discuss two ways of controlling current in an electric circuit.
11. Figure 10.23 shows a current of 3.0A flowing in ammeters A1 and A2

What current flow through A3?

12. A current of 6.0A flows through two identical bulbs in series. Find the total
current in the circuit.
13. fig. 10.24 shows an electric circuit

i. How are the ammeters connected with respect to each other

ii. In terms of I1, and I0 give expression of I3
 UNIT 11: VOLTAGE
VOLTAGE
We can use a water model to understand how the electrons flow in an electric
circuit. This model consists of a water pump, water and pipes as shown in figure
11.1 (a). Figure 11.1 (b) shows an electric circuit which can be compared with the
water model.
When the pump is on, water is lifted to point A. at this point water has the
maximum potential energy. This potential energy drives the water down the
inclined pipe. On reaching point B, the water has lost all the potential energy it
had. The pump then provides the water with the necessary energy to climb up to
point A again. The water therefore flows round the water circuit as long as the
pump is on.

In the electric circuit, the electrons move towards the positive terminal of the
battery. The battery lifts the electrons up through an electrical height. This
electrical height is called the voltage or potential. The positive and negative
terminals have a difference in potential. This difference in potential or potential
difference (p.d.) is the one responsible for driving the electric current round the
circuit. In the water model, the difference in the height causes water current. If
there are no differences in the water levels, as in ponds, water would not flow.
Similarly in electrical circuits the absence of a potential difference results in no
electric current.
The voltage is defined as the work done in moving one coulomb of charge from
one point to the other. The Si unit of voltage is the volt (v)
 Volt = joule
Coulomb

The voltage is also known as the potential difference between two points.
The volt
In figure 11.2 (a), points A and B are at a potential difference of one volt if the
work done in moving one coulomb from A and B is one joule. 1 volt is therefore
defined as the energy needed to move one coulomb of charge from one point to
another. The voltage between the terminals of a cell indicates the energy given to
each coulomb of change in the circuit. For example, a battery with a potential
difference of 6 V gives 6 joules of potential of potential; energy to each coulomb
of charge in the circuit. This energy is then converted into other forms of energy
e.g. light and heat in bulbs. See figure 11.2(b).

Measurement of voltage
Voltmeters
The voltage across a point is measured by an instrument called a voltmeter, (figure
11.3(a)). The symbol of a voltmeter is shown in figure 11.3(b). voltmeters are
connected in parallel with the device whose potential difference is measured
(figure 11.3(c). an ideal voltmeter has very high resistance but this does not affect
the current through the device. Voltmeter v1 measures the p.d between the
terminals of the cell, while v2 measures the voltage across the bulb.

Voltmeter have uniform scales calibrated in volts or millivolts. The most used
scales have a range of 0-5 V and 0-1.5 V. Fig. 11.4 shows a scale of a voltmeter.

Exercise
1. Define the term volt.
2. Two cells, A and B connected in parallel ar in series with a bulb as shown in
figure 11.5.
Copy the diagram and show where the:
a. Ammeter should be connected in order to measure the current through cell
A.
b. Voltmeter should be connected to measure the potential difference across
both the bulb and cell B.
3. Fig. 11.6 shows a dual scale of ammeter/voltmeter

a. What is the reading shown by the pointer in fig. 11.6, if the range is:
i. 0-100 mV
ii. 0-250mV
iii. 0-2.5 V
iv. 0.0.1 V
v. 0-10 V
vi. 0-25V

b. Why are different ranges used in ammeter and voltmeters?

Effects of the number of bulbs on the brightness of the bulbs
Bulbs in series

Experiment: To observe the brightness of two bulbs in series

Apparatus
 A 1.5 V dry cell
 Three identical torch bulbs
 A switch
 Connecting wires

Procedure
Connect the setup as shown in fig 11.7a. Close the switch and note the brightness
of the bulb
Now connect the circuit with 2 identical bulbs as shown in figure 11.7b.
Close the switch and note the brightness of the bulbs

Observation
 The two bulbs A and B in fig. 11.7b have the same brightness but are
relatively dimmer than the bulb X in figure 11.7a.
 The same effect is observed.
Discussion
Bulbs A and B are connected in series. In this connection, the energy provided by
the cell is shared equally between the two bulbs. Hence the bulbs are dimmer

When the experiment is repeated with the switch connected between the two bulbs
and observe the brightness of the bulbs. The same effect is observed. The position
of the switch does not affect the brightness of the bulbs.

Bulbs in parallel
Experiment: to observe the brightness of two bulbs in parallel

Apparatus
 Three identical torch bulbs
 The switches
 Two dry cells 1.5V
 Connecting wires

Procedure
 Connect one circuit with one bulb as shown in figure 11.8a and another
circuit with two bulbs
 Close the switches e.g. of the two circuits and compare the brightenss of the
two bulbs A and B in fig. 11.8b with the brightness of bulb X in figure 11.8a
Observation
All the three bulbs have the same brightness
Discussion
The bulbs in fig 11.8 b area said to be connected in parallel. In this connection, the
same energy from the cell is provided to each of the two bulbs and hence the
brightness of bulb A and B is the same as the brightness of bulb X.

Voltage in series and parallel connection

Voltage in series connection

Experiment: to determine the voltage in a series connection

Apparatus
 Two identical torch bulbs
 Three ammeters
 Connecting wires
 Three voltmeters’
 Dry cell
Procedure
 Connect two bulbs B1 and B2 in a circuit shown in fig 11.9. ammeter (A)
measures the current in the circuit while A1 and A2 measure current through
bulbs B1 and B2 respectively

 Record voltmeter readings. What can you say about the voltage?
Observation
The currents A, A1 and A2 are equal. This shows that the current in a series circuit
is the same at all points.
The voltage a cross bulb B1 plus voltage across bulb B2 is equal to the voltage
across the cell.
Conclusion
The sum of the voltage across the bulbs is the same as the p.d. across the cell
V = V1 +V2

Experiment: To determine the voltage in a parallel connection

Apparatus
 Three voltmeters
 Three ammeters
  Dry cell 1.5 V

Procedure
 Connect two bulbs B1 and B2 in parallel as shown in figure 11.10
 Compare the voltmeter readings

Observation
The voltage (V) across the cell is the same as the potential difference V1 or V2
across the bulbs i.e.
V = V1 =V2
Example
1. Six dry cells each with a voltage of 1.5V are arranged in series. Determine
the total voltage of the cells
Solution
The dry cells are in series
VT = V1 +V2 +V3 +……………………. Vn, where VT is total voltage
N=6
VT = V1+V2+V3+V4+V5+V6
 = 1.5+1.5+1.5+1.5+1.5+1.5
= 6 x 1.5 = 9V

2. Study figure below. Determine the total voltage across the circuit, if one dry
cell has a rating of 1.5 V in each circuit

Solution
a. circuit is in series

V in series = V1+V2+V3
= 1.5+1.5+1.5
= 4.5 V

b. circuits are in parallels

V in parallel = V1=V2=V3
= 1.5 V

Effects of the number of cells on the brightness of the bulbs

Cells in series
Experiment: To illustrate the effect of two cells in series
Apparatus
 Two dry cells 1.5 V each
 Three bulb 1.5 V
 Connecting wires

Procedure
 Set up two circuit diagrams as shown in figure below, two cells are
connected in series
 Close the switches and compare the brightness of bulb A and B

Observation
The brightness of bulb B is more than the brightness of bulb A.

Conclusion
The energy provided by many cells in series is more than energy from one cell

Cells in parallel
Experiment: To illustrate the effect of two cells connected in parallel

Apparatus
 Two identical dry cells 1.5 V
  Three 1.5 V bulbs
 Connecting wires

Procedure
 Repeat experiment 11.5 using two identical cells connected in parallel as
shown in figure 11.13b

Observation
The brightness of bulb B is the same as the brightness of bulb A

Conclusion
When the cells are connected in parallel, the energy they provide is the same as
using only one cell

Unit summary
 Voltage is the work done in moving charge from one point to the other
 In a series circuit, the voltage across different components are also different
 In a parallel circuit, the voltages across component are equal
 Increasing the number of cells, increases the brightness of the bulbs in a
circuit
 Increasing the number of bulbs in a circuit, reduces the brightness of the
bulbs
Unit test 11
1. Voltage is 1measured in
A. Amperes
B. Volts
C. Coulomb
D. Joules
2. The instrument used to measure voltage is called
A. A voltmeter
B. An ammeter
C. A force meter
D. A pump
3. A voltmeter is always connected in ____ with the component in a circuit
A. Series
B. In phase
C. Perpendicular
D. Parallel
4. Fifteen identical dry cells are connected in parallel in the circuit. The total
voltage across the same circuit is equal to
A. Voltage of one dry cell
B. Voltage of fifteen dry cells’ voltage of two dry cells
C. Voltage of ten dry cells
5. Figure 11.14a and b are electric circuits

a. In which of the two circuits in the bulb brightest?

b. Determine the total voltage in:
i. Circuit (a)
ii. Circuit (b)
 6. A battery has a rating of 12V. if this is made up of eight cells in series.
Determine the rating of each cell.
7. Which of the ammeters in figure 11.15 will record the same reading of the
electric current?

8. You have been provided with 2 dry cells of emf 1.5V, connecting wires, four
bulbs and two switches. Set up two circuits (each with one dry cell) and a:
a. Parallel arrangement of the bulbs
b. Series arrangement of the bulbs circuit
9. Three identical bulbs are connected as shown in figure below. Compare the
brightness of the bulbs B and C with the brightness of bulb A when:
a. The switch is open
b. The switch is closed
Explain your answer in a and b above.
10.Ten dry cells rated 1.5V are arranged in series in a circuit. And the total
voltage across the circuit
11.Give two advantages of connecting bulbs in parallel over series in a circuit
12.Four identical bulbs are arranged in a circuit and connected to a common
voltage source of 12V. Calculate the total voltage across each bulb.
UNIT 12: ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE

Electrical resistance
Experiment: To investigate the amount of current flowing through different
materials

Apparatus
 Two dry cells rated 1.5V
 Resistance wire of different materials e.g. copper, constantan, nichrome,
tungsten etc.
 Connecting wires
 An ammeter
 A switch

Procedure
 Connect the circuit as shown in figure below

 Close the switch and record the current flowing through the circuit as
indicated by the ammeter
  Repeat the procedure a and b by replacing the copper wire with tungsten and
nichrom wires of the same diameter and length as the copper wire, each at a
time. Record your results in table below. Make sure the temperature and
source of voltage remain constant.

Materials Readings (A)

Copper wire
Tungsten wire
Nichrome wire

Observation
 From table above, we notice that the greatest current flows through the
circuit when the copper wire is connected between points A and B in the
circuit
 The lowest current flows in the same circuit when nichrome is connected in
place of copper

Discussion
This observation shows that different materials of the same dimensions allow
different amounts of current to flow in a circuit. In other words, we can say that
different materials offers different amount of opposition to the flow of electrical
current through them.

Conclusion
Different materials have different electrical resistance. From this experiment, we
can say that copper offers lower resistance than tungsten.
The opposition offered by the conductor to the flow of current through them is
known as electrical resistance.
Electrical resistance is measured in ohms using an instrument called an ohmmeter.
A device that is designed to offer resistance in circuits is called a resistor. The
symbol of a resistor is in figure below.

Determining the resistance of a material

Experiment: to investigate the relationship between the current through a
conductor and the voltage across its ends at a constant temperature

Apparatus
 Four dry cells each of 1.5 V
 A flying lead
 An ammeter
 A nichrome wire
 A connecting wire
 A voltmeter

Procedure
 Connect the circuit as shown in figure below. Record the ammeter and
voltmeter readings
  Repeat the experiment by connecting the flying lead to 2,3 and 4 cells
connected in series and record the readings (table 12.2)
 Observe what happens to the voltage and the current as the number of cells
is increased? Plot a graph of (v) voltage against the current (I)

Number of cells Voltage, V across the Current I (A)

wire (V)
1
2
3
4

Precaution: disconnect the flying lead as soon as each set of reading has been
taken. This ensures that the nichrome wire does not heat-up (so the temperature
remains constant)
Observation
The results show that as the voltage across the wire increases, the current through
the wire also increases
Discussion
When a graph of voltage (v) against current (V) is drawn, we get a straight line
graph with the line passing through the origin. See fig 12.4)
This shows that the current is directly proportional to the applied voltage I αI. The
𝑉
gradient is a constant
𝐼

Conclusion
This constant gives us the electrical resistance of a wire. Thus, the relationship
between current and voltage is
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 ,𝑉
i.e. Resistance, =
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼

𝑉
R=
𝐼

The SI unit is an ohm (Ω) electrical resistance

Therefore, the ratio of V to I is called the resistance, R.
We find out that if a material has a high resistance it allows ver small current to
pass through it and vice versa
Example
1. The voltage and current through a device in a circuit are 2V and 0.002A
respectively. Calculate the resistance of the device.
Solution
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 ,𝑉
Resistance, =
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼

𝑉 2𝑉
R= =
𝐼 0.02 𝐴

= 100 Ω

2. A resistor 10Ω allows a current of 2A yo flow through it in a simple circuit.

The resistor is replaced with another one of 30Ω, calculate the amount of
current passing through the 30Ω resistor if the source of voltage is the same.

Solution
In the first case
V = II x RI = 2A x 100Ω = 20 V
The voltage is the same in the second case,
20𝑉
V = I2 R2 I2 = V2 = = 6.667A
3Ω

R2
Factors that affect resistance of materials (wire)
1. Length of the wire
Experiment: To determine how the resistance of a conductor depends ujpon the
length

Apparatus
 Six nichrome wires of different length but same diameter
 Crocodile clips
  Connecting wires
 Ammeter
 Voltmeter
 1.5 V dry cell

Procedure
 Obtain six different lengths of nichrome wire of the same diameter. Connect
the smallest length in the gap AB using crocodile clips (fig below)

 Record the values of the current passing through the wire and the potential
difference across its ends. Repeat the experiment by connecting the other
lengths of the wire and complete the table below:

Length (cm) Current (I) Voltage (V) 𝑽

R= (Ω)
𝑰
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0

 Plot a graph of resistance of the wire against its corresponding length

 What can you conclude form this experiment?
Observation
When the length of resistance against length l of the wire we get a straight line
graph. (see figure 12.6) of which the line pass through the origin

From the graph, we can conclude that the resistance ® of wire is directly
proportional to its length l i.e. R α .l

2. Thickness
Experiment: To investigate how the resistance of a wire varies with its thickness

Apparatus
 Six nichrome wires of different diameter
 Ammeter
 A voltmeter
 Connecting wires
Procedure
 Set the experiment as in figure 12.7. d1,d2,d3 and d4. Connect various
nichrome wires of the same length but of different diameters in the gap AB
  Record the values of diameter (d) of the wire, current (I) and the potential
difference (V) (table 12.4).
Diameter d (cm) Voltage (V) Current (A) 𝑽
R= (Ω)
𝑰
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12

Observation
Resistance R, of a material decreases with an increase of the thickness or the
diameter of the material
1
If a graph of R against , is plotted, we get a straight line pasing through the origin
𝐴
(fig. 12.8)
Conclusion
1
The resistance R, is inversely proportional to the cross section area i.e. R α ,
𝐴

3. The material of a conductor

4. When the diameter of the nichrome wire is increased, the resistance
decreases.
1
5. When a graph of R against , of a certain material e.g. nichrome is drawn,
𝐴
the graph ie found to be a straight line from the origin.
Discussion
When the experiment is repeated with a wire of different material e.g. constantan,
the slope of the graph changes (see figure below)
This shows that different material offer different resistance to the flow of current.
i.e. some material conducts electricity better than others.
This property makes it possible for different materials to be used for different
purposes e.g. tungsten wire is used as a filament in bulb, copper wires is used in
electricity transmission to avoid loss of energy

3. Temperature
Experiment: To investigate how the resistance of a wire varies with temperature
Apparatus
 A voltmeter
 A source of electricity
 A thermometer
 Connecting wire
 A source of heat
Procedure
 Set up the apparatus as in figure 12.10

 Heat the bottom of the beaker and then record the ammeter and voltmeter
readings at
Temperature 370C 570C 770C 970C
Voltage, V
Current, I
Resistance
𝑉
R = (Ω)
𝐼

Observation
Increase in the temperature of a conductor leads to increase in p.d. across the
conductors
Conclusion

As temperature increase, the electrons of some conductor vibrate move vigorously

hence hindering the flow of current. This Causes the resistance to increase i.e.
resistance α Temperature (R α Ɵ)
In summary

Resistance of the materials (wire) depends on the following:

 Length of the wire: increase in a conductor length of wire leads to an

increase in resistance
 Thickness (cross-section area) of the wire: Resistance of the material
increases with the decrease of the thickness of the wire
 Material of the conductor: Different materials offer different resistance to
the flow of current
 Temperature: Increase in temperature leads to an increase in resistance

Unit Summary

 Electrical resistance is the opposition to the flow of electric charge in a

circuit
 The longer the uniform cross-section wire, the higher the resistance to the
flow of electric current
 The thicker the conducting wire, the lower the electrical resistance
 Increasing temperature of most conductors also increase the resistance of the
conductors.

Unit test 12

1. Electrical resistance is measured in

A. Ohms
B. Amperes
C. Voltage
D. Degree Celsius
2. An ohmmeter is used to measure
A. Current
B. Voltage
C. Resistance
D. Velocity
3. The voltage and current through a device in a circuit is 30V and 2A
respectively. Calculate the resistance of the device.
A. 60Ω
 B. 15A
C. 60V
D. 15Ω
4. In an experiment to investigate the V-I relationship for a conductor, the
following results were obtained (see table 12.6)
p.d.V (V) 2.0 3.0 4.0 6.0

1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0

Current (A)

a. Plot a graph of I against the voltage V

b. Determine the resistance of the conductor
c. Comment on the nature of the conductor used
5. Give two assumptions that are made in the determination of resistance of a
resistor using ammeter and voltmeter method
6. The table 12.6 shows the current I through a carbon resistor and the
corresponding potential difference applied across its end

p.d.V (V)
50 100 200 300 400

Current 0.6 1.15 2.20 3.15 4.04

(mA)

Draw a suitable graph to determine the resistance of the resistor

7. In an experiment to determine electrical resistance of a wire, the voltmeter

reading was 2V and that of ammeter reading was 1.0A. determine the
resistance of the wire
8. The voltage across a wire of resistance R is doubled. If the current flowing
through the wire remains constant, determine its resistance.
9. The circuit in figure 12.11 shows the readings on digital voltmeter and
ammeter
a. Find
i. The voltage across the circuit if the circuit is open
ii. The voltage across the terminals if the circuit is close
b. Determine the resistance in the circuit
UNIT 13: EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
Introduction

Scientist have done numerous experiments to help in the advancement of the

relationships between electric current and heat, magnetism and chemicals. For
instance, James Joule observed that electric current flowing through a conductor
causes the temperature of the conductor and the surrounding to rise. Oersted in his
experiment observed that electric current flowing generates a magnetic field to the
region around a conductor. Numerous studies also confirmed that when electric
current flow through a substance e.g. water causes chemical changes in a process
called electrolysis. The following are the effects of electric current:

 Heating effects
 Magnetic effects
 Chemical effects

Heating effects of an electric current

It is a common observation that when we rub the palms of our hands together, they
become warmer. Work done by us against friction is converted into heat energy,
i.e. mechanical energy has been converted into heat energy. Likewise when an
electric current passes through a conductor, it generates heat energy. This heating
effect of an electric current was first investigated by James Joule, a Manchester
brewer in UK. The heating effect is due to the resistance by the conductor to the
flow of current.

Simple experiments can be done to illustrate the heating effect of an electric

current using various devices. The following are some of the experiments.

Experiment: To illustrate the heating effect of an electric current using an

immersion heater

Apparatus
  An immersion heater
 Cold water
 A small bucket
 Power supply

Procedure

 Dip an immersion heater into water in a small bucket and switch on the
power supply
 After about 2 to 3 minutes, switch off the power supply and touch the water
in the bucket

Observation

The water becomes warm

Discussion

The electrical energy has been converted into heat energy

Experiment: To illustrate the heating effect of electric current using the palm and
an electric bulb

Apparatus

 An electric bulb
 Electric power supply

Procedure

 Hold your palm upwards under an electric bulb.

 Turn on the electric supply. What do you feel?

Observation

The palm feels warm

Conclusion

An electric bulb produces heat. Heat energy generated in the bulb reaches the palm
by radiation.

Experiment: To illustrate the heating effect of electric current using a simple

electric lamp

Apparatus

 Two thick copper wires

 A two holed rubber stopper
 A very thin iron wire
 An empty bottle

Procedure

 Push the ends of two thick copper wires through a two-holed rubber stopper.
 Wind the ends of a strands of every thin iron wire around the projecting ends
of the copper wires and insert the cork into an empty bottle. This serves as a
model of an electric lamp
 Connect the lamp model to a circuit with 3 cells and a switch (fig 13.1).
close the switch and note what is observed
 Open and close the switch a number of times and observe what happens
Observation

The iron wire, called the filament, begins to glow

Discussion

The electrical energy in the iron wire is transformed into heat energy which in turn
makes the wire to glow before burning

Experiment: To illustrate the heating effect of electric

current using a coil of a nichrome and copper wire

Apparatus

 A thin wire
 Two crocodile clips
 A variable resistor
 A cylindrical rod
 A cardboard lid
 An ammeter

Procedure

 Make a coil by winding a thin

nichrome wire round a cylindrical
rod
 Gently remove the coil from the
rod and connect the ends of the
coil or two crocodile clips,
supported across the top of the
beaker containing water. The coil
 should be fully immersed in water but should not touch the bottom or walls
of the beaker
 Insert a thermometer through the hole in a cardboard lid. Connect the coil to
a battery, a variable resistor, an ammeter and a switch (see figure below).
Note the initial temperature of water
 Close the switch and adjust the current to 3A. observe the thermometer
reading and note the temperature after 5 minutes
 Repeat the experiment with copper wire

Observation

The thermometer reading increases i.e. the temperature of the water increases

Conclusion

When the current flows through the coil, the electrical energy is converted into
heat energy raising the temperature of the water.

When nichrome wire is used, the temperature increase is very high while copper
wire temperature increase was low. It is for this reason that nichrome wire is used
for heating element and copper for connecting wires.

Factors affecting heating effect of an electric current

Joule did a lot of research on the heating of electric current by passing

a. Different amounts of currents through the same coil for the same amount of
time
b. The same amount of current through different coils of different resistance
(length)
c. The same amount of current through the same coil for different amount of
time

He found that the heat produced in a conductor depends upon;

 a. The current passing through it
b. Resistance of the conductor
c. The time for which current flows

Applications of heating effect of an electric current

There are many applications of the heating effect of electric current, both in
industry and in our homes. A few of the applications are briefly described below

Filament lamps (torches)

A conductor may be heated to white hot without melting. Under this condition it
emits light. A filament lamp, popularly known as the electric bulb, operates this
way. The first electric lamp, invented by an American scientist Thomas Alva
Edison in 1878, consisted of a fine platinum wire. At present tungsten wire whose
melting point is higher (3 4000C) is used.

The tungsten wire is made into filament of a small coil and fitted to the connecting
leads of the bulb. The sealed glass bulb contains a mixture of nitrogen and argon
gases at a low pressure. Air is not used because it could oxidize the tungsten wire.
The presence of these gases reduces the oxidation of the tungsten. Figure 13.3a
shows the labelled parts of a filament lamp while figure 13.3b shows a commercial
filament lamp in operation
Save energy!
Switch off lights when not using them

Electric heating appliances

The common household electrical appliances like electric kettle, laundry iron,
heater, hotplate, toaster, roaster etc. which convert electrical energy into heat are
all constructed essentially in the same way. In all cases, the heating elements are
made from a metal like nichrome. This is an alloy of nickel and chromium which is
not easily oxidized when in turns red hot. The nichrome wire is made into a coil
and wound round substances like porcelain which are heat resistant and non-
conductors.

The heating element in a radiant electric heater is red hot at about 9000C and the
radiation emitted by the heater is directed into the room by polished metal
reflectors (figure 13.4(a)) and (b)

In an electric iron, when a current flows through the heating element, the heat
energy developed is conducted to the heavy metal base and the temperature of the
metal base increases. This heat energy is used to press clothes. An electric iron also
incorporates a thermostat ( a device that contains a bimetallic strip) which is used
for regulating the temperatures of the hot plate. Figure 13.5(b) shows a commercial
electric iron
In an electric kettle (figure 13.6 a and b, the heat energy developed in the heating
element is used to heat water. The temperature of water rises in a comparatively
shorter time as compared to water being heated using burning charcoal or firewood

The latter releases carbon dioxide gas to the atmospheric which has a bad effect on
the environment. Cutting trees for charcoal and firewood leads to deforestation
which may lead to desertification

Fuses

A fuse is a short thin piece of wire of low melting point. The wire melts as soon as
the current through it exceeds its rated value. Fuses are usually fitted in all circuits
to prevent dangerously large current from flowing.
A melted or ‘blown’ off fuse stops the current and protects the electrical appliance
against the risk of fire caused by heat. Just like the switch, the fuse should be fitted
in the live wire.

The fuse used should be of a value just higher than the normal current required by
the appliance. The common standard values of available fuses are 2A, 5A, and
13A. Although 1A. 3A, 7A and 10A fuses are also made. If the power rating of an
electrical appliance is ‘2000 W, 250V’, the required current through it is 8A. The
correct fuse to protect the appliance is 10A. Similarly if the required current for an
appliance is 4A, the correct fuse to be used is 5A.

Exercise

1. State two day-to-day occurrences in which heat energy produced by electric

current can be felt.
2. Suggest a simple experiment to demonstrate the heating effect of an electric
current. State two factors which affect the eating effect.
3. State four household electrical appliances where electrical energy is
converted into heat energy
4. Electrical heaters are said to be environmentally friendlier than the heating
devices which use firewood or charcoal. Explain this statement.

Magnetic effect of an electric current

Electric current flowing through a conductor generates a magnetic field around the
conductor. This effect is experienced in electric motor and electromagnets.

Relationship between electric current and magnetism

In 1819, Oersted observed that the direction of a compass needle near a current
carrying conductor changed immediately the current was switched off. He also
observed that direction on the compass needle depended on the relative position of
the compass from the wire, and the direction of the current.
From Oersted’s experiment, it was realized that there exists a relationship between
an electric current and magnetism. In this chapter we are going to study the
magnetic effect of an electric current and some of its applications in technological
development

Magnetic field due to an electric current

Experiment: To show the magnetic field pattern due to a straight current-carrying

conductor

Apparatus:

 Iron fillings
 Variable resistor
 A source of current
 A cardboard
 A stand

Procedure

 Set up the apparatus as shown below

 Sprinkle iron fillings on the card and close the switch

 Tap the card gently. You may use the variable resistor to vary the current, I
Observation

When the card is tapped the iron fillings settle in concentric circles round the wire

Iron fillings settle in a particular pattern on the card

Discussion

This experiment, shows that the current in the conductor has produced a magnetic
field around it

Conclusion

A magnetic field around a straight current carrying conductor is a pattern of

concentric circles around the conductor.

The direction of a magnetic field

Experiment: To determine the direction of a magnetic field

Apparatus

 7 plotting compasses
 A card
 A wire connected to power supply

Procedure

 Repeat experiment above using 6 or 7 plotting compasses instead of iron

filings as shown below in fig13.8 a.
Observation

It can be seen that the pattern is the same as in the first experiment, with the added
information on the direction of the field

Conclusion

When the current direction is reversed the compass needles point in the opposite
direction. This shows that the direction of the field reverses when the current
direction is reversed. The direction is represented in symbols as shown in figure
13.9 a and b below.

Rules for determining the direction of magnetic field

Right hand grip rule (thumb rule)

Assume you are holding a conductor in your right hand with the thumb pointing in
the direction of the current as shown in figure 13.10. The other fingers will point in
the direction of the magnetic field due to current in the wire
Right handed corkscrew rule

Imagine you are holding and turning a screw in your right hand with the screw
pointing in the direction of the current. Turn the screw clockwise so that it
advances in the direction of the current. The clockwise rotation of the screw gives
the direction of the field due to the current in the conductors as shown in fig. 13.11
Simple electromagnet

An electromagnet is a device made by coils of an insulated wire wound on a

magnetic material

Experiment: To determine the strength of an electromagnet

Apparatus

 An insulated copper wire

 A long iron nail
 A power source (dry cells)
 A variable resistor

Procedure

 Wind an insulated copper wire round a long iron nail and connect it in a
circuit as shown in fig. 13.12. Care should be taken to ensure that:
1. All the windings are in single layer (i.e.) all are touching the nail
2. The windings are close together
3. All the windings are in the same direction

 Close the switch and adjust the variable resistor so that a suitable current
flows in the circuit
  Place steel drawing pins at the base of the nail, one after the other and note
the maximum number of pins the electromagnet can keep attracted to it
 Repeat the experiment by varying the current and noting the new maximum
number of pins. Enter your results in a table shown below. Switch off the
current and note what happens to the pins.

Current (A)

Number of
pins

 Repeat the experiment with a constant value of current but with a double and
triple layer of windings round the nail wound in the same direction. Record
your results
 Analyze your results to establish how the strength of the magnet varies with
1. The current when the number of windings is constant
2. The number of turns (windings) when the current is kept constant.

Observation
Number of pins attracted increases with increase in current

Conclusion
The above experiment shows that the strength of the electromagnet increases with
1. Increasing current when the number of windings per unit length is constant
2. The number of turns per unit length when the current is kept constant
It should be noted that the strength of an electromagnet also depends on the
material the nail is made of. Soft magnet will make stronger electromagnets.
Uses of electromagnets
Very powerful magnets are required for use in industry to lift and transport steel
parts or scrap iron from one place to another. Electromagnets are suited for this
purpose. When the load has been moved to the desired position, the current is
switched off and the load is detached from the electromagnet. This is because the
soft iron of the electromagnet is s strong magnet only when the current is flowing.
When the current is switched off the soft iron loses most of its magnetism
Electromagnets are also used in scientific research. The strong magnetic field due
to strong electromagnets affect charged particles such as electrons. It can change
their state of motion. This effect is used to study the structure of matter
There are many devices that make use of the electromagnets. Let us study two such
devices more closely. These are
1. The electric bell
2. The telephone receiver

The electric bell

The electric bell consists of two soft iron cores connected by a soft iron yoke. An
insulated copper wire is wound in opposite directions round the two cores. Apply
the method discussed earlier to confirm that the polarities of the two solenoids is as
shown in figure below
When the switch is closed (by pushing a button switch) a current flows through the
circuit and the cores become magnetised. The cores then attract the soft iron
armature which creates a gap between the contacts thus breaking the circuit and
stopping the flow of the current. As a result, the cores lose their magnetism and the
armature returns to its original position.
This results in contacts closing so that a current again flows. The cycle is repeated
as long as the switch is closed. A harmer which is attached to the end of the
armature keeps on hitting the gong every time contact is made resulting in the
familiar continuous sound of s ringing bell. When the plush switch is released the
current flow stops and the bell stops ringing.
Simple d.c electric motor
An electric motor is a device which converts electrical energy to mechanical
energy.
Examples of devices which use electric motors include electric drill, vacuum
cleaner, electric shaving machine, electric bell, electric fan etc.
A simple electric motor consist of a rectangular coil of wire placed between the
poles of a strong magnet as shown in figure 13.14

The end of each wire is connected to a section of a split ring called the
commutator.
The commutator rotates with the coil. Two carbon brushes are fixed just by
touching the commutators. Current enters the coil through the brushes
According to Fleming’s left hand rule, wire AB experiences a force downwards
while wire CD experiences an upward force. These two equal forces in opposite
directions cause a loop ABCD to rotate in anticlockwise direction. The
commutator reverses the current flow in the coil every half-cycle. This ensures that
the coil continues to rotate in the same direction. The motor is found to work faster
when:
1. The current in the coil is increased
2. A stronger magnet is used
3. More turns of the coil of the wire are used
4. The area of the coil in magnetic field is increased
5. Many coils are used with more split ring parts in many planes

Project work
Construction of:
1. An electromagnet

Suggested materials:
An iron nail or bolt about 6-7 cm long, about 100cm insulated copper wire (S.W.G
26-28) or nay suitable gauge wire to withstand a current of 1-2A, cellotape, cutting
pliers or razor blade, power supply (2-3 dry cells), switch, variable resistor (0-
20Ω), ammeter (0-2A), a few iron nails (or thumb tacks or paper clips or staple
pins), connecting wires.

Assembly
 Wind a layer of the insulated wire on the nail (or bolt), making sure to leave
about 10cm of wire sticking out where the winding started.
 Several layers of turns, making sure that the windings are in the same
direction. At the end leave about 10 cm of wire sticking out.
 At the end of the nail, stick cellotape so that the turns of wire do not unwind
themselves
 Remove the insulation from the two free ends of wire. You have now made
your electromagnet
  Connect your electromagnet in series with the power supply, switch,
ammeter and the variable resistor (see figure 13.15)

 Close the switch and adjust the variable resistor to pass a suitable current
through the coil wound on the nail (bolt) i.e. your electromagnet
 Keep some iron nails or staple pins closer to the base if the nail and observe
what happens
 Open the circuit and see the effect. Pass more current and see the effect you
have made on the electromagnet

2. An electric motor

Suggested materials:
2 ceramic magnets, an empty match box or a wooden block of the same size, a
thick copper wire or a thin metal rod where cello tape is wrapped round one end,
about 1-1.5m insulated copper wire (S.W.G 26/28) where the insulation has been
removed from each end ( the bare ends to act as commutators), a wooden base with
2 vertical supports where the 2 ceramic magnets can be fixed, 2 rings cut-off from
a narrow rubber tubing which can fit exactly into the thick copper wire of the thin
metal rod, 2 optical pins pierced through, 2 pieces of cork which can act as
brushes and also as leads to power supply (3V battery or low voltage supply), 2
thick wires with a dent in the middle (fig. 13.16) suitably supported as pivots from
the coil to rotate freely.
Assembly
 Pierce the thick copper wire or thin metal rod through the match box and
about 15 turns of the copper wire around the match box. This is the coil of
motor

 Slip the 2 rubber rings onto the end with cello tape. The bare ends of copper
wire should pass through the rubber rings so that it is held lightly against the
cello tape on the opposite sides of the rod

 Support the 2 optical pins so that they just touch each end of the bare copper
wire. Support the match box and the rod through it on the 2 dents. Slide this
assembly in between the 2 ceramic magnets with opposite poles facing each
other (figure 13.16)

 Connect the dc power supply to the ends of the optical pins (underneath) and
adjust the plane of the coil to be horizontal, i.e. parallel to the magnetic field.
Give a slight push to the coil and see the effect.

Exercise
1. Draw the magnetic field pattern due to two isolated straight conductors
carrying a current as shown in figure 13.17 a and b
2. Figure 13.18 represents a simple electric motor. Study the diagram and
answer the questions that follow

a. Copy the diagram and label it to show the brushes, commutator, variable
resistor, cell and coil
b. Indicate on your diagram the direction of rotation of the coil
c. Briefly describe and explain how the motor works specifying clearly the
role of the brushes and the commutator
d. When viewed from the front the motor can be represented by fig 13.19
below. Copy the diagram and draw the magnetic field pattern between
the two poles of the magnet
Chemical effect of an electric current
Like metals, some liquids allow electric current to pass through them. The passage
of an electric current through liquids causes chemical changes. This process is
known as electrolysis. Not all liquids allow electric current to pass through. It is
only in those liquids which are least partly dissociate into oppositely charged ions
that allow current to pass through them. Such liquids are called electrolytes.
Solution of many inorganic chemical compounds (e.g. sulphuric acid, copper
sulphate, common salt etc.) are examples of electrolytes.

Experiment: To investigate chemical effects of electric current

Apparatus
 A 250 ml beaker
 Two carbon rods
 A battery
 Water

Procedure
 Put some pure water in a beaker. Dip two carbon rods into the water
 Connect one of carbon rod to the negative terminal of a battery. Connect the
other rod to the positive terminal of the battery as seen in figure below:
  Complete the circuit by including a light bulb and a switch. Switch on the
current and note what happens to the bulb
 Add a few drops of sulphuric acid to pure water and repeat the experiment
 Repeat the experiment with other liquid solution, e.g. copper sulphate
solution, common salt solution and record your observations
Observation
With pure water, the bulb does not light. However, with a few drops of sulphuric
acid, the bulb lights

Discussion
Sulphuric acid helps to break water into its ions. Water with a few drops of
sulphuric acid is known as acidulated water. These ions help I the passage of the
current. Copper sulphate, common slat solution contain ions and hence the bulb
light. The rod or plates that are dipped in solution to direct the current are called
electrodes. The electrode connected to the positive terminal of the battery is known
as the anode and that connected to the negative terminal of the battery is called
cathode. The whole arrangement of electrode, electrolyte and the vessel containing
them is called a voltmeter
A close observation at the surface of the electrolytes in contact with the
electrolytes, chemical actions occur

Conclusion
The chemical changes in a liquid due to flow of an electric current is called
electrolysis.
There, when a current flow through an electrolyte it causes chemical reactions.

Experiment: To investigate the chemical effect of an electric current through

copper sulphate with copper electrodes
Apparatus
 Copper sulphate solution
 A 250 ml beaker
 An ammeter
 Copper electrodes
 A variable resistor

Procedure
 Measure the mass of copper electrodes provided. Set the apparatus as shown
in figure 13.21

 Adjust the variable resistor such that a current of 0.5A passes through the
copper sulphate solution
 Allow the electric current to flow for about 30 minutes. Remove copper
cathode and anode from the solution, and observe what happens to the
surfaces. Re-weigh the copper cathode and anode.
Observation
The copper cathode electrode that was dipped in the copper sulphate solution was
covered with a bright fresh deposit of copper while, the anode looked dull

Conclusion
 The cathode showed an increase in mass and the anode showed a decrease
in its mass
 The amount of increase and decrease in mass for cathode and anode is found
to be equal. It is also found that the colour of the copper sulphate solution
remain unchanged. The net effect is that copper is dissolved off the cathode
and deposited on the cathode, with the electrolyte remaining unchanged.

Uses of chemical effect of an electric current

a. Electroplating is a planting process that uses electric current. Electroplating
is mainly used to depositing a layer of material on a metre surface e.g.
chromium to achieve a desired property e.g. protect, corrosion protection
and aesthetic qualities. It is also used to build up thickness on undersized
parts.
For example’
Chromium planting is found on bath taps, car bumpers, bicycle handle bars,
towel rails, chromium does not corrode. It can be polished to give a bright
attractive appearance. It is also hard metal which resists scratches and wear.
Silver plated items also common to find in our daily use. Cutlery and
jewelry items are often silver plated to have the appearance of silver but be
less expensive.
b. Electrolysis is used to manufacture pure metals such as pure copper
commercially from compound solutions
c. Electrolytic capacitors are widely used in radio receivers i.e. the capacitor is
made by the electrolysis of ammonium borate
Chemical cells
A chemical cell consists of two different metals called electrodes and a conducting
liquid called electrolyte. The chemical energy stored in the cell is converted into
electrical energy when an electric current flows in the circuit. Chemical cells are
classified as either primary or secondary cells.

Primary cells
In primary cells, chemical energy is directly changed into electric energy. There
are two types of primary cells namely: simple primary cell (wet) and dry cell

A simple primary cell

A simple primary cell has zinc and copper plates as electrodes and dilute sulphuric
acid as the electrolyte figure 13.22

Experiment: To demonstrate the working of a simple cell

Apparatus
 Zinc electrode
 Copper electrode
 Dilute sulphuric acid
  A bulb

Procedure
 Dip zinc and copper plates into a beaker containing dilute sulphuric acid as
shown in figure 13.22
 Connect the two plates to a bulb and observe what happens to the bulb
immediately it is connected. Allow the set-up to run for some time and note
what happens to the bulb
 Add a little amount of potassium dichromate into the container. What
happens to the bubbles around the copper plate and to the brightness of the
bulb?

Observation
 When the bulb is connected, it lights brightly but dims down after some time
when bubbles form around the copper plate
 The bubbles disappear and the bulb brightness is restored

Action of the simple cell

When the copper and the zinc plates are connected to a bulb, zinc plate starts to
dissolve in the sulphuric acid. Positive zinc ions dissolves into sulphuric acid
leaving electrons on the zinc plate. These electrons are the sources of the electric
current from zinc to copper plate. At the same time hydrogen ions leave the
solution and are deposited on the copper [plate. They pick electrons from the
copper plate to form hydrogen gas.
Copper plate becomes positively charged and hence can attract electrons from zinc
plate (figure 13.23)
Defects in a simple cell
Polarisation
Accumulation of hydrogen gas bubbles round the copper plate makes it difficult
for the electrons to flow. This is what causes the bulb to dim. The process by
which hydrogen bubbles form around the copper plate is called polarisation. This
defect can be minimised by adding a depolariser, like potassium dichromate. A
good depolariser should not react with the electrolyte

Local action
When zinc reacts with sulphuric acid, it dissolves and exposes hidden impurities of
carbon and iron. These impurities form small cells called local cells. These local
cells cause the zinc to be used up even when current is not being supplied. This
defect is called local action. It can be minimised by applying a layer of mercury
dissolves off zinc leaving the impurities buried in the electrode.

Dry Leclanche’cell
A dry Lenclance’cell consist of a carbon rod which is surrounded by manganese
(IV) oxide mixed with carbon powder dipped in ammonium chloride paste and a
zinc case (figure 13.24) during the working of the cell, zinc is converted into zinc
chloride and hydrogen gas is produced. Manganese (IV) oxide converts the
hydrogen produced into water. Hence polarisation is minimised. The carbon
powder acts as a catalyst i.e. it quickens the working of the manganese (IV) oxide.
Local action is still a problem in this cell.

Advantages of Leclanche’cell
1. Chemicals used are relatively cheap
2. A relatively high electrical energy is produced
3. The depolariser used is solid and a poor conductor of electric current. It
mixes well with the powdered carbon, which is good conductor of electric
current

Disadvantages
1. It polarises if used continuously
2. It uses depolariser. More hydrogen is evolved than it can react with.
3. It cannot provide large currents
Secondary cells
A secondary cell stores electrical energy in a chemical form. It must first be
charged with electricity. The chemical reactions in a secondary cell, unlike in a
primary cell, are reversible. i.e. the electrical energy produced during charging is
changed into chemical energy and stored in a cell. When the cell is in use the
stored chemical energy is once again changed to electrical energy.

Experiment: Making a simple secondary cell

Apparatus
 A lead plate
 2 m dilute sulphuric acid
 A 250 ml; beaker
Procedure
 Introduce two clean lead plates into a beaker containing dilute sulphuric
acid. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 13.25

 Close the switch and allow the current to flow for some time. What happens
to the two lead plates?
 Repeat the experiment but replace the battery with a bulb and observe what
happens.
Observation
 The lead plate connected to the negative terminal of the battery becomes
coated with a chocolate brown colour. The other plate remains grey
 The bulb lights

Conclusion
On allowing the current to flow for some time, the two plates become coated with
a white substance and the brightness of the bulb decreases slightly. The bulb lights
since the cell has been made

Lead-acid accumulator
There are many different types of secondary cells available in the market today.
One of the most commonly used secondary cell is the lead acid accumulator. See
figure below

A lead acid accumulator consists of positive and negative plates which are made of
lead antimony alloy. These plates have a mesh like grid. The positive plate is
packed with lead (IV) oxide (chocolate brown in colour), while the negative plate
is packed with spongy lead (grey colour). The plates are dipped into sulphuric acid.
Care must be taken when handling this electrolyte as it is very corrosive. It is
strong enough to burn holes in clothing and can damage the skin and eyes. The
plates and the electrolyte are placed in a strong plastic container.
Each cell has a screw cap which can be removed when checking the state of
sulphuric acid. Each of these caps have a small vent/hole to allow gases to escape.
The cells have lower internal resistance as compared to the primary cell
As electrical energy is taken from the cell, sulphuric acid reacts with lead (IV)
oxide and lead to form lead sulphate (white solid). This makes the density of
sulphuric acid to fall. When density of sulphuric acid is very low, the cell cannot
provide any more electrical energy. It is said to be discharged (flat). To regain
energy, the cell is recharged by connecting a direct current (dc) source as shown in
fig 13.27. When connected in this manner, chemical reactions are reversed. The
density of sulphuric acid is restored. The lead sulphate is converted to lead and
lead (IV) oxide. The charging is complete when hydrogen and oxygen bubbles are
freely released (gassing) form the plates. The gassing is as a result of the charging
current decomposing the water present.
The density of sulphuric acid is checked using an instrument called hydrometer

Car batteries have six cells connected in series (figure 13.28)

Care and maintenance of an accumulator
1. The plate should always be covered with the electrolyte. However during
this usage water evaporates and alters the recommended density of sulphuric
acid. Distilled water is then added to bring the density of sulphuric acid to
the normal value
This is called topping up. Acid may be added only in case of spillage
2. Charge the cell regularly. When the cell is left in the discharged state for
long period, lead (II) sulphate deposited on the plate harden up and becomes
very difficult to convert back to lead (IV) oxide. The cell is then
permanently damaged
3. Never short cut circuit the cells i.e. avoid the two electrodes coming in direct
contact with each other. This may lead to large currents be drawn from the
battery resulting in the weakening of lead (IV) oxide and lead in the grids
causing them to fall off
4. When recharging, leave the screw caps off the cell or loosen them to allow
the gas formed during the charging process to escape

Caution!
Do not smoke while in battery charging room. Hydrogen gas is formed during
charging and by burning with an explosion

5. Avoid direct flame with the cell as the hydrogen and oxygen gas is formed,
may combine and explode
6. The terminals should be cleaned occasionally with hot water to dissolve off
nay lead (II) sulphate that may form on them. Greasing also helps in
preventing the formation of lead (II) sulphate
Capacity of an accumulator
The amount of energy which a cell can usefully store is referred to as the capacity
of the cell. The capacity of the cell is measured in ampere-hour (Ah). If the cell can
maintain a current of 3A for 10 hours, then its capacity is 3 x 10 = 30Ah
Advantages of a secondary cell
1. It is cheap to make
2. It can produce large currents
3. It can be recharged

Disadvantages of a secondary cell

1. The electrolyte is corrosive
2. It produces gases which may explode if ignited
3. It cannot produce large currents in cold weathers

Exercise

1. Draw a labelled diagram of a simple cell

2. 2. When a small bulb is connected between the two plates of a simple cell,
the bulb lights. However, the brightness fades after some time
a. Why does the bulb light?
b. Explain why the brightness fades. How can the effect be minimized?
3.
a. Draw and labelled diagram of a:
i. Primary cell
ii. Secondary cell

In each case name the cell you have drawn

b. In what ways does a primary cell differ from a secondary cell

4. State advantages and disadvantages of an accumulator over a dry cell
5. Explain how you should maintain and care for an accumulator?
6. What is the function of a depolarizer in simple and lenclanche’ cell? Give an
example of a depolarizer
7. Why should the depolarizer used in Leclanche’ cell be mixed with powdered
carbon?
8. An accumulator has a capacity of 40Ah. Explain this statement.
Project work
Making simple cell form locally available materials
Suggested materials
Citrus fruits, potatoes or onions to provide the electrolyte, zinc plates from old dry
cells, thick copper wire

Assembly
 Assemble the apparatus as shown in figure 13.29

 Pierce through the skin and insert the two electrodes. The current from this
cell is very small. Try and connect a number of them in series and see
whether a small bulb can be lit.

Unit summary
 Whenever an electric current passes through a conductor, electrical energy is
converted to other forms of energy e.g. heat and light
 Heating effect by current depends on the:
a. Current passing through the conductor
b. Resistance of the conductor
 c. Time for which current flows
 The Si unit of energy is the joule and of power is the watt
 We use a tungsten coil as the heating element in an electric bulb
 Household electrical appliances like kettle, iron, heater, toaster etc. use a
nichrome wire
 A current carrying conductor has a magnetic field associated with it
 The magnetic field around a current carrying conductor consist of concentric
circles around the conductor
 The magnetic field due to a solenoid resembles that of a bar magnet. The
polarities of the ends of the solenoid can be determined by the direction of
current as observed from that end. Clockwise is South (S) and anticlockwise
is north (N)
 An electromagnet is a coil of a conducting wire wound on a soft iron core.
The strength of the electromagnet is proportional to the size of current in the
wire and the number of turns per unit length of the iron core.
 An electric motor is a device which uses electrical energy to do work. It uses
the principle that a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field
experiences a force. This principle is called the electric motor effect
 The electric bell and telephone receiver make use of electromagnets’
 A moving coil loud speaker use the electric motor effect
 Most electrical appliances are manufactured to be used on the same mains
supply, but have different power outputs
 Electric current causes chemical break down solutions when passed through
them
 Primary cells cannot be recharged while secondary cells are rechargeable
 Electric cells provide energy to drive an electric current in a circuit
 Secondary cells can last for a long time if they are well maintained

Unit test 13
1. Which of the following is not an effect of an electric current?
A. Heating effect
B. Growing effect
C. Magnetic effect
 D. Chemical effect
2. Heat produced by a conductor carrying current depends on the following
except
A. The colour of the material
B. The resistance of the conductor
C. The amount of current
D. Time for which the current flows
3. Which of the following fuse is suitable to be used with an appliance rated
9A?
A. 15A
B. 10A
C. 7A
D. 3A
4. The filament of a bulb is made of tungsten and the bulb contains a mixture
of argon and nitrogen at low pressure
A. What is the purpose of the presence of the gases inside the bulb
B. Why is tungsten a suitable material for the filament?
5. With the aid of a diagram describe how an electromagnet works
C. Describe an experiment to show how you would investigate the variation
of the lifting strength of the electromagnet and the current in the
electromagnet indicating clearly the measurements you would make
D. State three applications of an electromagnet
6. With the aid of a diagram describe and explain the working of a simple
electric bell. Show how you would connect the bell so that it can be rung
from two different points
7. Which of the bulb in the circuits shown in figure 13.30 will light if the
switch is closed. Explain your answer
8. Which materials are used in the construction of:
a. A simple cell
b. A dry Leclanche’ cell
c. An acid accumulator
9. Explain why the current in a simple cell decreases rapidly when in use.
Describe how to minimize this decrease in current
10.State the advantages and disadvantages of a dry cell
11.Draw and label a diagram to show:
a. The structure of a Leclanche’ cell
b. An acid accumulator when being charged
12.Explain with a suitable circuit diagram how to charge an acid accumulator.
How is polarization reduced in an acid accumulator?
13.Describe a project to make a simple acid accumulator.
UNIT 14: MAGNETISM
Origin of magnetism
The people of Magnesia in Asia Minor observed that certain kinds of naturally
occurring iron ores possessed an iron attracting property. The ore was discovered
near the city of Magnesia and hence it was named Magnetite. Huge lamps of
magnetite were often called lodestone meaning “leading” stone or natural magnet.
Chemically lodestone consist of iron oxide.
Dr. William Gilbert (1540-1603) did a lot of work with natural magnets. He
published a book called De Magnete in 1600 in which he gave an account of his
research into the magnets and their properties. In one of his works he concluded
that earth was itself magnic and that is why compasses point to the north of the
earth.

Poles of magnet
Experiment: To identify the magnetic poles using iron filling
Apparatus
 A bar magnet
 Iron filings
 A cardboard

Procedure
 Dip a bar magnet into a container full of iron filings
 Remove the magnet from the container and observe what happens

Observation
You will observe iron filings are attracted by the bar magnet and that most iron
filings remain clustered around the ends of the magnet as shown in figure 14.1
Discussion
The ends of magnet where the attraction is strongest are known as the magnetic
poles. Magnetic poles are the places in a magnet where the total attractive force
seems to be concentrated. A straight line drawn passing through these ends is
called the magnetic axis of the magnet see figure 14.2

Conclusion
The bar magnet have the strongest attraction at the poles
To identify the poles of unmarked magnet
The word lodestone means ‘way’ or ‘direction’. It refers to the directional property
of a magnet. A magnetic compass or a plotting compass used in navigation always
rests in the north-south direction

Experiment: To determine the magnetic poles by suspending the magnet

Apparatus
 A bar magnet
 1 metre long thread
Procedure
 Suspend a bar magnet freely at its centre by a length of a cotton thread from
a support (fig 14.3a) make sure there are no steel or iron objects near the
magnet

 Displace the magnet slightly so that it swings in a horizontal plane

 Note the direction in which the magnet finally comes to rest. Repeat the
experiment at different places
Observation
The bar magnet swings to and fro and finally rests in a north-south direction of the
earth

Discussion
The pole that points towards the north pole of the earth is called the north seeking
pole or simply the North Pole (N). The other pole called the south seeking pole or
South Pole (S).

Conclusion
The magnet comes at rest with its axis in a vertical plane called the magnetic
meridian (FIGURE 14.3B. I.E. a bar magnet rests in a north-south direction.

Experiment: To identify poles of a magnet by use of a colour paint

Apparatus
 Repeat experiment 14.2 place a compass at a place far away from the
suspended bar magnet
 Compare the direction shown by the compass and that of the suspended bar
magnet. Deduce the poles of the magnet

Observation
The bar magnet rests in North-South direction

Conclusion
The pole that points in the direction of the north of the compass is the North Pole
and the other pole is the South Pole
In order to easily identify the poles of a magnet, the ends are usually painted in
different colours. For example, the n-pole is painted red while the s-pole is painted
white or blue. In other cases the whole bar is painted red with a white dot or spot
on one end to identify the north- pole. (See figure 14.4)

Types of magnets
Magnets are named according to their shapes, as shown in figure 14.5

Another type of magnet is the ceramic or magnadur magnet. They are made from
some alloys. This has its poles as its forces (fig. 14.6). These types of magnets are
stronger than other magnets of comparable size. They are greyish/black in colour.
Magnadur magnets consist of oxide of iron and oxide of barium
Magnetic and non- magnetic materials
Materials may be classified according to their magnetic properties. There are those
that are attracted by magnets and others that are not attracted.

Experiment: To identify magnetic and non-magnetic substances

Apparatus
 Iron steel nails
 A copper metal
 Zinc
 A bar magnet
 Cobalt, wood
 Glass rods

Procedure
 Place some iron steel nails on the bench. Bring a bar of magnet close to the
iron nails and record what happens
 Repeat the experiment with other materials such as copper, zinc, cobalt,
steel, sulpher, brass, wood, rock, cork, nickel, plastic, pens, wax, glass rods,
carbon, aluminium, paper, chalk etc.
  Record your observations in a tabular form shown in table 14.1

Substances attracted by a bar Substances not attracted by a bar

magnet magnet
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4

Observation
Some materials are attracted while others are not attracted by the bar magnet

Discussion
The materials which are attracted are called magnetic materials while those which
are not attracted are called non-magnetic materials. Foe example of non-magnetic
materials are copper, brass, paper, chalk, aluminium, wood, cork, plastic, etc. the
magnetic materials that are strongly attracted are called ferro-magnetic materials.
These include nickel, iron, cobalt and steel

Components of magnetic substances

Iron which is strongly attracted to a magnet is called ferromagnetic material while
steel which is also attracted by magnet (made by adding a small percentage of
carbon to iron) is also ferromagnetic material. Other elements that are
ferromagnetic materials are nickel, and cobalt. Some alloys are also ferromagnetic
materials. Alnico is ferromagnetic material and is used as a permanent magnet.
When metals are mixed together they form alloys. Some alloys are ferromagnetic
materials. Alico belongs to a family of iron alloy.
In addition to iron alico is mainly compo0sed of aluminium (Al), nickel (Ni) and
cobalt (Co) hence the name Al-ni-co. other alloys like mumetal which consist of
nickel, iron, copper, chromium or titanium are also ferromagnetic.
The basic law of magnetism
Experiment: To investigate the action of magnets on each other

Apparatus
 Two bars magnets
 A cotton thread
Procedure
 Suspend a bar magnet using a light cotton thread with its north and south
pole clearly marked
 Bring a S-pole of a second bar magnets slowly towards the S-pole of the
suspended magnet. Observe what happens (fig. 14.7a)
 Repeat the experiment using the S-pole of the suspended magnet and the N-
pole of the second magnet (fig. 14.7b)

 Repeat using the other poles and record your observation in a table (see
table 14.2)

Poles of suspended Pole of second magnet Observation

magnet
South South
 South North

North South

North North

Observation
You will observe that a north pole attracts a south pole, a north pole repels a north
pole and a south pole repels a south pole.

Conclusion
Unlike poles attract each other while like poles repel each other. This is called
basic law of the magnetism or the first law of magnetism

Testing the polarity of magnets

Experiment: Test for polarity of a magnet using the basic law of magnets

Apparatus
 A nail
 Two bar magnets
 A cotton thread

Procedure
 Freely suspend a bar magnet as shown in figure 14.8. bring one pole of the
magnet close to a nail placed on a table
  Repeat with the other pole close to the nail. Record your observations.
Repeat these procedures, using a second bar magnet instead of the nail

Observation
 There is attraction when the south or north pole of the suspended magnet is
brought near the nail
 When the second bar magnet is used, there is attraction with one pole
repulsion with the other pole
Discussion
There is always an attraction between a magnet and a magnetic material and also
between the unlike poles of magnets. But there is only a repulsion between two
like poles of magnets.

Conclusion
Repulsion is therefore, the only sure way of testing for polarity of a magnet

Exercise
1. State two properties of a magnet
 2. State the basic law of magnetism
3. Name four types of magnets
4. Explain the terms:
a. South pole of a magnet
b. North pole of a magnet
c. Magnetic axis
d. Magnetic meridian
5. Describe an experiment to explain the existence of magnetic poles
6. Explain what would happen to a U-shaped magnet if it is freely suspended as
shown in figure 14.9.

7. Explain the meaning of the following terms:

a. A magnet
b. A magnet substance/material
c. A non-magnetic material
d. A ferro-magnetic material
8. What is the main difference between a ceramic magnet and a bar magnet?
9. How would you identify the polarity of a magnet whose poles are not
marked?
10.Group the following materials into magnetic and non- magnetic materials.
Zinc, paper, aluminum, graphite, steel and plastic
11.You have been provided with the following:
a. A rod labelled M, which is a magnet
b. A rod labelled S, which is a magnetic material
c. A rod labelled N, which is non-magnetic material
Explain how you would identify them
 12.In the magnets shown in figure 14.10, pole B attracts pole P and pole Q
attracts pole X if pole Y is in South:

a. What is the polarity of P?

b. What would happen if the following poles are brought close together
i. Pole B and X
ii. Pole A and pole Q
iii. Pole B and pole Y

Magnetic fields
When a magnetic compass is placed near a bar magnet its pointer direction
changes. This shows that there is magnetic effect in the space around the magnet.
In this space there exists magnetic force of attraction or repulsion. This space or
region is called a magnetic field and is represented by the lines of force called
magnetic field lines. These field lines form a magnetic field pattern. A magnetic
field is defined as a region in space where another magnet of ferromagnetic
material will experience a force.

Magnetic field pattern due to bar magnets

Experiment: To show the magnetic field pattern to a bar magnet

Apparatus
 A smooth stiff of paper
 A bar magnet
 Iron filings
Procedure
 Place a smooth stiff paper on top of a bar magnet. Sprinkle iron filings
lightly over the stiff paper
  Tap the paper gently and draw the pattern displayed by the iron filings

Observation
 Iron fillings form a regular pattern
 Iron filings are attracted by the magnet

Discussion
There is magnetic effect in the space around the bar magnet. The pattern displayed
by the iron filings represents the magnetic lines of force see figure 14.11a shows
the photograph of the arrangement of iron filings around the magnet. Figure 14.11b
shows the magnetic field lines. Note that the lines do not cross each other

The magnetic field is invisible, but can be traced if iron filings are sprinkled on a
piece of paper over a bag magnet. The iron filings will align themselves in a
specific pattern.

Conclusion
A bar magnet have a regular invisible field around it called a magnetic field.

Experiment: To show the magnetic field pattern due to two magnets close
together

Apparatus
 A smooth stiff paper
 A bar magnet
 Iron filings
Procedure
 Repeat experiment 14.7 with the north pole of two magnets close together
 Observe and draw the pattern displayed (fig 14.12a
 Repeat experiment 14.7 this time with south pole of one magnet near the
north pole of the other
 Observe and draw the pattern displayed (figure 14.12b)

Observation
I fa compass needle is placed at point X as in fig 14.12a, it is not affected by the
field

Conclusion
This point where the resultant magnetic field is zero is called the neutral point.

Experiment: To trace the direction of lines of force using a plotting compass

Apparatus:
 A bar magnet
 A white paper
 A plotting compass
Procedure
 Place a bar magnet onto a white paper. Place a plotting compass near the
magnet in position (i) in figure 14.13, wait for the compass needle to settle.
Mark the ends of the needle with pencil dots

 Move the compass to position ii so that the S pole of the compass rests on
the dot which was previously marked the N pole and mark a third dot against
the N pole.

 Move the compass on to position iii and repeat the procedure. Continue until
the compass reaches the S pole of the magnet

 Repeat the procedure on the other side of the magnet

 Join the dots by moving the compass in the way and repeating the procedure,
the paper can be covered by a series of dots which when joined shows a
smooth curve

Observation
On joining the dots with lines we obtain the following pattern of lines (figure
14.14).
The line produced represents a line of force
Conclusion
 The direction in which the N pole of the plotting compass point indicates the
direction of the magnetic field
It is worth noting that lines of force do not cross each other

The effect of distance on the strength of magnetic force

Experiment: To investigate the effect of distance on the strength of a magnet

Apparatus
 A bar magnet
 A metre rule
 An iron nail
Procedure
 Place a bar magnet on a bench. Bring an iron close to the magnet. Release
the nail
 Repeat the experiment by moving the nail further away from the magnet.
Record our observations
Observation
The nail is attracted strongly when placed near the magnet than when placed away

Discussion
As the magnet is moved further away, the magnet force decreases. If the
experiment is repeated with another magnet instead of the nail, it is found that the
force between two poles varies as the inverse square of the distance between them

Magnetic field pattern

Repeat the experiment 14.7 for a U-shaped magnet. Observe an ddraw the pattern
displayed (fig. 14.15)
Experiment: To determine the direction of the magnetic field using a “free” North

Apparatus
 A bar magnet
 A basin with water
 A wooden lath
 A free north point

Procedure
 Fasten a small bar magnet on a wooden lath. Place the lath on top of a deep
basin containing water
 Using a cork, float a long magnetized knitting needle on the water so that it
floats with its north pole up and as far away from the south pole of the bar
magnet as possible. Bring the north pole of the needle close to the north pole
of the bar magnet
 Release the needle and note the path followed by the north pole of the
needle. Repeat the experiment with the needle on the other side of the bar
magnet (fig. 14.16)
Observation
The long magnetised knitting needle is used so to provide “free”- poles i.e. the
north and south are far from each other. These free poles are also referred to as
isolated poles.
When the north pole of the knitting needle is released from both sides of the bar
magnet, it moves in a particular direction (fig 14.17) i.e. form north to south
display a particular path. This is the direction of a magnetic field

Discussion
The direction of a magnetic field at any point is taken to be the direction of the
force which would cat on a free N-pole placed at the point. The path taken by the
N-pole is representing the magnetic field line. Arrow heads are marked on the
magnetic field lines to indicate the direction of the magnetic field as moving from
north to south.
The direction of lines of force at any point can be shown by use of a plotting
compass by fig 14.18
The effect of magnetic materials on the magnetic field
Magnetic materials affect nay field in which it is placed. Figure 14.19 shows the
effect of soft iron in magnetic field.

The magnetic does not penetrate inside a soft iron ring as shown in fig above. This
is why a compass place inside the ring does not point in any fixed direction. Hence
a soft iron ring may be used to shield instruments from magnetic effects
The earth’s magnetic field
When a bar magnet is suspended freely; it comes to rest in N_S direction. This is
as if it is trying to align itself with a certain magnetic field. It is believed that this
alignment of the bar magnet is due to the earth’s magnetic field. The earth is
considered to behave as if it contains a powerful bar magnet positioned at its
centre (fig 14.20) tilted at any angle of about 100 with respect to rotational axis of
the earth.

Exercise
1) Explain the following terms:
a. Magnetic field
b. Magnetic lines of force
2) Describe an experiment to explain the direction of the magnetic field.
3) Draw magnetic field pattern due to two bar magnets placed:
a. Side by side with their north and south poles near to each other
b. With their south poles facing each other
4. Figure 14.21 represents the earth’s magnetic field in a certain place. Copy
the diagram and show the direction of the field using arrow heads
 5. Give the correct term for each of the following:
a. Magnetic aligned regions in a ferromagnetic substance
b. The lines surrounding a magnet showing the force exerted on e.g. iron
filings
c. The interaction between north and south pole
6. A magnet is placed near an iron nail. Write a hypothesis for this
investigation
7. A compass is used to identify the polarity of a magnet as shown in fig 14.22
shows the polarity.

Storage and uses of magnets

Storing magnets
A bar magnet loses its magnetism with time due to self- demagnetization. The
process of self-demagnetization starts at the ends of a magnet in which the free like
poles repel each other and slowly upsetting the alignment of the molecular magnet
inside it. To minimize this, soft iron bars called keepers are placed across their
ends as shown in figure 14.23. The dipoles find themselves in a closed chain or
loops round the magnet and the keepers, with no free poles, available to upset the
domains. The soft iron keepers are used since they are easily magnetized by
induction

Uses of magnets
 Magnets have many uses. They are used in:
 Hospitals for removing iron pieces from the eyes of patients
 Industries as stirrers, lifting iron scrap metals, etc
 Weather stations for resetting Sic’s maximum and minimum thermometer
navigation for showing the direction as in compass needles
 Magnetic tapes used in audio and video recorders

Exercise
A. Explain how you would identify the polarities of a magnet made using the
electrical method
B. Explain the following terms:
a. Consequent poles
b. Self- demagnetization
c. Magnetization by induction
d. Ferrites
C. State and explain on method of demagnetizing a magnet
D. What are ferromagnetic materials?
 E. What is the difference between a hard ferromagnetic substance and soft
ferromagnetic substance?
c. Give an example of each
F. Explain why soft iron keepers are suitable for string magnets
G. Explain magnetization and demagnetization using a domain theory
H. Iron filings were sprinkled on a magnetized steel needle. Explain the
following observations
a. Iron filings cling to the needle
b. Few of the iron filings were found near the centre but most of the iron
filings clinged at the end.
I. Explain the meaning of the terms domain and dipoles as applied to
magnetism.

Unit summary
 Magnets have attractive properties towards ferromagnetic materials
 Bar magnets have their magnetism concentrated mainly at the ends or poles
 Ends of a magnet are referred to as magnetic poles
 The basic law of magnetism states that like poles and unlike poles attract
 Materials that are attracted by a magnet are called magnetic materials, while
those that are not attracted by a magnet are known as non-magnetic
materials
 A magnet has a magnetic field around it
 Direction of magnetic field line is from North to South
 Repulsion is the only sure test for polarity of a magnet
 Permanent magnets are made up of steel because steel keeps its magnetism
 Strength of magnetic force depends on how far magnetic materials is from a
magnet
 Keepers are soft iron bars that are used to store magnets
 The direction of a magnetic field line of force at a point is the path which a
free north pole would follow when placed at that point
 The earth exhibits magnetisms.
Unit test 14
1) Which one of the following is a magnetic material?
A. Wood
B. Steel
C. Plasticine
D. Copper
2) Two magnetic poles repel when brought together. Describe the nature of the
poles, two ends brought together?
A. Like same pole
B. Unlike poles
C. One end is a magnetic material
D. Both ends are magnetic materials
3) The region around a magnet is called
A. An electric field
B. A magnetic field
C. A concentric field
D. An attraction
4) Normally a bar magnet is strongest at
A. The poles
B. The upper sides
C. The middle
D. Any part
5) Which one of the following is not use of a magnet
A. Magnets are used in making magnetic papers
B. Bar magnet is used in navigation
C. Magnet is used in industries in lifting heavy magnetic loads
D. Magnets are used in locating disease micro-organisms in the body

6) With the aid of a diagram explain how bar magnets are stored so as to
minimize self- demagnetization
7) What is lodestone?
8) Describe a simple experiment to show the existence of magnetic poles.
9) Using clearly labelled diagrams explain the terms:
A. Magnetic meridian
B. Magnetic field
C. Magnetic field lines
 10) What are Ferro-magnetic materials?
11) Describe an experiment to demonstrate the basic law of magnetism
12) Explain the phrase ‘repulsion is the only sure way of testing for
polarity of a magnet’
13) Two steel pins were attracted by a magnet. When a south pole was
brought in between the two pins, the pins moved further away, as shown in
figure 14.27 below

Explain why the pins moved apart

14) Copy and draw the magnetic field lines due to the magnets
arrangements shown in figure 14.28
Sample test paper
Section A: Multiple choice
Instructions: Encircle the letter representing the right answer to each question. Use
of electronic calculators is allowed.
1. Which one of the following Units is NOT a base SI unit? (2)
a. Litre
b. Metre
c. Ampere
d. Seconds
2. Convert 100 Gigagrammes to Kilogrammes. (2)
a. 100
b. 1 000
c. 100 000
d. 1 000 000
3. Which one of the following is NOT a property of matter? (2)
a. Compressibility
b. Shape
c. Volume
d. Colour
4. Which pair has the same temperature ? (2)
a. Melting and freezing points
b. Melting and evaporation points
c. Sublimation and melting points
d. Boiling and melting points

Figure 1 shows an object tied to a string swinging between points P and R about a
fixed point A.
 5. Where is the potential energy of the object equal to zero (2)
a. P
b. Q
c. Between Q and R
d. Between P and R
6. Where is the kinetic energy of the object equal to its potential energy? (2)
a. P
b. Q
c. Between Q and R
d. Between Q and A
7. A rectangular wooden block of dimensions 10 cm x 5 cm x 2 cm has a
density of 0.7g/cm3. What is its mass in grams?
(3)
a. 7
b. 70
c. 700
d. 7000
8. Figure 2 shows four ammeters A1, A2, A3 an dA4 inserted into a parallel
electric circuit.

Which one of the following is correct about the size of the current measured by the
ammeters? (2
a. A1 =A2
b. A4=A3
 c. A4=A1+A3
d. A1=A2+A3
9. What is the SI unit of force?
(1)
a. Kilogram
b. Kilogram/second
c. Newton
d. Newton/second
1
10.The gravitational field strength on the moon is of that on earth. If a person
6
weighs 450N on earth, determine her weight on the moon.
(2)
a. 75N
b. 65N
c. 45N
d. 1 700N

Section B
Instruction
Answer all questions in the space provided below it
11.Illustrate with a well labelled diagram the arrangement of the particles in an
atom (3)
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
____________________________
12.State one difference between heat and temperature?
(1)
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_______________________
13.State the law of electrostatic charges
(1)
 _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________
14.How much heat is required to raise the temperature of 100g of water from
250C (specific heat capacity of water is 4.2J/g0C)
(4)
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_________________________________
15.Define nay two stages of a scientific investigation process
(3)
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_________________________________
16.Explain why a bottle full of air is easily compressed than a similar bottle full
of sand (2)
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_______________________________
17.Give two advantages of friction forces to human beings.
(2)
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
__________________
18.Explain why water is a bad conductor of heat? (3)
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
___________________________
19.Draw a magnetic field patterns due to the magnets arranged as given below

(2)
 20.Define friction force
(2)

_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
________________

Section C
21.With the aid of labelled diagram, describe an experiment that could be done
to investigate the effect of length on the resistance of a copper wire.