1

INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATIVE
ACTIVITIES

A Communicative Activity is one which involves students in using the language to

express their ideas, emotions and feelings on a basis of a real context and real life
situations.

Communicative activities have real purposes or a reason to communicate such as finding

and exchanging information; it means that we usually talk in order to tell people things
they do not already know or to find out things from other people, i.e. we have a
‘communicative need’. In classroom activities we can create a similar need to
communicate by introducing an information gap or hiding information (some students
have information that others do not have) so there is a reason to talk.

Real context can be promoted by using real material like: a newspaper article, a radio
broadcast, a story, a letter, a recorded conversation between two people, a diary entry, a
video, an advertisement, a menu, a travel brochure etc.

CHARACTERISTICS.- An overall framework for communicative activities is that

student are called upon to: gather, exchange and produce information in English (Brown,
2014). They must have the following characteristics: Information gap, choice and
feedback.

Information gap.- An information gap exists when one person in an exchange knows
something the other person doesn’t, so true communication takes place to discover it.

Choice.- The speaker has an option to choose what to say and how to say it according to
the social context and the person to whom he/she is speaking to.
Feedback.- The real communication is purposeful. The speaker can realize if his purpose
has been achieved according to the answer he receives from
his listener. It is the reaction to what has been said that provides the necessary feedback
to get a really communicative exchange of information.

TYPES.- There are a variety of activities like these, but the most useful in the classroom
are those that students enjoy and let the teacher get good results in learning the language.
They are:

1) Controlled Communicative Activities such as: Information Gaps and Games. In

this type, the teacher designs the activity and shows the language students must
use to communicate their ideas.
2) Freer Communicative Activities such as: Projects, Role Plays and Debates. In this
type the teacher only provides clear guidelines but the students use the language
they want and need to make other people understand them
2
INFORMATION GAP ACTIVITIES
AND GAMES

INFORMATION GAP ACTIVITIES

Communication is a two way process: What A says helps B’s reply, which in turns
influences A’s answers and so on. However anyone never knows for sure what the other
is going to say exactly. Is this spontaneity and unpredictability of oral/aural
communications that is hard to simulate in the classroom. We can do this by hiding the
information, either from all the students or from some students, so that there is something
they need to find out. This is called an “information gap activity” which is designed to
take the students being able to handle more realistic communication (Richards &
Rodgers, 2001),

Conversation helps to close the gap

Information Gap

Information of Information of
Student A Student B

REAL COMMUNICATION

PROCESS

• At the beginning of an information gap activity, each pair of students is provided with
similar but different information, usually on handouts labeled A and B.
• They exchange information using relevant language, so that at the end they both have
the total amount of information.
• Students must not look at each other’s handout.

POINTS TO BEAR IN MIND

Careful preparation.- Students need to have a careful preparatory work to do this type
of activity successfully by giving controlled or freer practice of exponents of functions.
Pre-teaching of vocabulary.- Unfamiliar vocabulary should be taught beforehand in
order to ensure that the flow of the activity is not interrupted.

Clear instructions.- Students need training in the mechanics of the activity and they
should be clear to ensure all of them know what to do and know whether they have to jot
down and where.

Demonstration.- It is necessary to demonstrate a part of it to the whole class to provide a

clear model for all the students be able to work in their closed pairs.

Mixed ability.- Most teachers have large group of students with different aptitudes for
learning languages. There is no magic solution to this problem but this is a kind of
exercise that foster a cooperative atmosphere, the better students are encourage to help
the less competent ones.

The teacher’s role.- The teacher should quickly check that each pair is in fact doing the
activity. Circulate listening to samples of the oral work of as many pairs as possible.
Correction should be cut down to a minimum instead the teacher should make notes of
recurring error for later attention.

GAMES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM

Communicative games are based on the principle of the information gap (the speakers
normally must have a communicative purpose and the listeners are interested in
discovering what that purpose is). They can be used to improve the learners’ command
of a particular item or items of language: sounds, spelling, grammar or functions.

Doing a game includes play, fun, and cooperation. The aim is to have people relaxed and
enjoying themselves, acquiring language through natural use. Although the activity as a
whole is controlled by the teacher, the students are mainly asking questions that they want
to ask, not ones the teacher tells them to ask. They are effective because the learners are
so involved in playing the game that they do not realize that they are practicing language
items. Games can also introduce an element of competition into language activities which
according to Prasad (2003) provides a purposeful and meaningful use of language.
Indeed, the learners feel less afraid of using their English during game play.

The teacher will be able to manipulate a number of variables to vary the activity, such as
the grouping of participants and the rules under which they operate. Some activities could
be done in pairs (this involves the preparation of material in a greater scale). Sometimes
the teacher will want to divide them in groups (taking turns, sharing decisions). Or for
some activities he/she may want to divide the group into two sides (turning it into a
competition).

Teachers have to be aware of the effectiveness of games in learning the language. Most
students who have experienced game-oriented activities hold positive attitudes toward the
language (Brown, 2014). Investigations conducted by Huyen and Nga (2003) reported
that students learn better into the relaxed atmosphere, the competitiveness and the
motivation that games brought to the classroom; and the teachers accounted of how the
students seem to learn more quickly and retain the learned material.

The following guidelines are suggested to develop games:

a) Select the appropriate game.- The game should be practical and pedagogical, it
means according to: students’ levels, students’ age, and the language students
practice.
b) Explain the game carefully (Rules ).- Each game is governed by a set of rules which
the players must follow. It also implies to establish the time for it.

c) Provide adequate rehearsal.- This will be necessary the first time students play the
game so that they can do it successfully.

d) Monitor the students’ performance.- The students should feel free to consult you
when necessary but in general do not interfere with the game when it is in progress.

e) Keep a record.- This should cover what games they have done, how well they did
them and what their reaction were to them. You should also keep a note of any idea
to make variations on the games. It is also necessary to keep a record of scoring to
prize students to motivate their learning.
3
PROJECTS FOR LEARNING
ENGLISH

MAIN BASIS

A project is a kind of work extended beyond the classroom which involves students in
cooperative learning, not only with each other but also with the teacher. It is a relatively
large scale activity set up to gather, process, and report authentic information from the
outside world over a period of time.

A review of numerous studies about project work (Harris, 2014; Allen, 2004; Gu, 2004;
Ho, 2003;) reveals that it helps to bridge the gap between language study and language
use because it offers the student the opportunity to put into practice what has been learnt
through formal teaching. It also gives the opportunity of using the language skills already
acquired, in a situation which is new, challenging and real. The skills into this kind of
work are not treated in isolation but combined. When the project is under way students
use the skills simultaneously: Speaking and listening (e.g. in the interviews), writing
(taking notes) and reading (brochures, pamphlets, background material). In project work
students become responsible for their own learning, most of the time they select and
devise the project and the teacher will be working as a coordinator and consultant.

The length of time spent in a project will clearly depend on the amount of time available
and on the nature of the project which can be shortened or lengthened according to need.
The teacher may develop projects with children, young or adults bearing in mind that
what it is hoped is the depth of personal involvement in meaningful experience with the
following objectives:

➢ To encourage students to use language to learn something new about topics of interest.
➢ To expose students to content from a variety of informational sources to help them
improve their academic language and study skills.
➢ To ease learning.
➢ To provide students with contextualized resources for understanding language and
content.
➢ To promote students’ self-reliance and engagement with learning.

One way to maximize the potential benefits of project work is to pass it through certain
stages of development advocated by Nan Li (2015) and Diana Fried-Booth (2002-2015),
which are summarized below:

STAGES OF A PROJECT DEVELOPMENT

1. Agreement on the theme of the project. This is an initial discussion of the idea to
give students an opportunity to shape the project and develop some sense of shared
perspective and commitment.

2. Definition of the project objective and final outcome. Write down in negotiation with
the students a clear statement(s) of the purpose of the project. Then define what they
will obtain at the end. They can choose from a variety of options like: a written report,
letter, poster or bulletin board display, debate, oral presentation, information packet,
handbook, brochure, newspaper, magazine or video.

3. Structure the project. At this stage teacher and students need to structure the body
of the project. They have to establish what information is needed to complete the
project, how information can be obtained (e.g. a library search, interviews, letters,
faxes, e-mail, viewing on videos, etc.), as well as how the information will be
gathered, compiled and analyzed. What role each student will play in the evolution of
the project, in other words, who does what. Tasks could be assigned to students
individually or in small groups. Make sure that everyone understands their
responsibilities in developing the project.

4. Teacher prepares students for the language demands. The teacher needs to plan
language instruction activities predicting the language skills the students will need in
the different stages of the project. E.g. If the students are going to collect information
by means of interviews the teacher might plan exercises on question formation, set
aside time for role plays to provide feedback on pronunciation, allow students to
practice listening for data collection, and introduce a variety of language functions
(e.g. introductions, suggestions, asking for information, etc. And practice skimming
and note-taking with sample texts)

5. Carrying out the project. The students now move out of the classroom to perform
whatever task they have planned: Conducting interviews, making recordings,
gathering printed and visual material, reading something. It is important to remember
that at this stage they will be using all four skills –reading, writing, speaking and
listening – in a naturally integrated way.

6. Reviewing and monitoring the work. Collate information, probably in groups, in the
classroom. Reading of notes, explanation of visual material. This includes discussions
and feedback sessions, during the project, where the teacher will correct student’s
work and provide suggestions to complete it. It also involves group analysis of the
work and self-monitoring by the participants.

7. Students present the final product. The way of presentation will depend largely on
the form of the end product –chart, booklet, video display, report or oral presentation.
4
ROLE PLAYS IN AN EFL
CLASSROOM

Students need to learn not only linguistic and sociolinguistic knowledge but also how to
use speaking strategies to keep conversations going. Through role plays students can
improve their oral production since it maximizes individual language use.

A Role play is a way of bringing situations from real life into the classroom. When a role
play is developed, students are asked to imagine:

✓ a role: in other words, they pretend to be a different person (e.g. a farmer, a secretary,
a friend, a customer)
✓ a situation: in other words, they pretend to be doing something different (e.g. planning
a holiday, asking for information, buying something)
(Pitts, 2015)

The roles that would be suitable for role play activities in the classroom are: People
familiar to students, characters from the textbooks or from television, situations which
students see or take part in everyday life or fantasy situations from stories they read.

REASONS WHY YOU SHOULD USE ROLE PLAYS IN THE CLASSROOM

1. A wide range of functions can be brought into the classroom as we as any kind of
structure. Students can practice small talk.
2. Role plays can be useful dress rehearsal for real life. Students learn how interactions
might take place in a variety of situations. For example: if students expect to be
interviewed for a foreign study program, role plays can give them the opportunity to
practice what they will say.
3. Role plays help shy students by providing them with a mask. They can increase their
self-esteem.
4. Role plays are fun. Kids love them and so do teachers.
5. They improve classroom camaraderie. Doing a play bring the students closer.

ROLE PLAYS BASED ON DIALOGUES

Role play can often be based on a dialogue or text from a text book. Use in this way, it
gives students a chance to use the language they have practiced in a more creative way.

When they are speaking a dialogue in a role play the teacher must make sure that they
look at the person they are addressing and encourage them to use natural expressions and
intonation, as well as gestures and not only reading a dialogue aloud. Basic steps to follow
are:
• Drill the dialogue
• Write prompts on the board and go through them.
• After practicing the dialogue, demonstrate it with two students to the front.
• Ask students to improvise similar dialogues. The form of questions and answers can
be slightly different from the original dialogue. They should think of new, things,
places, prizes, events.
• Set a time limit.
• Ask students to perform.

ROLE PLAYS BASED ON SITUATIONS

The teacher will establish the situation from the beginning. The more familiar a role or
situation is, the easier it will be. The situation is fixed, but the students are allowed to use
any language they want as the conversation goes along (e.g. a group of students imagine
they are friends planning a holiday. They try to decide where to go and what to do). A
careful preparation would be necessary when using situations which go beyond the
textbook:

• Establish the situation.

• Discuss what the speaker might say. Write prompts on the board.
• Go through them one by one helping students to give sentences or questions for each
one to guide the role play.
• Let students organize the conversation based on those prompts and practice it.
• Set a time limit
• Ask students to perform
5
USING VIDEO IN THE CLASSROOM

Videos are very helpful to teach English because they show students how people behave
in the culture whose language they are learning by bringing into the classroom a wide
range of communicative situations. They provide a ready-made context for the
presentation of new vocabulary, structures and functions as well as a stimulus for
speaking getting students to use the English they have learned in talking about it
(Sherman, 2003).

Videos help comprehension because of the visuals students are exposed to, the speakers
can be seen, so that their movements, gestures and response give clues to make the
meaning clear, they also illustrate relationships in a way that is not possible with words
only.

The success of using a video depends on methods and techniques and on the kind of
activities the teacher offers the class. We have to choose material according to the level
and interest of our students so that they feel engaged in it.

HOW TO SELECT AND USE VIDEOS

Adequate preparation of a video is necessary to promote an active viewing and facilitate

successful language acquisition.

• Be familiar with the video materials before they are used in class.
• Have a clear aim in mind so that students are told what is to be learned and what will
be expected of them.
• Design tasks to get students involved in a meaningful way.
• Prepare viewing guides according to the students’ language level.
• Be sure that the video grabs your students’ interest in the language and culture and
make them want to learn.
• Analyze if the content is age-appropriate
• Be aware that the video matches your instructional goals, the content is something
with which the students are familiar, the rate of the spoken language is adequate for
your students, the dialogues are easy to understand, and the segment that will be
shown is not too long
• Prepared the students beforehand to understand what they are going to watch.
• Set what part(s) of the video will be used.
• At least one follow-up activity should be designed for each lesson to develop
creativity and self-expression.
• Show short segments each time.
• Supply pre-viewing, viewing and post-viewing activities.

GIDELINES FOR DEVELOPING VIDEO LESSONS

When teachers are planning a video lesson, they should try to think of it in three parts, so
that they can get very well organized activities in the process of English teaching. There
are a variety of activities a teacher can attempt in each one of them.

PRE-VIEWING
• Introduce the topic (charts, comments, questions, discussions, etc.). Provide students
with background knowledge that will help them to understand the film.
• Give students the topic of the video. Have them predict what images/words they
expect to see/hear.
• Brainstorm the topic to find out what students know.
• Review vocabulary.
• Give students the dialogue they will hear (with some words taken out) and ask them
to guess what words are missing.
• Check items that they may see during the broadcast (provide a list).
• Create dialogues.

VIEWING
• Listen and recall
• Extend the dialogue
• Mute the sound during the scene and ask students to create dialogues.
• Develop closed activities where students fill in the blanks with words.
• Information gap activities where half the class watches the clip (no sound) and the
other half only listens – then the students try to reconstruct the scene by talking to
members of the other group.
• Students are assigned a character in the segment and must write what is happening to
them, what their feelings are, what they plan to do, etc.
• Ask students to watch the video and tell how many characters there are and their
names if possible.
• Write key questions on the board and ask students to keep them in mind as they watch,
to answer them in oral or in written.
• Prepare true-false questions about a scene for students to answer.
• Give simple sentences but out of order.
• Provide key phrases from the video with few which are not in it and summaries with
incorrect detail for students to correct.
• Give students the dialogue they will hear with some words taken out and ask them to
complete what words are missing.
• Check the number of times: students hear a word, see an object, someone does an
action, etc.
• Predict the next scene.

POST-VIEWING

• Make students role play a scene.

• Have them work in pairs, one will be an interviewer and the other will pretend to be
a character in the film or the actor that plays that character.
• Ask students to recall the previous episode and speculate on what will happen in the
next act. Then they watch and see if they were right (the teacher can help them by
giving alternatives to choose from).
• Students can write or act a new ending for the scene.
• The teacher prepares a list of key points that support a particular position in the video
and then uses this as a starting point for discussion.
• If the teacher wants the students express their own opinions, it is better to compose a
list of questions to guide and focus the discussion. Students jot down the key point
that emerge from the discussion and use these for summarizing the ideas discussed.
• The students can develop further research, group projects, draw a picture of a scene
from the video or make a summary telling the story.
• The teacher can prepare scenes with empty speech bubbles and students write what
the characters said.
• Have students write a dialogue similar to the one they saw and heard and make them
role play a similar scene.
• Write a summary or say it in another way.

SOME TECHNIQUES FOR USING VIDEOS

Jamie Keddie, Jo Budden, Teaching English guest writers from the British Council
(2014), Larry Ferlazzo and Katie Hull (2012) and Harmer (2007) among others have
suggested different types of techniques to be used. However here we are mentioning only
some of them we consider good ones to be applied in any of the stages to build up video
lesson.

1. Active Viewing

The aim is to give students a reason to watch the video and let them take an active part in
watching the video. It is suitable to leave the lights on so that it will be less likely to get
restless or fall asleep and also for doing the specific tasks given to students.

2. Freeze framing and prediction

Freeze framing means stopping the picture on the screen by pressing the pause button.
This method is used when the teacher wants to teach words and expressions regarding
mood and emotions, to identify body language, to ask questions about a particular scene
or to call students’ attention to some specific point.

To fire students’ imagination, it would be a good idea to pause at a certain point of the
video and get the students to predict what will happen next, or to deduce further
information about the characters and ask what the person in the video said or predict what
is going to be said.

3. Vision on / Sound Off

Sound and vision are separated components in a video. The teacher plays the video
segment without sound and use silent viewing as a way of arousing students’ interest and
stimulation.
Make students observe the behavior of the characters to use their powers of deduction to
talk about what happen, predict what characters’ relationships are to each other, what they
are saying or doing, etc. After replay the video segment with the sound on so that students
can compare their impressions.

4. Repetition and role-play

The aim of this technique is to help students understand their own behavior and to be
more able to respond in a positive way to any human relationship. Role play involves
students as active participants, asking them to act out a scene using as much as the original
version they can remember. The following activities are important:

If there are some difficult language points in the video unit, closely controlled repetition
is a necessary step before acting. The teacher should replay a scene in the video with
certain pauses for repetition either individually or in chorus. When they become confident
with role playing and are sure of vocabulary and structures, the teacher can ask them to
improvise the scene to fit their views of the situation and the characters they are playing.

5. Follow up tasks

Follow up tasks should build on the language and/or topic the students have been
watching, immediately after the video or in the next lesson. Follow up activities are the
basis for further extended oral or written practice. They can be developed in pairs, or in
groups.

6
USING SONGS IN THE CLASSROOM

WHY TO USE SONGS IN THE CLASSROOM?

The lyrics of popular songs make interesting language texts to use in the classroom. They
can perform different functions in language teaching:

• They can serve as an incentive for speaking English in class because they are marked
by the richness of content, poetical metaphors, and symbols which emotionally reflect
the world we live in. Students can discuss a single song, the repertoire of a group as
well as different musical trends.

• Songs can motivate a positive emotional approach to language learning because they
can inspire the student to express his/her attitude towards what she has heard.

• They are invaluable tools to develop students’ abilities in listening, speaking, reading
and writing

• They can be used to teach a variety of language items such as sentence patterns,
grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, intonation, rhythm, stress, functions, the target
culture; and colloquial speech of the language.
• Songs can be used to supplement a textbook, and provide an enjoyable classroom
atmosphere. Students who usually are tense when speaking English in a formal
classroom setting, have fun learning and are very relaxing.

• Students make connections to people, places and events in their lives as a springboard
for conversation; and they will retain information better.
ACTIVITIES USING SONGS

When the teacher uses song as the chief material for teaching, it is necessary to go through
the language tasks with the students using the lyrics of the song (the words of the song).

1. Song dictation

The purpose of this activity is to sharpen students’ listening ability, learning the
pronunciation of shortened forms (I’m, I’ve ...), distinction between long and short
vowels (/i/ /i:/), which are missed from a hand out that the teacher prepares with the song.

First students are asked to go through the lyrics and try to guess the missing words. Then
the teacher explains difficult words and lets students read the lyrics. Then students can
listen to the song three times: the first time purely listening and trying to work out what
the missing words are, the second time filling in the gaps, and the third time checking to
confirm whether the answers are correct or not. After that students practice pronunciation
of the words through further listening and singing with the tape.

This kind of activity is used to learn and practice any part of the language, the teacher can
decide which language items she wants to practice (vocabulary, adjectives, pronouns,
verbs, and so on) and delete appropriate words from the lyrics.

2. Song reading

This activity aims at developing the students’ ability to comprehend the literal meaning
of the song and at the same time analyze the hidden message. It’s suitable for advanced
students and can be done in groups.

First the teacher gives students hand out sheets with the entire lyrics and with a set of
comprehension questions based on the surface understanding of the song. Then the
teacher plays the song to the students and gives them some time to do the silent reading,
and work out the answers in groups to generate more conversation in English. The teacher
then discusses the answers with students and focuses on the development of the story in
the song, in this opportunity drawing their attention not only to the surface meaning of
the song but also to the message it carries.

3. Split songs

This activity provides an opportunity for students to improve their comprehension ability.
It may be done in groups to promote interaction among students.

The teacher, first, identifies several stanzas (paragraphs) and divides each sentence of the
stanza in two parts, then she jumbles the order of the second half of the sentences and
students are required to restore them. Before doing the exercise it is necessary to go
through the difficult vocabulary. After completed the exercise the students look at the
entire lyrics to check their answers. Then they listen and sing the song.

4. Word portraits

This activity attempts to stimulate students’ imagination through construction of a story

based on the words given to them.

The teacher first presents isolated words taken from a stanza (paragraph) of the song.
Explains difficult vocabulary and demonstrates how a story can be made up. Then the
teacher asks students to develop their own stories based on the words taken from one
stanza. It may be done in groups, each one of them writing a story and when they finish,
present their work to other groups. At the end the teacher lets students compare what they
have written with the story described in the song by handing out the lyrics and playing
the song to them.

5. Song discussion

The aim of this activity is forming speech skills while discussing the songs under
consideration. The task should be done in seven-step sequence:

1. Presenting to the students of pre-listening tasks.

2. Listening to the song.
3. Students answers the pre-listening questions. (e.g. What is the song about? What
feelings does it evolve?
4. Post-listening tasks. (e.g. Who is the lead vocal? Whose image is created in the song?
What kind of love is depicted in the song? Is the love story told with emotion or
detachment?
5. Presentation of the typed text of the song lyrics.
6. Second listening to the song.
7. Discussion of the song. (e.g. students are involved in a discussion of problematic
questions: Some people say that this kind of music promotes juvenile delinquency, or
suicide. Do you agree? Is this kind of music a passing phenomenon? What do you
think are the main qualities of this kind of singers?

Follow Up Work

It is necessary to bear in mind that students need to develop follow up work to get
successful language learning.

There are different activities to engage students in creative tasks:

- Ask students to place themselves into different roles related to the characters in the
song to do a particular task (e.g. write a letter from one another, write a story about
some possible events in the song, write a composition to tell the reader something
about a situation in the song)

- They may also work in groups to write a conversation between the main characters of
the song. Students can express freely their ideas in the construction of the dialogue,
each telling one another their interests, background, plans for the future, and so on.
FURTHER ACTIVITIES

There are some other practical suggestions that the teachers can try with the students using
songs:

• Make a collage to illustrate the song and talk about it.

• Students can translate the song to Spanish. The Teacher goes back through the song
in English and reads the Spanish and the teacher and students confirm or correct the
meaning.
• Make questions using the text of the song.
• Fill in the blanks focusing in certain grammar point.
• Change the tense of all of the verbs in the song.
• Jigsaw dictation. Each student has a part of the song and they have to read it aloud to
the group.
• Have students go to the internet and bring up their favorite singer and bring in a
biography for reading activities.
• Take the chorus or a verse of any song, remove all words except for the first word at
the beginning of each sentence. Ask students to complete the sentences with their own
ideas.
• Play games with the words on the songs, like bingo. Write the words on the board and
have each student fill in their own card randomly using vocabulary from a song. Using
the music on tape, students must identify the song or vocabulary on the card.
 1
MOTIVATING EFL LEARNERS

MOTIVATION

Classroom management refers to the way teachers organize what goes on in the
classroom. As the mediator person in the classroom, the teacher has the opportunity to
influence the kind of interaction that goes on in the class and this interaction is created
from a combination of related factors. The goal of classroom management is to create an
atmosphere that put the students at ease, builds their confidence and is conducive to
progress in learning English.

The coming topics will help the teachers to identify important things they have to bear in
mind to deal with different issues in the classroom; and exploit ideas that make learning
more interesting and effective.

Motivation is a central topic in any pedagogical theory since it is not possible to think of
learning without motivation, in fact students’ learning potential increase; they invest more
and make a greater effort when they are well motivated.

The comments below show the views on motivation from different researchers:

Acquisition can only occur in the presence of certain affective conditions: i.e., the learner
is motivated, self-confident, and has a low level of anxiety (Krashen in Glisan and
Shrum’s, 2000). If the learners are willing to persevere in a learning task and eager to
drive themselves to do something or act in a certain way to get goals, they are well
motivated to invest in the learning process.

“Motivation is a topic that can mean the difference between success and failure in the
classroom”. (Ormrod Jeanne, 2011)

“It is difficult to imagine anyone learning a language without some degree of motivation”
(Hall, 2011)

“Motivation is a psychological construct that refers to the desire and incentive that an
individual has to engage in a specific activity” (Loewen and Reinders, 2011:119)

Motivation in L2 is affected by individual attitudes and willingness to engage in the

language learning process (Gardner, 2010).

Some students seem naturally enthusiastic about learning a language but unfortunately
many others study English compulsorily, only because it is part of the curriculum in the
schools, and they only want to pass the exams. On the other hand all students possess
positive and negative attitudes in varying degrees (Brown, 2014). So they need or expect
their teachers to inspire, challenge and stimulate them.

TYPES OF MOTIVATION

There are different types of motivation that have been presented along different
researches. Ryan and Deci (2000) referred to intrinsic and extrinsic motivation; while as
stated by Gardner (2010), it can be instrumental and integrative.

Intrinsic motivation comes from internal sources, that is, from within the learners
themselves which push them for engaging in a learning activity.
We speak of intrinsic motivation when something is done to satisfy one’s interest. It
comes from inside the learners because they want to get a job, pass a test, travel, do what
their parents want or simply because they want to pass the year.

Extrinsic motivation draws from external sources, it means that it comes from outside
the learner. Extrinsic motivation arises when the person is moved for external forces like
doing activities where they are personally engaged, when what they are learning is
relevant and useful for their lives; when the relationship with the teacher and fellow
students is good. It is closely related to the materials and methods of teaching as well as
to the constraints and rewards for the learner in the classroom.

Integrative Motivation is the desire to identify with and integrate into the target culture.
It arises when the learners have positive attitudes toward speakers of the target language
and possibly integrating into that group, when they have a strong interest in that culture
and the desire to meet native speakers and interact with them.

Instrumental Motivation refers to functional considerations for learning a language and

it is connected with the advantages that a learner can get by learning the language, for
example to complete a graduation requirement or career promotion.

It is important to be aware that the four motivation types are not mutually exclusive.
Someone can have all four motivation types simultaneously and become a successful
learner.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT MOTIVATION

To determine what makes classes or the learning of a foreign language more or less
motivating it is necessary to bear in mind that many variables are involved because we
are dealing with complex social and psychological aspects of human behavior, for
example:

Interest – Generally we have found that students don’t like English because they did not
find any relation between English and their own lives. They did not think that English
would be useful in their future, so they felt that they spent too much time learning boring,
unpleasant and difficult things.

Clear goals – Goal setting is extremely important to motivation and success. Normally
learners need a reason to invest by their own to learn.
The students’ ability to learn a second language – It can be influenced by their attitudes
toward the target language, the target language speaker and their culture. Negative
attitudes toward the foreign language, which often comes from stereotypes and superficial
contact with the target culture, can impede the learning of the language. On the contrary,
positive attitudes towards them increase language learning success.

Self-confidence and self-esteem – Some students think they are not able to do something.
It seems likely that students who have experience failure in learning relate it with their
own inabilities which cause them to have low self-esteem of their future success in
learning which may, in turn, lead to low risk taking and other behaviors that are negative.

Lack of good methodology – Students loose motivation when the teacher’s methodology
is bored or passive

Good relationship between teacher and learners – Mihalas, et al. (2009) argue that
teachers who do not create warm and trustful atmosphere in the classroom cannot create
favorable attitudes toward learning.

MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES

In order to motivate the students, teachers must first find out what is going on with them
emotionally and academically. What are their feeling, wants, desires and expectations.
Finding the students’ likes and dislikes with regard to English class and communication
is one of the major goals to have a smooth running class.

Both teachers and students have different belief about learning and expectation of the
class. Communication between them about these expectations should be open. We must
listen to our students and let them know which of their expectations can be fulfilled in the
class and which cannot. These are some ideas you can agree with them.

- They should work on the content of the course and the degree of difficulty.
- How the teacher will teach (Methodology to be used in class)
- What the teacher expects from the students depending on the way of teaching.
- How the teacher will behave in class.
- How the students should behave in class.
- Amount of homework
- Self-expectations of aptitude for learning a language.

• Introduce variety – Teachers should use a new approach in teaching the language
that allows learners to work out topics that are interesting and relevant to their lives.
Lessons should include meaningful situations: language games, contests, role plays,
brainstorming, debates, case studies, discussions, audio visual presentations, small
group work, etc. Assignments to talk about things related to their own experiences,
comments about love and so forth. They could also talk about things that had really
happened to them. When possible let students to choose which topics they want to
explore. Be aware of the different learning styles and multiple intelligences to
introduce variety.

• Enhance the English classroom atmosphere – Make students feel confident to take
the risk, they are motivated when they see themselves as capable individuals and when
 they live in a secure environment. Permit them to fail without penalty, so that they
can learn from their mistakes. Enhance positive emotions; make something fun,
exciting, happy, loving, be aware that when the learning is accompanied by strong
emotions the learners remember better. On the other hand improve the classroom
atmosphere with advertisements, warnings, posters, bulletin boards, pictures, puppets,
drawings and photos, when the students are surrounded by items that resemble the
culture of the target language, they feel the sense of learning the language.

• Use stimulating material – Students learn better when they are dealing with
materials adapted at their level, with topics that enhance their interest. So, teachers
should create an interesting learning class, taking into account what the students want
to communicate; and exploiting entertainment material such as: games, songs, videos,
jokes and cartoons.

• Local or international news should be given to the class in the target language –
It is much better if the students already know the information or at least the headlines
in their mother tongue, because it is possible to introduce some lexical items whose
meaning may be inferred from the context. The headlines are expanded as students
express their opinions.

• Make students use English in class – Require the learners ask about something they
do not understand, they do not know, or they want to know in English.

• Avoid language barriers – Such as things that are too difficult for the learners,
activities that are too long without any methodological variation, and giving exams
that are too demanding.

• Reward learners’ performance – Everyone likes the feeling of accomplishment and

recognition; rewards for students’ effort produce those good feelings. Teachers can
give them: a piece of gum, sweets, grades, claps from their classmates, encouraging
words, etc. as possible.

• Provide care – Students respond with interest and motivation to teachers who appear
to be human and caring, so that they can see them as friends not as an authority. Share
with them not only your professional experiences but your personal life experiences;
and let them know that you care about them by being interested in their concerns and
goals.

• Have students participating – One of the major keys of motivation is to have

students involved in their own learning. Maintain them helping decide what to do,
assisting the teacher, working with each other or getting physically involved in the
lesson. They should be responsible for producing something rather than to stay just
sitting passively. Students love to be needed.

• Show enthusiasm and energy – Teachers should be enthusiastic and energetic in

providing teaching. If teachers become bored or apathetic, students will too in
learning. Typically, a teacher’s enthusiasm comes from confidence, excitement and
true knowledge about the content and genuine pleasure in teaching.
• Get Feedback from the students about their expectations – Have students respond
to Open Ended Statements where they must finish the sentences. At least two times a
week, during the last 3-5 minutes of class. Prepare them in extra pieces of paper and
ask them to answer.
For example:
1. In class I generally like …………..
2. In class I don’t like …………..
3. Today in class I liked …………..
4. In class I want ………….
5. In class I don’t want………….
6. In class the teacher should ………….

When the students are finished they give it to the teacher without their names. He/she
will analyze them later in order to improve related issues in the classroom.
 5
LEARNING STYLES

OVERVIEW OF LEARNING STYLES

Even though there are authors who disagree with the existence of learning styles, there
are others who defend them and they have become very popular in educational contexts.

Generally, they are defined as different approaches or ways of learning. A learning style
is an internal characteristic of individuals for the understanding of new information
(Pritchard, 2009). Oxford (2001) describes a learning style as the way in which a person
perceives, conceptualizes and recalls information.

People learn differently because of their biological and psychological differences, as well
as to their educational and cultural background. This is why some people may rely on
visual presentations, others may like spoken language, or others may respond better to
hands-on activities.

Learning styles have more to do with our five senses. We can learn about things from
seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, and smelling (the traditional five senses). Language
learning styles are obviously more clearly related to seeing and hearing but let's not forget
touching. Taste and smell, to a lesser degree, can also be used to learn things. The point
is that we tend to favour one of these five senses as a primary learning style. A person
who has a very keen ability to recognize (identify) voices can use hearing, for example
as his/her primary language learning style. This does not mean that he/she does not use
his/her visual learning style. This person certainly does use it, but his/her audio learning
style is more prominent.

We as teachers need to recognize that each student does not learn in the same way. This
means that if the teacher chooses just one style of teaching (direct instruction,
collaborative learning, inquiry learning, etc.), the students will not be maximizing their
learning potential. Some researches and methodologists argue that if the learning styles
are matched with appropriate approaches in teaching, the students’ motivation,
performance and achievements will increase and be enhanced. Furthermore if the teacher
identifies a student’s learning style and provides appropriate instruction based on it, she
will contribute to more effective learning, and it can make us more-aware of our students’
strengths and weakness in learning.

Also, teachers should respect learners’ preferences and encourage their development,
while at the same time creates opportunities for students to practice with different ways
of learning and creating optimal learning environments. Certainly, students learn better
and more quickly if the learning methods used match they preferred learning style
(Pritchard, 2009). Obviously, a teacher cannot reach every student on the same level
during one lesson, but implementing a variety of learning styles throughout the course
allows all the students will have the chance to learn in at least one way that matches their
learning style. So, the teachers are called to identify the styles of learning that domain in
their classrooms, so that they can design appropriate teaching tasks, so that students who
have become bored with learning may become interested once again.

TYPES OF LEARNING STYLES

All learners can learn and process information in different ways. Below are the most
common learning styles related with our senses: Visual, Auditory and Kinaesthetic
Learners.

VISUAL LEARNERS: learn through seeing...

The most common characteristics are:

• Learners need to see the teacher's body language and facial expression to understand
the information.
• They learn best using diagrams, illustrated text books, overhead transparencies,
sketches, realia, photographs, flipcharts, hand-outs, graphic organizers, and flash
cards.
• Prefer to take detailed notes during a lecture or classroom discussion, to soak up the
information.
• They remember instructions best if they see them how it was set out on a page, for
example on a concept map, by listing key points.

AUDITORY LEARNERS: learn through listening...

The most common features are:

• They learn best through verbal lectures, discussions.

• They solve problems by talking about them and listening to what others have to say.
• They need the teacher to provide verbal instructions to understand.
• They comprehend and learn better from reading text aloud and using a tape recorder.
• They use rhythm and sound as memory aids like; audio tapes and videos, storytelling,
songs, jazz chants, memorization and drills.

KINAESTHETIC LEARNERS: learn through moving, doing, touching...

The most common characteristics are:

• They learn best through a hands-on approach when they are physically involved or
can actively participate.
• They may find it hard to sit still for long periods and may become distracted by their
need for activity and exploration.
• They like moving around when they learn and they also like a variety of classroom
activities such as: Use board and card games, demonstrations, projects, role plays.