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Journal of U.S. Intelligence Studies Web: www.afio.com, E-mail: afio@afio.com
Volume 19 • Number 3 • $15 single copy price Winter/Spring 2013 ©2012, AFIO
archiving news items and information from all types
of foreign media sources.
In 1939, the British government asked the British
Guide to the Study of Intelligence Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) to launch a civilian,
and later commercial, service scrutinizing foreign
print journalism and radio broadcasting with its
Digest of Foreign Broadcasts, later entitled the Sum-
mary of World Broadcasts (SWB) and now known as
The Evolution of Open Source BBC Monitoring. As a BBC handbook from 1940 has
Intelligence (OSINT) it, the aim was to erect a “modern Tower of Babel,
where, with exemplary concentration, they listen to
the voices of friend and foe alike.” By mid-1943 the
by Florian Schaurer and Jan Störger BBC monitored 1.25 million broadcast words daily.
A formal partnership between the BBC and its US
This article presents the views on open source intelligence by
counterpart was instituted in 1947/48 with agree-
two European authors and practitioners. ment on the full exchange of output. Also in 1948,
the research arm of the US Library of Congress was
Introduction established out of the Aeronautical Research Unit to
provide customized research and analytical services
Here, the term OSINT is defined as the collection,
using the vast holdings of the library. It is now known
processing, analysis, production, classification, and
as the Federal Research Division (FRD).
dissemination of information derived from sources
During the Cold War, countries on both sides of
and by means openly available to and legally accessible
the Iron Curtain created open source collection capac-
and employable by the public in response to official
ities, often embedded in their clandestine intelligence
national security requirements. This article addresses
services. Open sources not only “constituted a major
the genesis of OSINT as an intelligence discipline,
part of all intelligence,” according to CIA analyst Ste-
arguing that it should rather be referred to as trade-
phen Mercado, but eventually became “the leading
craft, as well as its contributions to an integrated, all
source” of information about the adversaries’ military
source knowledge management process within the
capabilities and political intentions, including early
intelligence enterprise.
warning and threat forecasting. For example, the East
German Ministry for State Security (MfS, known as the
History of OSINT “Stasi”) analyzed 1,000 Western magazines and 100
The history of exploiting open information books a month, while also summarizing more than
reaches back to the emergence of intelligence as an 100 newspapers and 12 hours of West German radio
instrument supporting a government’s decisions and TV broadcasting daily.
and actions. Yet, it was not a methodical effort until Open sources during the Cold War were already
the United States pioneered the institutionalization a well-established resource of information, often the
and professionalization of a stand-alone capacity for first resort for targeting other collection efforts, or
monitoring foreign media, with the establishment “the outer pieces of the jigsaw puzzle,” as Joseph Nye
of the Foreign Broadcast Monitoring Service (FBMS), put it.1 With Internet technology, publicly available
which grew out of a research initiative at Princeton information has had a tremendous impact on every
University. The FBMS rapidly gained momentum after aspect of modern-day political, social, and economic
the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. In 1947 it was life. One needs to be aware, though, that the Internet
renamed the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service itself is not a source (except for its meta data); rather
(FBIS) and put under the newly established CIA. In it is a means to transport information and a virtual
2005, following the attacks of 9/11 and the passage location.
of the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Most intelligence communities were slow in
Act, FBIS – with other research elements – was trans- appreciating the value of the Internet for two reasons:
formed into the Director of National Intelligence’s (1) Intelligence agencies seek an informational advan-
Open Source Center (OSC). Since its establishment,
1. Committee on Homeland Security: Giving a Voice to Open
the OSINT effort has been responsible for filtering, Source Stakeholders. (2008) http://chsdemocrats.house.gov/SiteDocu-
transcribing, translating (thus interpreting) and ments/OpenSourceReport.pdf.

Winter/Spring 2013 Intelligencer: Journal of U.S. Intelligence Studies Page 53

tage through covertly dealing with secrets. Relying on nection (WNC) under the supervision of the National
open information and its respective copyright restric- Technical Information Service (NTIS). The OSC pres-
tions runs counter to that idea. (2) In most cases it is ents itself as the “US Government’s premier provider
more difficult, risky and expensive to apply clandestine of foreign open source intelligence [and] provides
methods in order to acquire secret sources, thus giving information on foreign political, military, economic,
the impression that those sources must be of higher and technical issues beyond the usual media from an
value than open sources, confusing the method with ever expanding universe of open sources.” At the same
the product or mistaking secrecy for knowledge. time, an Assistant Deputy Director of National Intel-
After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Western ligence for Open Source (ADDNI/OS) was appointed,
intelligence agencies redirected their operations to increasing the visibility of the National Open Source
new geographic and thematic priorities, such as Africa Enterprise. With the development of regional fusion
and Asia, non-state actors, low intensity conflict in centers, which are focused on homeland security and
expeditionary environments, political and religious law enforcement issues, OSINT is a major source in
terrorism, the proliferation of weapons of mass merging and consolidating relevant intelligence into
destruction (WMD) and the vulnerabilities of com- actionable products.
puter networks, which resulted in a greater emphasis
on open sources. The US military first coined the term OSINT and the Private Sector
OSINT in the late 1980s, arguing that a reform of
In economic terms, national security as a public
intelligence was necessary to cope with the dynamic
good is provided efficiently only by the government
nature of informational requirements, especially at
or under state supervision. Despite its substantial
the tactical level on the battlefield. In 1992, the Intel-
value OSINT requires no special permissions. Because
ligence Reorganization Act defined the objectives of
non-state contractors may be superior regarding their
information gathering as “providing timely, objective
capabilities and resources for delivering OSINT, they
intelligence, free of bias, based upon all sources avail-
can contribute to a better provision of national secu-
able to the US Intelligence Community, public and
rity. Intelligence derived from sources or using means
non-public.” In 1994, the Community Open Source
that are openly available, but illegal, should not be
Program Office (COSPO) was established within
considered OSINT, e.g. leaks of classified information,
the CIA. In 1996, the Commission on the Roles and
the legal status of which is in question, or proprietary
Capabilities of the US Intelligence Community (more
information. CIA’s venture capital firm In-Q-Tel’s
commonly known as the Aspin-Brown Commission)
investment in Recorded Future, a web-monitoring
concluded “a greater effort also should be made to
predictive analysis tool, proves former CIA director
harness the vast universe of information now avail-
Michael Hayden’s statement that “secret information
able from open sources.” Parallel efforts by NATO to
isn’t always the brass ring in our profession.”2
generate a framework for the use of OSINT led to the
A crucial point in government-private sector
publication of several handbooks, primers and prac-
partnerships for OSINT is the need for non-disclosure
tical manuals of varying quality. With the European
regulations to protect national security. Sometimes,
Media Monitor (EMM) and an OSINT Suite, among
an intelligence product based solely on openly avail-
other tools and projects, the European Union (EU)
able information must be classified to protect the gov-
Commission’s Joint Research Centre (JRC), is devel-
ernment’s interest from being revealed. Intelligence
oping its own instruments for tackling the challenges
agencies must integrate and control outreach activi-
that the ever-growing flood of information poses.
ties and contractors’ efforts to prevent jeopardizing
9/11 proved to be a watershed for OSINT, with the
operational and national security. Partnerships with
National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the
academia avoid potential conflicts between the state
United States (9/11 Commission) in 2004 recommend-
and profit-oriented players. Universities are a fertile
ing the creation of an Open Source Agency without
ground for capturing expertise that exists within the
further comment or detail. This concept was picked
public sphere and can be ideal partners for intelligence
up in 2005 – along with respective recommendations
agencies.
by the Commission on the Intelligence Capabilities
The fact that open sources often provide the
of the United States Regarding Weapons of Mass
Destruction (WMD Commission) – when the Director
of National Intelligence (DNI) established the OSC, 2. Noah Shachtman: Google, CIA Invest in ‘Future’ of Web
Monitoring. (2010) http://www.wired.com/dangerroom/2010/07/
absorbing the CIA’s FBIS with the World News Con- exclusive-google-cia/.

Page 54 Intelligencer: Journal of U.S. Intelligence Studies Winter/Spring 2013

majority of intelligence input makes OSINT an essen- war fighter.
tial part of an all-source intelligence effort. Every
intelligence professional should be knowledgeable
of OSINT sources and methods, especially as analysis R eadings for I nstructors
and collection are increasingly merging with each
other. Nevertheless, outreach activities and open An excellent overview of the Open Source Center’s policies,
source exploitation have to be supported by special- procedures, and products is in Hamilton Bean, “The
DNI’s Open Source Center - An Organizational Commu-
ized elements to ensure that analysts keep up with
nication Perspective” in International Journal of Intelligence
emerging technologies and the market. Specialized and Counter-Intelligence, Volume 20, Issue 2 (2007).
OSINT experts are most qualified to identify potential
Magdalena Adriana Duvenage, a South African scholar,
capability gaps and to assess where contractors can be
provides a solid examination of the impact of the infor-
of use. One good way to integrate the knowledge and mation revolution on intelligence analysis and knowl-
skills of the private sector into the Intelligence Com- edge management in Intelligence Analysis in the Knowledge
munity is an OSINT certification program, currently Age (2010), available at http://scholar.sun.ac.za/bitstream/
being introduced in the US, for example. handle/10019.1/3087/Duvenage,%20M.A.pdf?sequence=1.
Stevyn Gibson, in his 2004 publication “Open Source Intelli-
Challenges facing OSINT gence - An Intelligence Lifeline” gives a brief synopsis of
the emerging role of OSINT, drawing together the con-
Because of its open nature, OSINT can facili- textual influences that are bringing about its potentially
tate sharing. But the means for sharing need to be starring role. Available at http://www.rusi.org/downloads/
improved for OSINT as well as for more restrictive assets/JA00365.pdf.
categories of intelligence. This need exists not only in Arthur S. Hulnick, a professor at Boston University and
the national security community, but also with those former CIA officer, has written “The Dilemma of Open
charged with domestic security and enforcement of Source Intelligence - Is OSINT really intelligence?” in
laws. Thus, a vertically and horizontally consistent Loch K. Johnson, editor, (2010) The Oxford Handbook of
sharing and safeguarding system must be established. National Security Intelligence. This is a scholarly article
Openness is important for governments’ credi- on the role of OSINT in and for the private sector, OSINT
bility and justifying their decisions to the public and and intelligence reform, and the counter-intelligence
international allies. However, there is an inherent aspects of OSINT.
vulnerability if an adversary uses open sources to William J. Lahneman’s 2010 article, “The Need for a New
undermine the state’s national security. OSINT can be Intelligence Paradigm,” in the International Journal of
used for vulnerability evaluations of one’s own nation. Intelligence and Counter-Intelligence, Volume 23, Issue 2,
is an important text on the IC’s organizational culture
Adversarial states will also manipulate open
that emphasize secrecy, not knowledge sharing, arguing
sources for deceptive purposes. However, in today’s that facilitating both kinds of information flows require
world, with vast amounts of information openly avail- a new approach to the intelligence enterprise.
able, such deceptive schemes become more difficult. An insightful public discussion about the government’s
Although the fast pace of developing information practical needs for OSINT is the LexisNexis “Open Source
technology is an important challenge, the human Intelligence Roundtable: OSINT 2020 - The Future of
factor should not be underestimated. Ultimately, it is Open Source Intelligence,” available at http://www.dni.
always human expertise that makes the difference in gov/speeches/Speech_OSINT_Roundtable_20100617.pdf.
intelligence tradecraft. Collectors and analysts there- Other reference items related to OSINT include the follow-
fore need both legal and practical training, the appro- ing. Harris Minas: “Can the Open Source Intelligence
priate literacy, and first-class technical capabilities Emerge as an Indispensable Discipline for the Intelli-
(such as data mining, network analysis and translation gence Community in the 21st Century?” (2010), at http://
solutions) to put disparate pieces of raw OSINT data rieas.gr/images/rieas139.pdf. This is an academic thesis
into context and make sense of them. With the advent addressing OSINT as an issue of research for critical
of new Internet-based media, the variety, volume and intelligence studies.
velocity of information multiply. Today’s challenge is NATO (2001), Open Source Intelligence Handbook. Available at
no longer “connecting the dots,” but organizing the http://blogs.ethz.ch/osint/files/2010/08/nato-osint-handbook-
v12-jan-2002.pdf This is a rather outdated guidance for
information flow, distinguishing between signals and
NATO staff on open source exploitation with the Internet
noise, and by validating sources in a timely manner being the default C4I architecture, arguing that a robust
to support both government decision makers and the OSINT capability enables intelligence staffs to address

Winter/Spring 2013 Intelligencer: Journal of U.S. Intelligence Studies Page 55

 many intelligence needs with internal resources. No. 612 (2009). Available at http://www.fas.org/irp/dni/icd/.
Brian Rotheray, (2009), A History of BBC Monitoring. http:// United States Open Source Center (OSC): History. (2009)
www.monitor.bbc.co.uk/about_us/BBCMhistory%20revi- https://www.opensource.gov/public/content/login/attach-
sions%20x.pdf. This book celebrates the first 70 years of ments/202244099/255164545.pdf. This is a one-page
BBC Monitoring and covers the main political, techno- history of OSC.
logical and social aspects of its history. Kurt Werren, Kian Fartab, (2010), All Source Collection –
Stephen C. Mercado, (2004), “Sailing the Sea of OSINT in Kernstück eines leistungsfähigen Nachrichtendienstes.
the Information Age,” https://www.cia.gov/library/center- Available at http://www.asmz.ch/fileadmin/asmz/ASMZ_aktu-
for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/ ell/2010_04/All_Sources_Collection_Deutsch_1_.pdf. This
studies/vol48no3/article05.html. This is a classical account is an important contribution to the improvement of all
of OSINT expanding into the areas of HUMINT, IMINT, source collection, analysis and production (in German).
and SIGINT, thereby demanding a sustained approach H
by the IC to open sources.
These several directives directly or indirectly address Florian Schaurer works as a political scientist for
OSINT policies and applications. United States Depart- the German Armed Forces. He holds a PhD in
ment of the Army: Open Source Intelligence FMI 2-22.9. political philosophy from the University of Zurich,
(2008). Available at http://ftp.fas.org/irp/doddir/army/fmi2- a Master’s degree in political science, philosophy
22-9.pdf. This is the US Army’s interim doctrine, serving and religious studies from the University of
as a catalyst for analysis and development of OSINT Heidelberg, and a Master’s in human rights law
training, concepts, materiel, and force structure. from the University of Oxford.
United States Department of Defense Instruction No.
3115.12: Open Source Intelligence. (2010) http://www.dtic. Jan Störger is an information security expert. He
mil/whs/directives/corres/pdf/311512p.pdf. This directive holds master level degrees from the University of
establishes policy, assigns responsibilities, and pre- Mannheim (Dept. of Economics) and the
scribes procedures for OSINT operations within the US Panthéon-Sorbonne University in Paris (Dept. of
Department of Defense. Law).
United States Intelligence Community Directives No. 301
(2006), No. 205 (2008), No. 304 (2008), No. 623 (2008),

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