A Strong Partner for Sustainable Development

Module
In

CDI 106

FIRE PROTECTION
AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

College of Criminal Justice Education

Bachelor of Science in Criminology
 Module No. 4

FIRE INVESTIGATION

2nd Semester 2020-2021

MARYSHELLE T. DE GUZMAN, RC
Instructor I

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 Table of Contents

Title Page 1
Table of Contents 3
Instruction to the User 4
Learning Outcomes 5
Pre-Test 6
Discussion
Module 4 –FIRE INVESTIGATION
Overview
Lesson 4.1 –Agency in charge for Fire Investigation 7
Lesson 4.2 – Causes of Fire 9
Lesson 4.3 – Fireman’s responsibility in arson detection 15
Lesson 4.4 – Fire investigator’s role in Fire Investigation 22
Lesson 4.5 - Documentation and Laboratory Examination 32

Activities/Exercises 48
Evaluation/ Post- test 49
References 50

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INSTRUCTION TO THE USER

This module would provide you an educational experience while independently

accomplishing the task at your own pace or time. It aims as well to ensure that learning is
unhampered by health and other challenges. It covers the topic about beginning of traffic
control.

Reminders in using this module:

1. Keep this material neat and intact.

2. Answer the pretest first to measure what you know and what to be learned about
the topic discussed in this module.
3. Accomplish the activities and exercises as aids and reinforcement for better
understanding of the lessons.
4. Answer the post-test to evaluate your learning.
5. Do not take pictures in any parts of this module nor post it to social media
platforms.
6. Value this module for your own learning by heartily and honestly answering and
doing the exercises and activities. Time and effort were spent in the preparation
in order that learning will still continue amidst this Covid-19 pandemic.
7. Observe health protocols: wear mask, sanitize and maintain physical distancing.

Hi! I’m Blue Bee, your WPU Mascot.

Welcome to Western Philippines University!

Shape your dreams with quality learning
experience.

STAY SAFE AND HEALTHY!

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INTRODUCTION

To understand fire, we must have a scientific definition of fire consistent with our
perception. We must understand the role fire has played in history- its benefits and its costs to
society in terms of people and property damage. Controlled fire or combustion, for useful
power is studied in conjunction with the market forces that drive our economy. The study of
uncontrolled fire appears to be motivated by clear risks to society and by societies having the
means to invest in such study. It is a complex area involving many disciplines and it is
relatively primitive compared to other technological field.
Overview

This part of the module discusses the role of firemen and fire investigators in fire
investigation. It is essential for would be fire fighters to learn the proper conduct of fire
investigation for them to be successful in their choses career. For better understanding, this
module is divided into:
Lesson 4.1 Agency in charge for Fire Investigation
Lesson 4.2 Causes of Fire
Lesson 4.3 Fireman’s responsibility in arson detection
Lesson 4.4 Fire investigator’s role in Fire Investigation

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this module, the students can:

 Acquire knowledge on the functions of the Bureau of Fire Protection in the

Philippines;
 Recall the mission and vision of the Fire Bureau;
 Recognize the fireman’s role in arson detection;
 Distinguish the role of a fireman and fire investigator in fire investigation;
 Identify the causes of fire;
 Acquire knowledge on the collection of evidence in arson investigation;
 Apply the electrical safety tips;
 Acquire knowledge on how to maintain the chain of custody of evidence in arson
investigation; and
 Acquire knowledge on the proper documentation of fire scenes.

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PRE-TEST
Multiple choice

Direction: Provided below are statements and letters to choose from. Examine each and
choose the correct answer from each item. Write the corresponding letter of your choice in
your answer sheet. (2 points each)

1. Which among the following causes of fire is punishable under existing laws?
a. Accidental b. Natural c. Incendiary d. A and C only
2. It is otherwise known as “booster”.
a. Trailers b. Accelerants c. Plants d. None of these
3. Burning of petroleum products produces?
a. Black smoke b. White smoke c. Purple smoke d. Heavy brown
4. The carbonization of a fuel by the action of heat is called as?
a. Department of char b. Char c. Charcoal d. Coal

5. It involves the heating and distilling with steam of the charred material and trapping the
distillate with a cold water condenser.
a. Solvent extraction c. Cold heat space
b. Steam distillation d. Heated head space

6. Which among the following is responsible in detecting the commission of arson?

a. Fire investigator b. Fireman c. Fire marshal d. None of these

7. A typical burn pattern resulting from the use of a liquid accelerant is called as?

a. Undue wood charring b. Pudding c. Irregular burned patter d. None of these

8. Burning of nitrogen products produces?

a. Red flame b. Lavender flame c. Bright red flame d. Deep red flame
9. Burning of magnesium products produces?

a. Red flame b. Lavender flame c. Bright white flame d. Deep red flame

10. It is the area of the crime scene evincing the greatest impact between the criminal and the
commission of the crime.
a. Point of origin c. Origin of fire
b. Seat of the crime d. None of these
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D. DISCUSSION
 LESSON 4.1

AGENCY IN CHARGE FOR FIRE INVESTIGATION

Concept

The Bureau of Fire Protection, referred to as the Fire Bureau, was created under Rule
VIII, section 49 of Republic Act no. 6975 otherwise known as the Department of Interior and
Local Government (DILG) Act of 1990. Section 50 of the same act provides that “the Fire
Bureau is responsible for the prevention and suppression of all destructive fires on buildings,
houses, and other structures, forests, land transportation vehicles and equipment, ships or
vessels docked at piers or wharves or anchored in major seaports, petroleum industry
installations, plane crashes and other similar incidents, as well as the enforcement of the Fire
Code and other related laws” (Tradio, 1997).

The existing powers and functions delegated to the station commanders, Provincial
Superintendents, Regional Directors, Director General INP, and the Secretary of National
Defense under the PC/INP set-up are now exercised by the city/municipal Fire Marshals,
Provincial Fire Marshals, Assistant Regional Director, Director of the Fire Bureau and the
Secretary of the DILG, respectively.

The Fire Bureau is also empowered to investigate all causes of fires and, if necessary,
le the proper complaints with the city or provincial prosecutor who has jurisdiction over the
case.

The Fire Bureau is a community-oriented government agency that provides

assistance to the citizenry not only during fire but also in times of typhoons, floods,
earthquakes, vehicular accidents, and various other calamities. While its primary mission is to
serve the fire safety needs of the country, the Fire Bureau is also active in rescue, evacuation,
paramedic and relief operation in any life threatening situation.

BFP vision - A modern, effective and responsive National Fire Protection agency
working towards a public safety conscious society (P.S.B.R.C.).

BFP mission - To protect life and property thru the prevention and suppression of
destructive fires, investigation of their causes, and the provision of emergency medical and
rescue services with the active support of the community.

Section 51 of RA 6975 provides that “the Fire Bureau shall be headed by a Chief who
shall be assisted by a deputy chief. It shall be composed of provincial offices, district offices and
city or municipal stations” (Tradio, 1997).

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 “At the provincial level, there shall be an office of the provincial fire marshal which shall
implement the policies, plans and programs of the department, and monitor, evaluate and
coordinate the operations and activities of the Fire Service operating units at the city and
municipal levels. In the case of large provinces, district offices may be established, to be headed
by a district fire marshal”.

“At the city or municipal level, there shall be a fire station, each headed by a city or
municipal fire marshal” provided, that, in the case of large cities and municipalities, a district
office with subordinate fire stations headed by a district fire marshal may be organized as
necessary”.

Likewise, Section 55 of the same act enumerates the rank classifications, “for purposes
of efficient administration, supervision and control, the rank classification of the members of
the Fire Bureau shall be as follows”.

Director Senior Fire Officer IV

Chief Superintendent Senior Fire Officer III

Senior Superintendent Senior Fire Officer II

Superintendent Senior Fire Officer I

Chief Inspector Fire Officer III

Senior Inspector Fire Officer II

Inspector Fire Officer I

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 LESSON 4.2

CAUSES OF FIRE

The cause of a fire is usually determined from a detailed inspection of the charred
debris; combustibles, devices, and residues located at the point of (or within the area of) origin.
Theoretically, the cause of a fire can be categorized into three classifications: (Redsicker and
Connor, 1997)

I. Natural

II. Accidental

III. Incendiary

With regard to criminal prosecution, only two classifications are relevant: accidental
and incendiary.

I. Natural Causes of Fire

A. Lightning — an investigator should know that when lightning strikes a transformer,

two to three times the normal voltage will go to ground even when lightning resistors are in
place. Even so, the fuses may not blow, the lightning induced surge of current is too brief. It
has been estimated that the electricity released by one bolt of lightning (if harnessed) could
power a small town for three months. Lightning bolts average 24, 000 A, but can exceed 200,
600 A and their potentials can range up to 15, 000, 000 V.

Lightning strikes occur in two basic ways, cloud to cloud and cloud to earth. However, in
the cloud to earth case, charges of opposite polarity are generated in the cloud and the ground
below. Subsequently, a discharge occurs and the lightning bolt (discharge), which appears to be
from cloud to ground, actually extends from cloud and meeting in mid-air to complete the
strike.

The following are the four (4) basic paths by which a lightning discharge may enter a
structure:

 By striking a metal object, such as a television antenna, air conditioning unit,

metal flashing, or other protrusion above the building’s roof.
 By direct strike to the structure.
 By a strike to nearby taller object or structure allowing for transient horizontal
surges to the building through trees or other paths of current discharge.
 By striking nearby public utility power lines, phone lines, or television cable.

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 The transient high voltage surge follows a path of least resistance to ground. During its
travel, there may be transient surges to the distribution wiring, plumbing, or other grounded
items in the electrical system.

B. Spontaneous Ignition - the likelihood of spontaneous ignition may be affected by

a wide variety of chemical and physical mechanisms, and it is often difficult to determine the
precise mechanism or factors involved in a particular incident (Module on Arson
Investigation).

Regardless of the mechanism(s) involved, the process by which a material increases in

temperature by generating heat within itself (without drawing heat from its surroundings) is
known as spontaneous heating; spontaneous heating of a material to its ignition temperature
results in spontaneous ignition (sometimes erroneously called spontaneous combustion).

In its classical form, spontaneous ignition is caused by substances combining with

atmospheric oxygen. Practically all substances capable of combining with oxygen will, at some
critical temperature, oxidize when exposed to air, this oxidation results in the evolution of heat.
For most materials, the rate of oxidation at normal temperature is so slow as to not appreciably

Increase the temperature of the material being oxidized, for example, the oxidation of
iron ingots at normal temperatures in air (rusting) occurs without any noticeable increase in
the temperature of the iron. However, under certain conditions, the rate of oxidation may
generate heat transfer than it can be dissipated to surroundings, and the temperature of a
substance may increase to a point where the material ignites.

The following are the three (3) general conditions which affect whether or
not spontaneous ignition will occur:

 The rate at which heat is generated by the fuel;

 The oxygen supplies available; and
 The rate of heat loss to surroundings.

Rate of heat generation- as illustrated earlier by the example of iron ingots, many
types of oxidation occur so slowly that heat generation is negligible. However, when the rate of
heat generation is fast enough; heat may build up in the material and spontaneous ignition
may occur.

Oxygen supply - as with most combustion, adequate oxygen must be present to permit
spontaneous ignition. It should be recognized, however, that oxygen need be available in the
form of free oxygen as is found in air; certain forms of spontaneous ignition may be initiated by
chemical reactions which involve substances with liberate oxygen during the reaction.

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 Rate of heat loss — heat produced during spontaneous heating may dissipated to
surroundings, resulting in nothing more than slightly elevate temperature within the fuel.
However, when heat accumulates faster than it can be dissipated, spontaneous ignition is
possible.

The following is a listing of materials subject to spontaneous ignition under certain

conditions. This list is not does not necessarily indicate that the material is not subject to
spontaneous ignition. Further, the list is not intended to provide an indication of the ease of, or
degree of susceptibility to spontaneous ignition.

Asphalt - impregnated sheathing Hay

Ammonia Linseed Oil
Barium Oxide Lithium
Charcoal Olive Oil
Corn Oil Plant, with
Cotton Phosphorus
Foam Rubber Pine Oil
Fish Meal Sawdust
C. Rays of the Sun - fires have also been caused by the rays of the sun, mostly as the result of
the sun shining through older windows with glass panes containing bubbles (bula) or films of
liquid enveloping air or gas, as sear bubble (Abis, 1986).

II. Accidental Fire Causes

The elimination of all possible accidental causes of fire is one of the fire investigator's
most difficult duties. Unless all relevant accidental causes can be eliminated, the fire must be
declared accidental, the presence of direct evidence to the contrary notwithstanding (Redsicker
and O’conner 1997).

Some typical accidental causes of fire that may have to be eliminated are listed
below:

 Electrical malfunction
 Gas or oil service malfunction
 Building heating equipment
 Improper installation or maintenance in the operation of secondary heating
equipment (e.g. heaters, wood stoves)
 Cooking-related accidents
 Misuse or failure of appliances
 Open flames (e.g. candles, burning leaves) or sparks (e.g. static electricity)
 Children and pets
 Improper storage of combustible/ flammables
 Smoking
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 A. Smoking - one of the most common accidental - causes of fire, according to
statistics, is related to smoking. Cigarette fire is mostly due to careless of the smoker or careless
disposal of smoking materials.

1. Electrical fire causes — the source of almost all electrical fires can be classified as
originating from three conditions:

 Arcing
 Sparking
 Overheating

Arcing — if short-circuit or break in an electrical conductor occurs, the electric current

tries to continue to flow in the open space created. It creates an arc. The intensity of the arc
depends upon the voltage and amount of current flowing. Arcing on a small scale can occur
every time an electric switch is opened. Its intensity again, depends upon the amount of
current flowing. If the atmosphere in which the switch opened contains flammable vapors,
flammable gases, or combustible dusts and the mixture is within the flammable range, an
explosion or fire can occur when the switch is opened.

Sparks - sparks most commonly occur as the result of electric (arc) welding operations
or from the arcing of short circuits. The tremendous heat created during the electrical welding
process creates a bond between the electrode and the material being bonded. This also creates
many sparks and, glowing globules of hot metal. If combustible materials are in the vicinity,
the sparks and molten metal can cause a fire. Careless welding and cutting operations have
caused many of the large industrial fires.

Overheating - damage to electrical conductors can result from heat exposing them in
two ways:

 The fire that heats the conductor from the outside

 Overheating from an internal source.


External heating can result from a fire that begins to melt a copper conductor by the
constant application of heat. When the wires have reached their melting point approximately
2,000 degrees Fahrenheit), blistering will occur on the surface of the wire. Shortly thereafter,
the wire will begin to distort, usually elongating or thinning.

Internal heating is most often caused by continuous over current or short circuits.
However, short-circuit is often the result of the continuous internal overheating. As the
conductor begins to overheat, it will transmit this heat throughout the circuit. The first result
will be the softening of the insulation, which may be rubber or plastic. If plastic, it is usually

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polyvinyl chloride. After the insulation is softened, the continued heat will begin to char and
crack, eventually destroying it. As the insulation is ruined, adjacent conductors can contact
each other, creating short circuits and the resulting arcing.

Electrical Safety Tips

Accidents don’t just happen, they are caused. To avoid accident, please bear in your
minds at all times the ABC of safety which means “Always be Careful”. Here are some helpful
tips to consider regarding electrical safety (BENECO).

 On broken or cut conductor wires, never attempt to repair, touch or move an electrical
wire that may be lying on the ground or hanging now. Warn the people in the area of the
danger and send someone to call or notify electric cooperative in your locality. Never leave the
faulty wire unguarded.

 Never attempt to repair a loose connection, broken service drop or meter connection.
Always call or notify your electric cooperative for your own protection.

 Never try to cut or trim branches of trees that are near or touching the distribution lines.
Call the electric cooperative maintenance crew to do it for safety purposes.

 Check electrical installations regularly and have _ all worn-out wirings, damaged
sockets, switches and other electrical fixtures changed or repaired immediately. They are
common source of sparks _ and usually start disastrous fire.

 When using electrical appliances, keep your hands free of moisture and see to it that you
are stepping on dry ground.

 Never disconnect an appliance by pulling the cord. Always pull the plug.

 When performing any minor electrical repair like replacing a blown-out fuse, have in
practice to use electrical tools and be sure to flip off the main switch.

 Never use jumpers or a bridge a blown-out fuse by using electrical wire or tinfoil
otherwise you will be courting danger. Always replace the blown-out fuse with the same
specified ampere rating.

 Always close-the switch box before pushing up the switch lever. Failure to do this may
result in harm or injury should a fuse: blow-out upon switching.

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 Don’t overload your electrical circuits by profusely putting extra lights arid appliances. Have
extra outlets installed by an electrician instead of using long extension cords. Octopus
connections are very dangerous and are strictly prohibited. It overloads the circuit causing
the conductors to overheat that may result to ignite fire.

 Flexible cords should not be used for fixed wiring nor should they be spliced, tacked or
otherwise fastened to combustible walls or woodwork. Always use the proper and standard
material for your house wiring connections.

 Never us electrical bulbs for warming or drying purposes or use portable electrical heaters in
concealed places or a pull chain-switch in your bathroom.

 Keep combustible objects from contact with light bulbs.

Flammable Liquids - misuse of gasoline and other flammable liquid is one of the major
causes of accidental fire in the Philippines. The use of flammable liquid as cleaning agents is
still a very common practice. Using open containers of gasoline to clean engine parts,
machinery parts, paint brusher, and other greasy items inside a structure has resulted in many
accidental fire and explosions.

III. Incendiary Fire Causes

When all accidental and providential causes have been eliminated, the investigator
begins to look for an incendiary cause. This requires the answers to a series of questions about
the fire. A well-trained fire investigator will automatically look for something unusual, like the
absence of normal, the presence of something different from what one would normally expect
for the occupancy. In mercantile occupancy where arson is commonly committed for insurance
profit, it is always wise for the investigator to check if there has been a substitution of junk or
secondhand merchandise, for the type that would normally be expected.

Plants - in searching the fire scene for evidence, the investigator should be looking for
“plants”.
A plant, sometimes referred to as a “booster”, is either a pool of liquid accelerant or a
pile of combustibles (oily rages, newspapers, painting supplies, etc.). That is used by an
arsonist to enhance the quality of fire in a selected location. A plant is meant to boost-the
progress of a fire by producing a large body of fire.

Trailers — a trailer, sometimes referred to as a “streamer” is an arrangement or

configuration of flammable or combustible materials that is intended to carry fire from one
location to another (or from one plant to another). Commonly used trailers include gasoline-
soaked towels tied from end-to-end, liquid accelerant splashed across the floor, lengths of
safety fuse, or accelerant-soaked newspaper.

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 Accelerants — an accelerant is a substance that is used to accelerate (and sometimes
direct) the spread of a fire. The most commonly used liquid accelerants include gasoline,
lighter
fluids, kerosene, and turpentine. When an arsonist uses any one or more of these, it is
accompanied by distinctive burn patterns, as well as unnatural fire spread and intensity. A
typical burn pattern resulting from the use of a liquid accelerant is called pudding. This burn
patterns are distinctive and should not be confused with other irregular patterns that might
result from drapes or clothing burning on a floor. When a spilled on a tongue-and-groove
(hardwood) floor, liquid accelerant is down between the floorboards. Once ignited the
accelerant burns up through the spaces between the floorboards. In the case of a tiled floor, the
accelerant seeps down between the tiles to curl. In addition, since only the vapors burn, the
pool of liquid accelerant itself serves as an insulating barrier between the burning vapors above
and the-floor below. As the pool of liquids burn from its upper surface down inward from its
perimeter, it leaves a burn pattern that is deeper at the perimeter of the pool than toward its
center.

LESSON 4.3

FIREMAN’S RESPONSIBILITY IN ARSON DETECTION

Everyone the fire services are aware of to the fact that there are two kinds of fire which
must dealt with, the accidental or mechanical fire, and the set or arson fire. Determining the
cause and origin of fire is a joint responsibility of firemen and the investigators, better known
as “teamwork”. In the fire service and police service, they recognized the necessity for
teamwork to effectively Suppress a fire or crime (Module on Arson Investigation).

Over a period of years there has been some confusion in connection with arson cases, as
to just what the fireman should and should not do. Arson is a crime of secrecy and cold
premeditation. It is generally recognized as one presenting more. difficulties to the trained
investigator that any other crime. The arsonist has almost unlimited opportunity to make his
plans and preparation while apparently attending to his business or occupation. He is further
protected by the fact that his crime is one in which physical evidence is often completely
destroyed through the successful commission of the act itself. Due to these factors, the proof of
an arson case depends, in nearly every instance, on circumstantial or indirect evidence, the
gathering of which must start with the arrival of the first fireman. Many time the corpus
delicti has been uncovered by the fireman.

The responsibility of the fireman is “arson detection” rather than arson investigation.
The fact that every trained fireman cannot also be a trained investigator does not mean that he
cannot play a highly important part in detecting many arson cases. On the fireman, to great
extent, will rest the responsibility for performing certain important detection duties without
which the trained investigator will always be seriously handicapped. In fact, the case can be
won or lost on what the fireman may see, hear or do.

Engine companies can become proficient in surveying the scene of a fire and organizing,
facts or information in proper sequence for the benefit of the investigator. When he arrives, the
following suggestions are prepared by the Fire Service Training Committee of the National Fire
Protection Association (NFPA).
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I. Observing General Conditions at the Scene of the Fire

There are two phases in observing general conditions in connection with a fire: (a)
during the approach made to the fire; and (b) upon arrival at the scene of the fire.

A. Upon Approaching the Fire

 Observing the elements - the record of a fire should include weather conditions.
Record such observations as. (a) heavy rain; (b) wind; (c) closed roads or streets; (d)
visibility; (e) relative humidity.

 Observe persons and automobiles — as the fire is approached, members of the Fire
Service should observe any persons or automobiles hurrying away from the scene of a fire.
If possible, get the license number of such automobile; quick but careful mental notes
identifying characteristics of persons and vehicles should be made, compare such
observations with similar observations which may be made by other firemen.

 Observe color of smoke and flame - many times the color of smoke is a rather
reliable indication of the type of fire to be extinguished The same is true, to some extent,
with regard to color of flame, substances or materials burning are responsible for both
color of smoke and color of flame.

The following are the meaning at color of smoke and flames

a. Back smoke with deep red) flames, Petroleum products, tar, rubber.
b. Heavy brown smoke with bright red flame, Nitrogen products.
c. White smoke with bright white flames. Magnesium products.
d. Black smoke with red and blue-green flames. Asphalt shingles.
e. Purple, violet or lavender flames. Burning of potassium
f. Greenish-yellow flames. Burning of chlorine or manganese
g. Bright reddish-yellow flames. Burning of calcium.
h. Smoke of the usual color found in most fires that changes to yellow or grayish yellow.
Usually indicate a backdraft condition.

B. Upon Arrival at the Fire Scene

1. Observe number of separate fire, intensity and rapidity of spread — was

there more than one fire burning in different parts of the building? Was there any
difficulty in extinguishing the fire, which might indicate the presence of flammable liquid?
Were doors fastened in an open position to allow the fire to spread from one room to
another?
 Some arsonists start fire in several separate places, and sometimes the set fire include a
trailer between plants. Thus separate fire, which extend sometimes from the basement to
the attic, may leave a trail of fire in several rooms and hallways in route. In some
instances

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the arsonist will employ other means to hasten the destruction of the building by cutting or
boring holes, or using other means to ventilate the fire, thus creating draft which tends to
spread the fire more rapidly.

The intensity of the heat generated by the fire often indicates that some kind of fuel may
have been added to the normal contents of the building and is an indication to the fireman that
flammable liquid or compounds could have been used to spread the fire more rapidly. Such
facts, when present, should be noted so that testimony concerning these conditions may be
used in court, and the effect on the jury of such testimony usually is favorable to the
prosecution of the case.

When streams of water are used on such fire, instead of fire going out as might be
expected under normal conditions, the fire will burn with increased intensity and perhaps with
different color of flame such as red, blue or orange. Flashbacks sometimes occur after hitting
fire with water streams. Should the fire appear on the water running away from such fire, it
would be indicative of the presence of some flammable liquid.

2. Observe odors and methods required to extinguish flames

 odors detected in fire scene are often of value in determining what flammable
substances were present. Nearly everyone is familiar with the odor of burning gasoline.
Kerosene, however is quite likely to be confused with solvent, as the odor is quite similar, and
to an untrained person, one can be mistaken for the other. Quite similar, and to an untrained
person, one can be mistaken for the other. Alcohol has a distinct odor, as do various
chemicals. It is suggested that the fireman becomes familiar with the different odors of various
flammable compounds and chemicals so that he may be in a better position to recognize them
when necessary. The difficulties encountered in extinguishing the fire, and the methods,
which had to be used to accomplish such extinguishments, are often of great value in the
prosecution of arson cases as indicative of the presence of unusual conditions.

II. Observing Condition of Building Openings at the Time of a Fire

1. Find out whether doors and windows are locked - prosecution of arson cases
have often been unsuccessful because of the fact that men testify they entered a building but
forgot during the stress of excitement how they got there, what door or window they used, and
other pertinent details which may be decidedly important in the prosecution of the case.
Before any forcible entry tools are used to break open doors, it is obviously good sense to try
them to find out whether or not they may be locked. The fact that the doors are locked, or
padlocked, may have a direct bearing upon the case later. The first fireman in the building
should ascertain, if possible, whether he is actually the first person to enter, or whether
 someone else has entered the building ahead of him. The possibility of outsiders having gained
entrance before the arrival of the fire department is often very important.

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2. Determine condition of doors, windows and locks — the condition of the doors,
doorjambs and windows sills, as well as the kind of Jocks is often very important items of
information. The presence of “jimmy” marks on jambs might be indicative of robbery followed
by arson to cover the crime. However, it is to question such evidence, as smart arson “torches”
sometimes attempt to cover up their crime by leaving visible evidence where it will be found by
investigators.

Every fireman should try to remember the various jobs he did at the fire in the order in
which they were performed.

3. Observing owners, occupants and bystanders at the time of a fire

A. Observe dress and manner of persons at the fire - many times when firemen arrived
at the scene of the fire, owners, occupants and other persons are present. Make a mental note
of the way in which such persons are dressed, their mental attitude, undue nervousness and
other pertinent details which might be of value later on.

B. Look for familiar faces — pyromaniacs and ' “fire-bugs” frequently remain at or near the
scene of their crime and await the arrival of the fire department. These mentally deranged
persons will even assist the fire department in extinguishing the fire. They are sometimes quite
prominent in their efforts to assist and draw attention to themselves. The fact that familiar
faces, “repeater” are observed at a series of fires in any one district, in itself, warrants a
careful checking and study of such individuals.

In addition to the observation of familiar faces of persons that may have pyromaniac
tendencies, it is well to study other persons who seem to be unduly excited and who take undue
interest in a fire. Such persons are always subject to suspicion, and where they make
themselves prominent, due note should be taken of their activities and a full report to the
investigator. Take down the license number of the car driven by a suspect. It is often of
invaluable assistance to the investigator in determining the name and address of the owner.
Due note should be taken of all conversations, with such individuals and they should be
encouraged to take freely.

3. Locating Evidence of Fire Causes

The importance of attempting to determine the true cause of a fire cannot be

overemphasized. In general, fire is assumed to be accidental until proven to be otherwise. It is
always well, however, to be watching for certain things, the presence of which may arouse
suspicion as to the real origin of the fire.
4. Look for Indications of Arson Intent

Among the items to look in the process of determining arson intent are:

a. Multiple Fire - separate fire, burning in different locations at the same time is frequently
an indication of a fire of incendiary origin. They may be within the walls of one room or in
widely separated parts of a building.
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b. Odors - there is a wide variety of odors. Many of them are very difficult to distinguish.
Odors remain in rags and can be removed from the debris and identified even after being wet.
While the choking odor of sulfur might indicate that a candle was used to fumigate premises,
such a candle could also have been used to start a fire. Sulfur candles leave a coal black
glistening mass of molten residue which can readily be identified.

Ammonia has a very pungent odor readily recognizable by firemen. It is generally used
by the arsonist to keep firemen out of a building, or in an attempt to “kill” the odor of gasoline.
Turpentine, paint thinners, lacquers, and linseed oil, all have odors peculiar to themselves,
which the firemen should be in a position to distinguish.

c. Undue Wood Charring and Uneven Wood Burning - the application of petroleum
products to wood causes a deep unnatural burning. Char marks resulting from petroleum
products poured on a wood floor will burn in the pattern formed by the liquid which
sometimes runs into the cracks causing burns underneath the floor upon which it was applied.
Fallen window drapes, curtains, and clothing sometimes create the impression of “plant” upon
discovery, and the observer will generally have to be very careful about disturbing such
articles.

d. Holes Made in Walls and Floors – watch for holes in plasters to expose raw wood for a
quicker “catch” or to increase draft once the fire is started. Holes for similar purposes are
occasionally found in floors.

e. Inoperative Sprinkler and Fire Doors – a rather common procedure used by arsonist
in buildings equipped with sprinkler systems is to tamper with supply valves and to silence the
alarms.

The same t is true with regard to fire doors, shutter and similar devices used t0 close
openings between walls or rooms. * Doors that should close automatically are sometimes
blocked open.

5. Look for Arson Materials and Arson Equipment

Among the many materials, devices and equipment used from time to time as “plants
are; “trailers” between fires, candles, matches, chemicals, flammable liquids, rags, waste and
paper, stoves, timing dices, electrical equipment, appliances, and miscellaneous.

III. Protecting and Preserving Evidence

 Two things should be kept clearly in mind by firemen regarding the protection and
preservation of evidence of fire causes:

1. Keeping the evidence where it is, untouched and undisturbed, if at all possible.

2. Properly identifying, removing and safeguarding such evidence as cannot be left at

the scene if the fire as it was discovered.

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NOTE: No changes of any kind should be permitted in the evidence other than what is
absolutely necessary in the extinguishments of the fire. Photographs are excellent supporting
evidence if taken immediately.

One precaution which must be exercised by all firemen during the firefighting of a fire is
to avoid tramping over possible arson evidence and obliterating it so badly that it is useless.
The same applies to the excessive use of water which may produce similar unsatisfactory
results.

IV. Points on Protecting and Preserving Evidence

Evidence remaining at the scene of a fire can be protected in various ways:

1. Use care in the application of hose streams.

2. Do overhauling and salvage work carefully.
3. Handle evidence as little as possible.
4. Move evidence from the scene of the fire only when absolutely necessary.
5. Don’t allow evidence to be walked over and tramped out.
6. Place barricades, or rope off area around evidence.
7. Have someone witness your discoveries.
8. Record date, location and circumstances by which evidence was discovered.
9. Notify officer in charge of fire, so that he can place a call for the investigator.
10. Have photos taken by a qualified photographer at the scene of the fire when evidence
must be removed.
V. Observing Condition of Contents of a Building involved in a Fire.

1. Watch for indications of removal of personal articles - in plotting a fire, person

responsible for it sometimes removed from the building personal articles which may have
either a sentimental or commercial value. Examples of the latter at are jewelry, paintings,
fur coats and the like. Look for open dress drawers, disarranged clothes closets, open
strong boxes, pilfered desks, etc. which indicate something was quickly picked up and
hastily taken away or damaged.
 2. Watch for indications of removal of valuable merchandise — many cases have
been observed where the entire contents of stores and residences have been removed to a
different location and different contents of lesser value, or no value whatsoever, have been
placed there instead to give the appearance of having been destroyed. If the fire is a
“successful fire”, it is often difficult to positively identify all the pieces of furniture or
clothing, or to ascertain its approximate value when the debris is sifted. However, if the
fire is not “successful” from—- the standpoint of the arsonist, such contents are readily
determined, and the normal contents of the building may well be located and used as
evidence.

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VI. Recoding and Reporting Observations Made at a Fire

It is recognized that the primary business of a fireman at a fire is to fight the fire.
However, he is also expected to observe and report any surnames or conditions which may
be of a suspicious nature with respect to the origin of the fire.

A small notebook is a suggested means for the entry of such things. These notes on the
fire should be kept all together and should be retained for several years. Notes that are
taken immediately after a fire maybe used in court for the purpose of refreshing the
memory. As arson trial is sometimes delayed for a year or more after the actual occurrence
of the fire, the notes that were taken would be of great help in refreshing the memory.

VII. Appearing in Court in an Arson Case

Firemen called into court as witnesses should always appear in uniform. The appearance
of witnesses is important as appearance often have an influence on the minds of the jury. It
should go without saying, that the uniform should be clean, shoes shined, shirt and tie in
good order.

In taking the oath, it is always desirable for a fireman to be emphatic in stating. “I do”,
as hesitancy in his part sometimes is interpreted by the jury as an indication that he is not
telling the whole truth.

In qualifying a witness, it is customary for attorneys to form some basis for the
qualification of the witness to testify to the matter under discussion. These questions serve
to implant in the minds of the jury the fact that the witness is an experienced man and
qualified to observe and testify regarding the things which he knows to be true about the
case.

The fireman testifying should show a respectful attitude toward the court and the
personalities connected with it as this will create a favorable impression in the minds of all
concerned.
 The fireman acting as a witness should make every effort, to present his testimony in all
fairness to the defendant. He should never under any circumstances display any hostility
toward the accused. Under the law, every person is presumed to be innocent until proven
guilty. Any testimony given by a biased witness is quite likely to be discounted by the jury.

Tell the story, as you know it. Witnesses should never testify to any occurrence as a fact
unless they have personal knowledge of that fact. Second hand information is not
admissible in courts of law, and if there is any part of the testimony to be brought out which
the witness did not himself observe, he should answer any questions concerning it by
stating that he did not see or hear the occurrence himself.

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It is permissible to nee your notes in court provided the entries made therein were made
at the time and place of fire occurrence.

In identifying evidence, the witness should be in a position to state positively that the
exhibit is the one which he discovered or which was found at the scene of the crime. A label
attached to the exhibit and signed by the witness will assist in identification. An exhibit of
evidence should be safeguarded from the time it was discovered until it was produced in court.

Discussion concerning in arson case should never be conducted with any unauthorized
person, However, the witness has a right to discuss a case with his superiors or other persons
having a legitimate interest in the fire in question.

In connection, it is hoped that you will endeavor to meet with the men in your
department to discuss the topics that were discussed in this part. The need for “teamwork” is
essential if you as investigators are to reach a successful conclusion to an investigation.

LESSON 4.4

FIRE INVESTIGATOR’S RESPONSIBILTY IN FIRE INVESTIGATION

The fire investigator is a specialist operating in a unique field - a person with the
field experience and technical training necessary to collect and evaluate factual information
and identify criminal activity in situations where others perceive only confusion and chaos
(Module on Arson Investigation).

The primary goal of a fire investigator, as of any criminal investigator, is to determine

the truth. In seeking the truth, the investigator must complete a post fire examination of the
structure or vehicle that is the subject of a suspicious fire and determine the origin and cause of
the fire. Interviews must be conducted, evidence collected, and comprehensive reports of all
findings prepared. To complete these tasks, the fire investigator must know and understand
the rules governing proper crime scene techniques, the significance of interviewing strategies
and technical requirements of fire science.

If, during the initial stage of inquiry, actions pointing to criminal conduct or evidence of
criminality are uncovered, the fire investigator must automatically shift to his secondary role:
to identify and move against those responsible. A fire investigator who has reason to believe
that arson was committed is morally and professionally obliged to develop the case to its fullest
extent.

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Determining the Origin and Cause of the fire

The main reason for conducting a post-fire examination of the fire scene is to determine
the fire’s origin and cause. The factual determination of origin and cause is the principal area of
expertise that separates a fire/arson investigator from other investigator specialists.

The point of origin of a fire is the location where the fire started the place of beginning.
The term area of origin sometimes used when fire originates over a large tract or space, or
when the exact point of origin cannot be determined. Multiple points of origin are sad to exist
when there is more than one place of beginning, or when several separates fire burn in the
same structure at the same time.

Physical Examination of the Fire Scene

To improve the likelihood of a successful resolution, an investigator must approach the

fire investigation systematically. It is important to keep in mind the application of the scientific
method - a six-step approach to analyzing the origin and cause of a fire.

Scientific Method of Fire Investigation

Step 1 - Recognizing the problem

Step 2 - Defining the Problem
Step 3 - Collecting data
Step 4 - Analyzing data
Step 5 - Developing a hypothesis
Step 6 - Proving the hypothesis
 Recognizing the Problem. The first step of recognizing the problem after the fire or
explosion has occurred, and it is the investigator's responsibility to determine its origin, cause,
and responsibility. It is at this point that fire investigators must recognize that their
determinations may lead to criminal and civil litigation which can affect many lives.

Defining the Problem and Collecting Data. To define the problem, the
investigator must conduct a thorough investigation with all the information available to him.
Step 3 involves the collection of data including the documentation of the scene with
photographs, reports, and collection of physical evidence. It also includes witness accounts.
which may be require additional statement taking from the witnesses.

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Analysis of Data. The fourth step is the analysis of the data (inductive reasoning). Here the
investigator's knowledge, training and experience is put to the test in his analysis of the fire
patterns, structural damage, fuel source, ignition source and any other factors which may affect
the correct determination of origin and ultimately the cause. This is the “fact” portion of the
investigation. Your analysis must be confined to' those facts which were deduced from your
observation of known scientific result or through experiments and testing of physical evidence
collected at the scene.

Developing Hypothesis. The fifth step is the state at which an investigator may express his
opinion about the origin, cause and responsibility of the fire/explosion incident. This opinion is
based on the facts and data collected by the investigator.

Proving the Hypothesis. In the final step, step 6, an investigator’s hypothesis (deductive
reasoning) is put to the test, based on the facts and scientific data that have been developed.

If all other possible origins and causes have been eliminated through deductive
reasoning, then the investigator's Opinion can stand. If not, then the cause of the fire/explosion
must be listed as undetermined or unknown until such time as a logical, scientifically
acceptable cause can be determined.

The physical examination of a structural fire involves a series of increasingly focused

analysis: first the exterior then the interior, the room of origin, the point of origin, and finally
the determination of cause. The reconstruction and, examination of the fire scene can be
seriously impeded by indiscriminate or haphazard handling of the routine fire-, fighting
operation known as the overhaul. This involves the inspection of and, when necessary, the
movement or reshuffling of debris in an effort to discover concealed sparks, embers, or flames
that might rekindle the fire. In the case of a suspicious fire, the origin should be overhauled
before an investigator is on the scene and can supervise the operation; otherwise, evidence
could be destroyed or buried. An objective estimate should be completed for each area
overhauled to determine whether the debris is normal for that area, and whether items
consistent with a normal life style are missing. The presence of items foreign to the
environment is to be viewed with suspicion.

Exterior Examination

The exterior examination begins with interviewing of the fire department officers,
firefighters, and police officers that were first at the scene. As the first in company, they may
have observation relevant to the nature and origin of the life. The initial interviews should
cover the following types of information:

24 WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

1. Were any people or vehicles observed in the vicinity of the fire?

2. If so, could their conduct or actions be interpreted as suspicious? That is, were they:

 Fighting or arguing?
 Too eager to help or give information?
 Attempting to obstruct fire-fighting operations?
 Observed fleeing the scene?
 Observed at others fire scene?
 Dressed in a manner suggesting obvious haste (relative time of day/night
or season)?

If suspicions are raised, record accurate descriptions, license plate numbers, etc.

3. Was the structure fully involved?

 Was it consistent with the class and type of construction?

 Was the fire consistent with types of combustibles readily available?
 Were flames visible?
 What side of the building was ‘involved?
 Was there fire through the roof?
 Had flames extended through windows? If so, which windows?
 What color were the smoke and flames?
 Were the flames quietly lapping up the side bps of the structure or were they roaring
violently?

4. Were the doors and windows open or close?

  Were they locked or nailed shut?
 Were shades open or closed, or windows painted to obscure view?
 Was forced entry made and, if so, by whom?

5. What was the approximate reflex time (time elapsed between alarm and first water-
response time + setup time)?
6. Were any unusual odor noticed?
7. Were hydrants, standpipes, and sprinkler systems operational?
 Were hydrants blocked, hidden or rendered inoperable?
 Were hydrant caps missing or cross threaded?
 Were fire detections or other, safety system us circumvented or rendered
inoperable?

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After completing the initial interviews, the investigator should examine and evaluate the
fire damage on the exterior. If possible, walk around the structure. Note the damage around
windows and doors under the safe and around vents of other outside openings. Where is the
greatest exterior damage?
Does it appear that the fire started outside the building and extended into the structure?
Is a’ “V” pattern visible on fie exterior shell of the structure? Where is the lowest point of
exterior burning? Examine any containers or items on the ground around the structure, and
photograph the outside of the building. Note the construction and use of the structure.
Construction refers to the type of building, wood frame, ordinary, non-combustible, heavy
timber, etc. Note the building material, such as type of roof-and siding. Also note differences
in multiple sections of the building, for example, a two-story main structure perhaps with a
newer one-story addition. All these factors may play important role in the fire spread and
amount of destruction.

The use of the structure refers to the type of occupancy: for example, residential,
multiple dwelling units, commercial, or industrial. The type of occupancy may play a factor in
the possible causes of the fire. Except in rare cases where the fire is positively identified as
having started outside the building and extended into it, the origin and cause of a fire cannot
be determined and should not be assumed only on the basis of an exterior examination.
There is generally an inside area or room of the structure that, while exhibiting little fire
damage relative to the rest of the interior, adjoins the external point of greatest damage. The
extreme point fire’s extension may be the best place to begin the interior examination.

Interior Examination

With the exterior completed, the investigation shifts to the inside of the structure. To
the extent possible, the investigator should attempt to complete a detailed survey of the
structure interior wearing full turnout gear or its equivalent at all times.
 Remember, that a fire damaged building is a dangerous place in which to work, and
investigator must have evaluated its suitability before entering. Floors, walls, staircases, and
similar structure may be in danger collapse, and temporary supports may have to be put in
place. Heavy equipment may be needed to excavate a building that has already collapsed.
Structural members of steel or, in older building, cast iron may be twisted and distorted or
may have punched holes in the face, rear, or sides of the building, and portions of the
building may have sagged due to the failure of the steel structure.

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Try to reconstruct mentally what happened during the fire. All observations made
during this preliminary survey should be written down, including answers to the following:

 Does the fire spread appear natural?

 Was the extension of the fire natural?
 Was the intensity of the fire natural?
 Were the furnishing, clothing, appliances, and so on normal for the type of
occupancy?
 Were personal items removed before the fire?
 Was there any substitution of the contents (for _ instance, cheap or used in place
of expensive)?
 Was there fire in unusual locations (under staircase, in closets and attics, in desk
drawers or file cabinets)?
 Were the body of fire and the path of heat travel consistent with the type of
construction and contents?
 Is your approximation of the burn time consistent with the combustibility
characteristics of the types of material (fuel) involved?
 Are there any holes in the floors or walls? If so, are they a natural consequence of
the fire or a possible indication that an accelerant was used?

Room and Point(s) of Origin - by observing the burn pattern and tracing back the order in
which they were formed, the investigator gradually migrates to the area of the most severe |
damage. This is usually the area where the fire burned the longest (except when flammable
liquids were involved). A fire generally burns the longest at or near its point of origin because
enough oxygen is available there during the early stage. Therefore, the room with the greatest
damage is most apt to be the room of origin. Locating this fee ls very significant because it
contains the point or area of the fire's origin as well as the clues to its cause.

Many factors and criteria are commonly used to isolate the point of origin within the
row of origin. If the investigator finds several distinct (unconnected) points of origin, each
must be carefully examined. The crime scene, photographs, sketches, and notes should clearly
show that the multiple points of origin were not the result of normal fire travel, flashover, or
burning material having been moved during the suppression, overhaul, or salvage operations.
Fall downs fires (also known as drop down fire) (burning material falling to the floor) or
explosions can also give the appearance of multiple point of origin.

The discovery of multiple points of origin is a prima facie evidence that the fire was
incendiary origin, since such a condition is highly improbable and virtually impossible under
normal conditions.

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After completing the preliminary scene evaluation, including the documentation of

utilities, doors, and window scrutiny, the fire investigator should have evaluated areas of lesser
damage back to the greatest area of structural damage in tracking the fire to its place of
beginning or point origin.

Fire Language

The step from the inside examination to the determination of the fire's point of origin
and cause depends on the fire/arson investigator’s ability to detect and characterize the visible
remains of the fire. This give information about the fire, including the path of spread,
temperatures reached, and fuels involved. The physical signs and substances that is revealed,
by implication, how a fire developed are referred to as “fire language”. To be effective;
fire/arson investigator must be able to read this technical language. Examples of fire language
include lines or areas of demarcation, depth of char, spalling, oxidation, heat indicators
(temperature determination), thermal indicators of metal, calcinations, various features of
glass, heat showing, and protected areas.

Lines and Areas of Demarcation — the line or area of demarcation appears

between the affected area and adjacent unaffected or less affected area of the structure and its
contents. These demarcations depend on the material, the rate of the heat release of the fire,
fire suppression efforts, the temperature of the heat source, any ventilation, and the length -of
time the material was exposed to the heat.

Depth of Char — char is the carbonization of a fuel by the action of heat or burning.
The term is generally applied to the combustible residue remaining after the pyrolysis of wood.

The depth of char refers to the depth of the charred material. Its value is obtained by
measuring the distance from the surface of the original dimensional wood (lumber) to the
boundary of the carbonized fraction, and comparing this with remaining unburned matter.
 From an investigative standpoint; the depth of char indicates the length of time that a
wooden structural member was exposed to flame. Ordinarily, a section of exposed dimensional
lumber ignites at about 660 *F and chars at the rate of 1 inch in 45 minutes at 1400 *F. the
char is usually deepest where the fire burned the longest (excluding the use of accelerants) and,
thus, can be used to identify the point of origin.

It has been suggested that the presence of large shiny blisters (alligator-char) and the
surface appearance of the char such as dullness, shines, or colors, have some relation to the.
presence of a liquid accelerant as the cause, but no scientific evidence substantiates this. The
investigator is advised to be very cautious in using wood char appearance as an indicator of
incendiarism.

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Depth of char is often used to estimate the duration of a fire. The rate of charring wood
varies widely depending upon such variables such as:

 Rate and duration & heating

 Ventilation
 Surface area-to-mass ration
 Size, direction, orientation of wood gain
 Species of wood
 Moisture content
 Nature of surface coating

This condition may be associated with the use of an accelerant. The depth of charring is
most reliable for evaluating fire spread rather than for the establishments of specific burn
times or intensity of heat from adjacent burning materials. By measuring the relative depth
and extent of charring, the investigator may be able to determine what portions of material or
construction had been exposed the longest to a heat source. When measuring the depth of
char, it is important to be consistent in the method of measurement. Thin blunt-ended
probes, such as certain types of calipers, tire tread depth gauges, or specified modified metal
rulers are best. Char depth measurement should be made at the center of the char blister
rather than in or near the crevices (gap) between the blisters. In determining the depth of
charring, the investigator should take into consideration any burned wood that may already
have been completely destroyed by the fire.

Spalling –It is a condition ordinarily associated with masonry and cement (concrete)
building, materials. It may appear as a distinctive discoloration of a brick or concrete and, in
some cases, the surface of the material may be pitted and rough. Spalling is the result of
mechanical forces in the material, particularly between the surface of the concrete and
underlying aggregate. The mechanical forces react to the high temperature and rate of
heating in one or more the following situations.

 Moisture in uncured concrete.

 Differential expansion between reinforcing material and the surrounding
concrete.
 Differential expansion between the concrete mix and the aggregate.
 Differential expansion between the finish surface layer and the coarser substrate
layers.
 Differential expansion between the fire/heat exposed surface and the substrate
material.

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Spalling of masonry may be caused by heat, freezing, chemicals, or abrasion. Spalling is

characterized by distinct lines of striation and the loss of surface material resulting in
cracking, breaking, chipping, or the formation of craters on the surface.

Rapid cooling of a heated mass of concrete or other masonry material can also cause
spalling. One of the most common sources of rapid cooling to a heated surface is the water
from the firefighting activities.

Although this condition may be associated with the use of accelerant, the discovery of
spalling does not in itself indicate that the fire was incendiary. Other common combustible
that burn with great intensity can also cause this conditions, it may even be the result of a
ruptured gas line.

Oxidation – It is the basic chemical process of combustion. Oxidation of some

materials that do not burn can produce lines of demarcation and fire patterns useful to the
fire investigator.

Some of the effects of oxidation include changes of color and texture. The higher the
temperature and the longer the exposure to heat, the more pronounced the effects of
oxidation. Galvanized steel subjected to mild heating will have a dull whitish surface from
oxidation of the zinc coating. The elimination of the protective zinc on the steel surface will
result in a rust condition on the unprotected steel. There can be a pattern of rusted compared
to non-rusted galvanized steel in the same area.

When unprotected iron or steel is oxidized in a fire, the surface turns into a dull blue -
gray. Continued exposure can result in thick layers of oxide (rust) that can flake, After the
fire, if the metal has been wet, the usual rust-colored oxide may appear.
 Stainless steel surface may discolor under mild oxidation; however, more severe
oxidation will result in a dull gray color. Copper forms a dark red or black oxide when
exposed to heat.

Heat Indicators - Are those pieces of fused or metal path of fire spread and the
(and/or gas) that suggest both the path of fire spread and location of highest temperatures.
The most severe heat damage is usually found (use of accelerants excluded) at or near the
point of origin.

Calcinations - Refers e changes that occur during a fire in either plaster or gypsum
wall surfaces. This may include the elimination of water from the gypsum to charring of the
organic binder. Continued heating will result in the gray color extending all the way through
the gypsum board to the paper surface on the backside, which will subsequently char. The
side exposed to the fire longest will become whiter as the carbon deposits are consumed. The
color itself has no significance to the fire investigator. However, the difference between colors
may show lines of demarcation.

Glass as Indicator - Glass items such as mirrors, windowpanes, and so on, are also
affected by heat build-up, smoke and flame. Heat damage (fusing) arid smoke staining on
glass

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items tend to occur in direct relation to the heat build-up, the intensity of the fire, the speed
of the fire spread, and nearness to the fire.

A detailed inspection of glass items can give a reasonably precise determination of the
items location with regard to the fire’s point of origin.

Smoke-Stained and Checkered Glass - An increase in the temperature (heat

energy) of a glass item causes a proportional increase in that item’s molecular activity. The
hotter the item, the greater the molecular activity on its surface. Increased molecular activity
on a surface inhibits the amount of soot (smoke stained) that will form. An item heavily
stained by smoke and soot was, therefore, cooler than the one with a light buildup of soot. A
heavy soot buildup on a glass surface suggests that the items were far from the fire’s point
origin. However, a light soot buildup suggests that the item may be at or near the point of
origin. The presence of the thick, oily soot on glass may be from hydrocarbon residues-
present not only in liquid accelerants, but also as the by-product of incomplete combustion of
wood, other cellulosic materials, as well as many petroleum based products commonly found
in today’s structures. Therefore, this type of residue is not a conclusive indicator of
incendiarism with the presence of accelerant.

Checking of glass refers to the half-moon shape that are sometimes seen on the surface
of glass items. These half-moon shapes result after droplets of water (usually from the
firefighting) land of a heated surface. They usually indicate that the glass was in place or
intact when the water was applied. The presence or absence of a pane of glass in a window or
door may be significant if the fire is declared incendiary and the issue of exclusive
opportunity becomes manifest.
 Crazed and Fractured Glass - Crazing refers to the cracking of glass into smaller
segments or subdivisions in an irregular pattern. The extent to which a glass item will crack
or craze is related to the type of glass involved, its thickness, ' the temperature range to which
it was exposed and its distance from the point of origin.

Crazing into small segments or pieces suggests that the item was subjected to a rapid
and intense buildup. It also suggests that the items may be at or near the point of origin. On
the other hand, glass item that shows a larger crazing pattern may have been located some
distance away from the point of origin.

An investigator can determine whether a particular pane of glass was fractured as the
result of pressure applied from the inside or outside of the structure. When pressure is
applied to glass, radial and concentric fractures result. Radial fractures start from the point of
impact and carry to the perimeter of the pane. Concentric fractures form around the point of
impact and create a web-like appearance. The labeling and removal of glass fragments are
simple procedures. A criminologist or laboratory expert may be needed to testify at trial
regarding the analysis of the glass fragments. The steps in these procedures are as follows:

31 WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 Carefully label (either inside or outside) a fragment glass still attached to the
window/door frame.

 Remove the glass fragment and identify the type of fracture (radial/concentric).
Carefully examine the edge of the fracture (leading edge)

 Look at the trials of the stress fracture that result from the cracking along the lattice
structure of the glass.

 In a radial fracture there is a right angle between the striations (fracture lines) and the
face away from that side of the pane on which the original pressure was applied. In a
concentric fracture there will be a right angle between the striations and the same face
of the pane that received pressure.

LESSON 4.5

DOCUMENTATION AND LABORATORY EXAMINATION

The proper inspection and accurate documentation of a fire scene is the most important
initial step in any investigation. The notes, photos, sketches generated to document the scene
and the discovered evidence serve as an aid and ready reference throughout the investigation.
More importantly, they provide the foundation for any criminal prosecution or civil action that
follows. Fire scenes have traditionally been one of the most poorly documented and underrated
classification of crime scenes. The chief reason for this lack of documentation has been the
investigator’s traditional reliance on sketchy notes and personal recollection when preparing
official reports or describing the circumstances of the fire to a jury or other judicial body. Other
reasons for the lack of the proper documentation include:

 Ignorance of proper crime-scene techniques

 Lack of equipment (e.g. camera, film)
 Time constraints
 Shortage of qualified personnel, and
 Lack of motivation (e.g. laziness, poor attitude, apathy)

The fact that the fire scenes are unique and their analysis time-consuming and
sometimes arduous (difficult) does not relieve the investigator of the responsibility to adhere
to proper crime-scene techniques.

The Crime Scene

In a fire investigation, the crime scene should include the area surrounding the location
where a crime (arson) may have been committed and where evidence pertaining to the
investigation of the crime may be found. It should include all entrances and exits or paths to
and from the scene.

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Under normal circumstances, a criminal investigator is called to the scene of a crime

(e.g. homicide) that has occurred. However, a fire investigator is called to a scene of a fire,
where a crime may or may not have been committed. That determination is to be made
(tentatively) upon the completion of the physical examination, but what the fire investigator
sees and hears at the scene may be the basis for the entire case. The treatment of all fire scene
as crimes scenes is purely a precautionary measure.

“Seat” of the Crime - the “seat” of the crime is the area of the crime scene evincing the
greatest impact between the criminal and the commission of the crime. In an arson
investigation, this would be the point of origin. In a fatal fire, it is the area of greatest impact
among the criminal, the victim, and their surroundings. If the fire was set to conceal a
homicide, the seat of the crime is the area around and including the body. If the victim died as
a result of the fire (arson/homicide), the seat of the crime is the point of origin of the fire.

Protecting the Crime Scene –an investigator must realize that mistakes made during
certain phases of the preliminary investigation may be rectifiable (say, by re-interviewing
witnesses), but errors made in the processing of the crime scene can never be corrected. Once
the scene has been left unprotected for any length of time or released to the owner, reentry to
the scene must be made with a search warrant or with the consent of the owner unless the
structure has been abandoned and the owner no longer has a reasonable expectation of
privacy. In any case, the admissibility of any evidence found during the later entry is at best
questionable, due to the break in the chain of custody.
 The responsibility for protecting the fire scene varies nationally according to local
custom, size, and setting of the municipality (rural or urban), and the availability of personnel.
Regardless of local custom or procedure, however, the ultimate responsibility for the
preservation of the fire scene (unit and investigation arrives) lies with the fire officer
(volunteer or paid) that declared the fire suspicious. This issue is rarely addressed in fire
officer’s training programs conducted by municipal, regional, or country fire-training
academies.

Several investigative and legal question would be simplified if a firefighter were left at
the scene. It would also be beneficial if the fireman who is left to protect the scene was from
one of the first units to respond. This would maintain the fire department’s presence at the
scene and prevent the unintentional release of the building back to its owner. It would also
afford the responding investigator the opportunity to interview an individual who has first-
hand knowledge of conditions in the structure during the actual fire-fighting operations.
Should the investigator arrive while fire- fighting operations are still in progress, the questions
of the chain of custody and scene protection become moot (doubtful/ disputable).

The guarding officer must avoid unnecessary conversation with reporters or people
who may congregate at the scene, especially at a fatal fire. Reporters should be told that the
matter is under investigation and be referred to the investigator assigned to the case for
further information.

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Documentation Sequence

There is specific five-step sequence to be followed in documenting a crime

scene:

 Visual inspection
 Note taking
 Photographs
 Sketches
 Search for evidence

Visual Inspection – the visual inspection of a fire uses the investigator’s ability to read the
observable burn pattern and “push the fire back” to its point(s) of origin. The investigator
should try to reconstruct mentally what occurred and be constantly looking for the aware of
the unusual such as:

 Unnatural lateral (side) spread of fire

 Evidence of plants, trailers, and accelerants
 Unlikely relationship between the point(s) or origin and the body (a
fatal fire)
 Heat indicators
  Evidence of a delayed ignition device.

Note Taking – one of the most important operations mandated by proper crime scene
techniques is the preparation of a written record of the investigator’s observations and
impressions at the crime scene, this is known as note taking. An investigator should not
rely on memory alone; information left to memory is easily forgotten. If the case goes to trial
for months or years later, the note prepared at the fire scene are accessible to a defendant’s
attorney and will be used by the investigator to refresh his memory while testifying. The
notes will also be scrutinized by the prosecutor who is preparing and prosecuting the case.
With these considerations in mind (and to avoid embarrassment), the crime scene notes
should be arranged and prepared in deliberate manner. Several principles govern the
preparation of these notes:

 Make prompt but accurate notes

 Give observations in chronological order
 Avoid discernible codes and cryptic abbreviations
 Be clear
 Make decisions as to what is really important

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In addition to being useful when preparing for court, crime scene notes will be of
value in the following ways:

 Providing ready reference for reports to be prepared.

 Highlighting points of conflict to be resolved.
 Refreshing new information to be evaluated.
 Yielding new information to be evaluated.
 Aiding in the development of logical and pertinent questions for interviews
and interrogation.
 Identifying recurring names
 Ensuring that important data are not omitted.

Included in an investigator’s written record of observation and impression should be the

following:

 Time of the investigator’s arrival

 Exact address of the fire
 Weather condition
 Identify of person present
 Statement made (verbatim, if possible)
 Odors detected
 Extent of damage and room or area of origin
 Anything unusual
  Anything else that the investigator may feel is important

Photography – the fire scene should not be disturbed before the fire/ crime scene
photographs are taken. Every piece of evidence should be photographed in place (over-all
and close-up) before it is removed for processing.

It can be very difficult to photographs a fire scene. Photos of the interior can
be especially hard to take because of poor light and extensive carbonization. Regardless of
the difficulty, such documentary photographs are an absolute necessity. Juries have come
to expect them (prints, slides, and video), and prosecutors rely on them for graphic
corroboration of verbal testimony. The technical language of fire science can be disquieting
(worrying/disturbing) to a jury. Such intricate testimony can be better deciphered if its
essence is clarified or illustrated photographically.

An investigator should be prepared to take photographs both in color and in

black in white. During a trial for arson/ homicide, a judge may admit black and white
photos of the victim as evidence after refusing to admit color photos of the same victim, on
the grounds that the latter may be prejudicial to the defendant. The first photos taken
should be of the exterior of the building. At least one exterior photo should include the
address of the building. The sequence of photos that follows should take the viewer into the
building, then gradually to the room of origin; and ultimately to the point of origin. This
sequence should closely resemble the steps taken by the investigator during the physical
examination to determine the cause and origin of the fire.
35 WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)
Certain precautionary measures should be taken by the investigator to ensure
that the photographs taken at the scene will be admitted into evidence. The investigator
should list in written notes or on the back of the actual photographs the following
information:

 Type of camera used and its serial number

 Type of film used, ASA number (film speed)
 Lens setting (f-stop)
 Name and shields/badge number of photographer
 Case number (if assigned) and address, including apartment number of
location photographed
 Number of the photos in the chronological sequence

Videography – why video? The first answer is simply that it exists. Every
suspected or known fire/ crime scene should be documented in three ways by making
sketches, by taking still photographs, and by videotaping. Video should not replace the
sketches and still photographs, but rather complement and support them.
 There are many other reasons for video recording: two apply universally: to
document and to visually prove an event. The most basic and often overlooked reason is to
visually prove that a fire or crime actually took place.

Additional reasons for using video are to document:

 The extent of damage and extent of material not damaged

 Items of physical evidence present or absent at the scene.
 Injuries sustained and individuals who have no injuries.

Such documentation is extremely useful, not only during the investigation and trial,
but also in the settlement of insurance claims. Insurance claims for inventories are rarely less
than the actual loss, and mysterious personal ailments incapacities crop up between the time of
the occurrence and court dates. Without proof to the contrary, you may be in for a tough case
and lose it in the end.

Sketches – the drafting of a thorough and accurate fire/ crime scene sketch
(drawing or diagram) is the next essential step in the documentation of a scene. The purpose of
the sketch are several:

 The primary purpose is orientation, to show the relationship of objects to each

other.

36 WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 To give an overall view of the scene that cannot be correctly depicted by
photographs.
 To eliminate clutter and items not important to the investigation.
 To clarify issues and items not important to the investigation.
 To avoid unnecessary and at times, legally prohibited return strips to the
scene.

While at the scene, the investigator should prepare a rough sketch. To complete this, the
investigator will need paper, pencil, a ruler of straight edge and a measuring tape. Sketching
material should include ¼ inch graph paper. A rough sketch is drawn in proportion to the
shape of the room, not to scale. However, measurements taken on room and to locate evidence
in the room must be exact. In those fire origin and cause cases where the conclusions are
obvious and simples, appropriate measurement will suffice.

In those situation where there may be litigation, the rough sketch will serve as the basis
for a finished sketch, which will be drafted later in the investigation and drawn to scale. Items
of evidence depicted in the sketch should be lettered and listed separately in a legend. Every
item should be included in the sketch/ diagram; unnecessary items can be deleted later. An
arrow labeled N should be included to indicate north (as a map).

To show relationship involving movable objects, the investigator should use either the
coordinate method or triangulate method. The coordinate method is often used to locate
movable objects in a room or other small area. Two measured perpendicular lines are drawn
from the object to the nearest walls. The triangulate method is most often used to locate the
objects in large buildings such as warehouse or factories and also at outdoor crime scene. Three
measure lines are drawn. The investigator selects two fixed objects (structural pillars,
telephone poles, trees, etc.) and measures the distance between each of them and the items to
be located, as well as the distance between the two fixed objects themselves.

The finished sketch is drafted to scale and is generally prepared for court presentation.
The investigator may also have to prepare a projection sketch, when the investigator wants to
focus attention on a particular location of area. A dotted line is normally used to indicate
motion. Photographs are located on a sketch by means of numbered triangles.

Evidence Collection

Evidence is defined as the means, sanctioned by these rules, of ascertaining in a

judicial proceeding the truth respecting a matter of fact. Investigators have traditionally viewed
evidence as anything that a suspect leaves at or takes from a crime scene, or anything that may
be otherwise connected to the crime under investigation. Physical evidence is defined as any
finite

37 WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

and tangible whether in trace or gross quantity, that may assist in proving the elements of a
crime. The proper recognition, documentation, collection, analysis and interpretation of
physical
evidence can provide valuable information to the investigation. Any evidence collected at the
fire scene should be placed in cans or bottles but not in plastic bags. This is to avoid
contaminating the flammable substance that may be present on the evidence. Plastic bags
usually produces moisture which can contaminate or wash out the flammable substance
present on the evidence.

Physical Evidence — Chain of custody

Chain of Custody — location and security of an item of evidence from the time it is
discovered at the scene until it is introduced as evidence in court (Module on Arson
Investigation).
 The following are the written records necessary in maintaining the chain
of custody:

 Must show who found item at the scene.

 Must show name of all personnel who touch or alter evidence and reason.
 Must show who obtained, marked and packaged the item.
 Must show where item was marked, and how it was packaged.
 Must show what was done with the item.
 Must show who used the item for analysis, investigation, etc., date and time
 The record must show the location of evidence ‘from (its discovery) to
disposition in court of law.

What to Collect?

At some point during the investigation process, the question of what property or items
should be collected arises. The decision to secure any physical or tangible items lies solely with
the investigator. Any possible ignition source at or near the area of origin should be removed
and secured, especially if the item cannot be eliminated during the on-site inspection.

In case involving a passible product defect or malfunction, it is a good practice to obtain

any items connected with or related to the suspected component or appliance. For example,
during a particular investigation, the fire, heat and smoke patterns all indicated that the fire
originated on a counter top in a corner of the kitchen. After reconstructing the scene, a toaster,
microwave, coffeemaker, and blender dare found in the corner. All the electric appliances have
been plugged into one outlet box with four receptacles. What items are to be removed?

38 WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

At this point, too many variables exist to possibly know the correct response. If all items
can be eliminated except the coffee maker, then at least the coffee maker and the outlet as well
as the circuit breaker or fuse controlling the outlet should be inspected more closely at the
scene and removed for further analysis. If none of the appliances can be eliminated at the
scene, all the item as well as the outlet and circuit breaker should be removed and examined
more closely

Influence on Evidence Collection

Physical evidence at a fire scene can exist in a variety of forms. Several factors influence an
investigator on how the evidence is collected. For every instigation, an investigator must be
prepared and equipped ta-collect the evidence which needs to be secured.
1. Physical State of Items or Samples - In whatever physical state solid, liquid or gas - the
evidence is found at the fire scene, an investigator must stave the capability and equipment to
collect and preserve the property. Collection of physical evidence in the solid foray, can be
done by simply removing the item or items from the area of origin. Sometimes an item may be
too large and unwieldy for one or two persons to handle. If the evidence cannot be removed
from the scene, the investigator will have to return to the scene with the appropriate
equipment to secure the property.
Potential evidence remaining at a scene in the liquid state may or may not be absorbed
by solid structural materials such as wood, carpet, plastic masonry etc. The liquid material
has been diluted, absorbed, or removed by the water use during the suppression and
extinguishments of the fire. The only way to ascertain whether an accelerant may have been
used in fire is to remove solid samples which might have a trace of the accelerant or liquid
material in them. In studies, it has been proven that the more porous a material is, the
greater is the possibility an accelerant will be detected during chemical and forensic testing.

In collecting samples for laboratory analysis, two rules should be followed. First, for
every solid samples collected, comparison sample must be taken as well. If comparison
samples are not taken, and an accelerant is detected in one of the removed samples, the
investigator has no idea whether the accelerant was inherent in the material or not. A prime
example is turpentine in pinewood. Turpentine is an inherit component of pinewood and
testing results will reflect this fact.
A second rule for the collection of a solid sample is that only one type of material should
be isolated and collected per container. For example, if, in the area of origin, a hardwood
floor is covered by linoleum and the linoleum is covered by carpet, at least six, possibly eight,
samples may need to be taken, one sample each of the carpet, the linoleum, and the
hardwood floor at or near the area of origin plus three comparison samples. If the carpet has
padding material a sample of the padding should be taken from the area of origin as well as
comparison sample.

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When collecting the samples, if a sample cannot be separated and the padding has
melted into the carpet, four comparison samples, each containing a single specimen per
container, should still be taken. A qualified forensic chemist will be able to analyze the data
and clarify if an accelerant was used for the initiation or spread of a particular fire
occurrence.

If several points of origin are found during the investigation, the number of samples
removed can easily number a dozen or more. However, if the structure contains all
hardwood floors of the same material, only one comparison sample needs to be removed and
tested. On rare occasions, a gaseous sample may be extracted in several different ways. The
three most-common methods for removing gaseous samples from the scene are through the
use of a mechanical sampling device, through air sampling cans, or by pouring distilled
water over the area the investigator wishes to take the air sample.

Mechanical sampling devices are designed to remove a sample of the air and store it if
collecting chamber, by using a charcoal filter or a filter of a special polymer substance. The
filter then can be tested later. Specially designed evacuated air sampling cans are also
available collect gaseous samples. The atmospheric air is removed from these cans to avoid
the possible dilution of the air sample.

These products may be too expensive for an organization to buy, or possibly used too
seldom to warrant keeping a supply of them. The least expensive method for collection of
gaseous sample involves a bottle of distilled water in preferably a glass container. A plastic
container however, may also be used if circumstances warrant it. To collect the sample, the
distilled water must be poured in the area where the sample is to be collected. As the water
leaves the container, it creates a vacuum, collecting the surrounding air in the container. The
container is then recapped to preserve the sample. Distilled water is used because it has no
impurities, eliminating any future questions regarding the validity of the sample.

2. Physical Characteristics of the Items or Samples

A second consideration in evidence collection is the physical size, shape, and/or weight of
the items to be secured. The investigator should be prepared with a variety of equipment to
secure the necessary items. Such instruments as a hammer, screwdrivers or various sizes
pliers, wire and bolt cutters, lengths of rope, as well as of common household tools areas
essential to the fire investigator as a shovel, broom, and flashlight.

2. Fragility of the Items or Samples - An investigator should always use utmost care
when transferring secured evidence between any two locations. However, during the initial
handling of the evidence an investigator has a greater chance of further damaging the
equipment and therefore losing small assemblies or components which might positively
prove
40 WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)
how the fire originated. Remember, by the time an investigation is completed, the items has
been subjected to extreme temperatures, have had other items or materials collapse on
them, were possibly thrown away from the area of origin during the overhaul procedures or
damaged during the clearing and sifting other debris. Consequently, the investigator should
never carelessly place the removed property in a vehicle and then stack a toolbox, flashlight,
or other items on the evidence. If the actual assembly or component responsible for the fire
is lost or damaged by the investigator, an incorrect conclusion may be drawn, especially if
the damage occurs before the laboratory analysis of the property.
 4. The Volatility of Evidence — The volatility of evidence-or how easily it may evaporate
- deals primarily with evidence in the liquid state, but is applicable to gaseous samples as
well. Alcohol, for example, will be absorbed by water and will also evaporate quickly if
exposed to air. Gaseous samples have to be collected quickly or they will dissipate. They are
also extremely volatile and a delay in the collection of the sample may change the result.

Recognition and Documentation of Arson Evidence

It is the responsibility of the trained scene investigator to recognize the potential

evidentiary value of physical evidence that may be present at a fire scene during the course of
the scene reconstruction and determination of the cause and origin of the fire. The types of
physical evidence that may be present at an arson scene should be photographed in place,
exactly as found, documented in crime scene notes, and carefully located on the same sketch.
Items such as containers of gasoline or other volatile liquids, ignition devices. (e.g., matches or
candles), delayed timing devices and trailers present few problems in terms of recognition and
documentation. On the other hand, the selection process involved ix-the recognition of charred
or burned fires debris suspected of containing an accelerant residue is one that requires
prudence and discretion. Care must be taken to select samples that afford the greatest potential
for a positive laboratory result. The thoughtless and indiscriminate selection of random
charred areas of a fire scene for sample collection in the vain hope that a forensic laboratory
will, through advanced technology, be able to obtain a positive result, is in most cases, a total
waste of investigative and laboratory time.

The advantage of glass jar over other storage containers is that the contents can be seen
without removing the cap or breaking the seal. As with mental cans, glass jars are readily
available and reasonably priced. Glass jars are not as susceptible to the atmospheric or climatic
problems as metal cans. Glass jars can be stored for a long period of time without fear of
corrosion or corrosive action.

Glass jars also have some disadvantages. They break rather easily and are not as durable
as metal cans. Another disadvantage is that the sizes of glass jars are not as varied as metal
cans.

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Identification of Evidence

Before removing any evidence from a scene, it has to be identified. This does not mean,
for example, that the age and the manufacturer of an appliance have to be known.
Identification in this instance relates to the location and description of the property or sample
removed. If possible, accelerant samples are taken and measurements from secure or definite
objects documented. It is preferred that the same objects are enough to pinpoint the areas from
which the sample was removed. However, circumstances in possible arson will indicate if
triangulation of the scene should be performed to pinpoint the location of the removed
samples. Triangulation is common when government agencies conduct their investigation that
with insurance industry investigators. These measurements should be written both in the field
notes and on the scene diagram. Identifying evidence at the site will also eliminate any
confusion once the items are returned to the laboratory or storage facility. When many familiar
items are removed from one fire scene, such as outlets, smoke detectors or power cords,
identifying them at the scene, photographing them at their pre-fire position, and documenting
their location on a diagram will save time and frustration at the laboratory several hours later.

In larger, and more complicated cases when many items: are removed, identifying the
property at the scene is necessary to prevent mislabeling or confusion in later stages of the
investigation. It will give the investigator a quick and simple reference for all items removed, it
will also serve for quick and accurate reconstruction of the scene at the laboratory.

In some occasion, fire investigation will perform more than one investigation in a given
day. On-scene identification is imperative to prevent the possibility of combining or confusing
the evidence for two or more cases. Be sure to keep all the evidence from one fire scene
together to prevent them from being mislabeled or misplaced. In identifying any evidence,
some general information needs to be included. The case or file name and number should
appear on every evidence tag. Other information, which should be placed, on an identification
tag is the date and time the evidence, was taken of course, a general description of the items
removed could be extremely detailed i.e. sample of wood flooring removed from the
northwest corner of the first floor living room”. - or generally vague - e.g., “oil burner parts and
burned debris.” A prevailing rule in collecting evidence is to provide a detailed description of
samples. taken and the location where each sample was extracted. For appliances, electrical
cords, and most other items a brief description of the evidence will suffice. Exceptions are
commonplace, and again the investigator’s s discretion will dictate the information to be
written on the identification tag.

Before removing any evidence from the scene, a receipt should be signed by the parker
parties who granted permission to enter the premises. Persons who entered the premises under
exigent circumstances have been excluded from following this procedure in the past, but most
government agencies are now obtaining written authorization to remove property, out of the
fear that any samples removed may be contested in a court of law.

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Because of legal challenges and litigation tactics, a chain of custody must be established
at the earliest possible time. From the moment any evidence as taken from the scene to the
authorization for the disposal of the evidence is given, a chain of custody has to be maintained.
Chain of custody requirements used to pertain only to criminal cases, but with an increase in
the insurance industry pursuing subrogation claims, these standards are infiltrating into civil
cases as well. A break in the chain of custody can occur at any given time. An alert attorney will
use what may appear to be an insignificant lapse in the custody chain, and question how the
evidence may have been altered and possibly contaminated. To ensure that there can be no
question of contamination or spoliation of the evidence, the items should be identified and
labeled at the scene, and a receipt should be signed by the appropriate party to remove any
properly from the site. If that is not possible, leave a copy of the receipt behind at the scene.
Once returned to a laboratory facility, the evidence should be documented in a logbook or save
on a computer disk.

Once the on-site examination is completed, before removing any property from the
scene, all items should have an identification tag or label affixed to them or their container,
whether an unlined metal can, or glass jar. By completing this task on site, the chain of custody
begins. All items should be noted on a receipt form which is to be given to or left behind for the
person who granted entry the structure.

Laboratory Analysis and Testing

Once the property has been taken to its destination the items should be documented in
an evidence logbook, either handwritten or computer generated. This provides the investigator
with a quick and easy reference of the evidence on all the claims he or she is involved. The
same basic information written on the identification tags should be included in the property
logbook. Again, this is necessary to preserve the chain of custody. For example, if an
investigator writes his or her description of the evidence on the tag as “oil burner parts and
burned debris”, the same description should be written in the property logbook. Providing all
the relevant information in the logbook decreases the time spent retrieving and reviewing the
file to confirm that all the items are present. Some firms have additional information stored in
the logbooks such as the date(s) when the property was examined, shipped, returned—and to
whom-—and/or discarded. Other information which is useful in the logbooks is the location of
the property and name of the person who logged the property in the storage facility. This
further preserves the chain of custody. If the property has to be retrieved, it can be done
efficiently. When the evidence is to be returned to the facility, it helps to place it in the same
location. If this is not possible or if another person returns the property, the logbook will have
the name of the last person who handled the property and the date.

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Once evidence is returned from the scene, laboratory analysis can be performed in a
controlled environment, allowing security of the items which the investigator has to be careful
in his or her proceedings: with numerous judgments and rulings regarding the spoliation of
evidence, during the initial laboratory examination, destructive and invasive testing should not
be conducted. Destructive and/or invasive testing refers to permanently altering the shape,
integrity, or condition of the evidence in a manner which prohibits the item from physically
returning to the state in which it was found by the investigator.

Preparation of Sample Testing in the Forensic Laboratory

The term “accelerants” as used frequently during the determination of the cause of
fire refers to any agent, frequently an ignitable or flammable, used to initiate of speed the
spread of fire. An accelerant may be solid, liquid, or gaseous substance. Most accelerate
detected through analysis in the forensic laboratory are either, turpentine or alcohols. If not
consumed in the fire or otherwise evaporated, these volatile substances are absorbed within the
matrix of the charred materials such as wood, carpet and other building materials at a fire
scene.

Solid and liquid accelerant samples can be tested by various methods. When these
materials, unknown liquids and comparison samples, are received in sample containers and
logged at the laboratory, they are subjected to an organized process of isolation, detection, and
identification. Unknown and, comparison samples as well as known laboratory positive
standards or control are treated in a similar manner.

There are four general methods for isolating or concentrating fire debris:

1. Steam Distillation: This involves the heating and distilling with steam of the charred
material and trapping the distillate with a cold-water condenser. The volatile hydrocarbons
distillate with a collected in a liquid form before analysis.

2. Solvent Extraction - The sample of charred material is extracted by mixing and shaking
with a known solvent as carbon disulfide, methylene chloride, or hexane, which dissolves the
petroleum distillates and other volatiles into the known solvent. This extract sample is then
evaporated to a small volume which concentrates the sample for analysis.

3. Cold Head Space - The top of the sample container is punctured and a stopper inserted so
that a headspace vapor sample can be removed with a syringe for subsequent analysis.

4. Heated Head Space - After the stopper is inserted into the top of the sample container,
the vessel is heated to approximately 100°C or slightly lower. This technique concentrates the
headspace vapor since the heat drives the volatiles from the charred matrix. This method is
popular and more sensitive than the cold space technique.

44 WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

5. Vapor Concentration on Charcoal - This method uses an inert gas purge with nitrogen
or air of the heated samples container which carries volatiles through a small tube containing
charcoal where they are concentrated. The charcoal is desorbed by heat or a small volume of a
solvent such as carbon disulfide and thus prepared for analysis.

Evidence Storage

Once the evidence is removed from a scene and taken to a laboratory for further testing
and examination is performed, what becomes of the items? Can they be discarded if they were
not found to be the cause of the fire? Is it acceptable to keep only the items found to be
responsible for a particular fire? Once removed samples are tested can they be discarded? Do
they have to be held even if no accelerant was detected in the sample? What if the samples were
never tested? Obviously, the correct response to all these question is No. Removal and
subsequent securing of physical evidence are the first stages-of evidence collection not the last.
Physical evidence has to be preserved for months, sometimes years after an incident has
occurred. In civil cases, and subrogation claims, files can remain active for five (5) or more
years depending on the statute of limitations for particular state. Therefore, any evidence
removed from a scene has to be preserved until the case has been finally settled or the statute
expires. The most desirable place to preserve evidence is in a specially designed storage facility.
A steel- frame constructed unit with poured concrete slab flooring is ideal. The complex will
have to preserve large items such as kitchen appliances as well as small items such as coffee
makers, toasters, and accelerant samples. The storage facility should also maintain a dry
climate; excessive moisture or humidity will generate rust and corrosive action on metal
components stand a greater change of being affected by humid atmosphere

Do not feel comfortable using a noncombustible structure without a fire structure

without a fire suppression system. Most units contain combustible items which are literally
packed into the rented space. As fire investigators, you know that a discarded cigarette can
easily ignite a couch, sofa upholstered furniture, or cardboard boxes. If this occurs g the early
morning hours when most facilities are no, a small can quickly become a large uncontrolled
fire.

Shipment and Transmittal Evidence

When authorization is received to transfer evidence either to another laboratory for

further analysis or to opposing side for inspection, the evidence should be hand-delivered if at
all possible. Delivery by hand, ensures the property arrives at the correct destination and
intact. Once the item is transferred, a receipt should be signed to preserve the chain of custody.
If any destructive or invasive analysis has been conducted, this should be mentioned either on
the receipt or in a brief accompanying letter. Also include the names of persons-and the
companies which agree to the destructive or invasive testing.

45 WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 If the property is sent to laboratory for further analysis, a letter should be included
outfitting the scope of work to be performed. This is required so that the laboratory does not
accidentally alter or damage the property or conduct testing which is not requested.

When transferring evidence, a container should hold only the property involved in one
particular case. If evidence from more than one case is being shipped or transferred, these
items should be packaged separately.

Even before the property is shipped, a sequence of steps should be followed to protect
the investigator from accusations regarding the spoliation of the evidence. A photographic
survey of the items together as well as all the items individually will prove the items were not
altered and no invasive testing was performed. On. those rare occasions where the evidence did
have destructive or invasive testing performed include this in the letter accompanying the
items. Also, photograph the unsealed container with all the items placed in it, finally
photograph the sealed container.

Photographing and documenting the items during the packaging process is essential
when evidence is to be shipped through a mail or carrier service. When a laboratory or
investigator receives evidence, photographic survey of the property should be done as well as to
confirm that all the items are present and established the condition they are in upon arrival.

Always request a signed confirmation from the company receiving the package in order
to preserve the chain of custody. If the property is being shipped to another firm or company,
send a letter explaining that they now have custody of all the property retained by the
investigator for that specific case and they are now assuming all responsibility for these items.
Notification should be given to the receiving party outlining the inspections that have been
performed do date.

Preventing Evidence in Court

Some cases enter the litigation process and are settled while others go through the entire
process and are decided by a jury. In criminal cases, the time between the actual fire
investigation and the trial is usually less than in a civil case. Some exceptions may occur when a
number of arson cases over several months or years are linked together and the arsonist is
finally caught. Most times, however, because the constitution grants anyone indicted in a
criminal action the right to a speedy that criminal cases are processed relatively expeditious
compared to civil cases.

Civil cases commonly get bogged down in legalities and arguments which can leave the
case active fog years. There is also the possibility of hung juries and appeals which delay the
ultimate decision. In either case, it is very rare for the actual fire scene to remain preserved for
fie jury to inspect or examine.

46 WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 Consequently, photographs taken by an investigator at the scene, during any laboratory
examinations and in preparing the evidence to ship are critical in explaining the origin and
cause of the fire, and how these were determined.

A photograph may be introduced if it refutes the matter being questioned. If the

opposition states the first floor window lock was forced before the fire, photographs refuting
the claim can be introduced. Photograph of protected areas or items and components are often
admitted to determine the position of an item or component during the fire.

The second criterion needled for a photograph to be admitted into court-is that witness
identifying the photograph must be familiar with the portrayed scene. If the witness cannot
identify the location portrayed in the photograph, he or she will not be able to introduce the
photograph.

Finally, the evidentiary value of a photograph must supersede any effects of undue bias
or prejudice created by the photograph. For example, in cases involving fire deaths, a
photograph submitted to the j fay documenting the protected areas where the bodies of a
family were found may be allowed while photographs of the actual bodies may not be admitted.
By removing the most graphic items of a photograph, the injury can concentrate on the entire
photograph which may demonstrate that the window near the fire escape was nailed closed.

47 WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 E. ACTIVITIES/ EXERCISE

IDENTIFICATION

Direction: Identify the word or phrase that is being asked or described in each item.

1. A material generally used by arsonist to keep fireman out of a building, or in an

attempt to “kill” the odor of gasoline.

2. A term that describes the joint responsibility of fireman and fire investigators in
determining the cause and origin of fires.

3. It is the place where the fire started.

4. It is the inspection or movement of debris in an effort to discover concealed sparks,

embers, or flames that might rekindle the fire.

5. It is the room with the greatest damage.

6. It is the physical signs and substances that reveal, by implication, how a fire
developed.

7. It is the cracking of glass into smaller segments or subdivisions in an irregular

pattern.

8. It is the preparation of a written record of the investigator’s observation and

impressions at the crime scene.

9. It is the means, sanctioned by the rules on evidence, of ascertaining in a judicial

proceeding the truth respecting a matter of fact.

10. It is the location and security of an item of evidence from the time it is discovered at
the scene until it is introduced as evidence in court.

48 WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 POST-TEST

Discussions/Essay

Answer the following questions based on your readings in Module 4.

1. Discuss the importance of videography in fire/arson investigation.

2. Why is note taking important in fire/arson investigation?

3. Enumerate and discuss the sequence of documenting the fire scene.

4. Why are fire investigators required to maintain the chain of custody of evidence
whenever they conduct investigation?

5. Discuss the methods of isolating or concentrating accelerants from arsons debris.

49 WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 References
Published

Montanio, M.L et al. Module in Fire Technology and Arson Investigation.

Manila, Philippines: Mindshaper Co., Inc., 2010

Abaygar, Alejandre A. Fire Safety Handbook. Makati City, Philippines Bookmark,

Inc. 2000

Abis, P. et al. Fires in the Philippine Setting: Study of its Technology and
Investigate Techniques. Manila, Philippines: Philippine College of Criminology,
1986

Aguado, C.L. Basic Course in Fire Fighting. Bulacan, Philippines: FETI Printing
and Trading, 2000

De Joras, F.M. The Fire Code of the Philippines. Manila, Philippines: Fire Safety
Organization, Inc. 1972

Feria, Jose Y. Revised Rules on Evidence. Manila, Philippines: Central Law Book
Publishing Co., Inc. 1989

Soriano, Oscar G. Fire Technology and Arson Investigation with Related

Laws and Fire Code. Manila, Philippines: Great Books Publishing Co., Inc. 2011

Quintiere, J.G. Principles of Fire Behavior. Albany, New York: Delmar Publishing
Co., 1998

Redsicker, David R. and John J O’Connor Practical Fire and Arson

Investigation. New York: CRC Press, 1997.

Reyes, Luis. Revised Penal Code. Philippine: Rex Books Store 1998.

Sadili, V. M and Romeo L. Peña. Comprehensive Criminal Investigation. Manila,

Philippines: Cacho Hermanos, Inc., 1998

Tradio, C.M. Law Enforcement Philippine Criminal Justice System. Quezon

City, Philippines: Central Professional Books, 1997

Tradio, C.M. Handbook on Criminal Investigation. Quezon City, Philippines:

Central Law Book Publishing Co., Inc., 1992
 50 WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

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