Physics Principles for

Nuclear Cardiology

E. LINDSEY TAUXE MEd

DIVISION OF CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE
UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA AT BIRMINGHAM
Atomic and Nuclear Emissions

Î Atomic and Nuclear Transitions

Î Atomic Structure / Emissions
Î Nuclear Structure / Emissions
Î Radioactive Decay
Î Interactions with Matter
Atomic and Nuclear
Components
Bohr Model of the Atom

Nucleus (Protons & Neutrons)

Orbiting Electrons

Electron shells or energy

levels (K, L, M shown)

Outer Electron shell (N)

is unoccupied
Atomic Energy Level Diagram

Free
Electron
N
M
Binding
L Energy
Increases
(eV or keV)
K
Ground state
Atomic Shells
Principal # Electrons Shell
Quantum # n (2 n2) Name

1 2 K
2 8 L
3 18 M
4 32 N
5 50 O
6 72 P
Maximum # of electrons / shell = 2n2
where n = shell #
Basic Atomic and Nuclear
Physics
Atoms
• Atomic Emissions
– Characteristic x-rays K-shell
vacancy
occur when an inner
shell electron is
ejected, and it’s
vacancy is filled by
another electron

Characteristic
x-ray
Basic Atomic and Nuclear
Physics
Atoms
• Atomic Emissions
– Auger Effect is an K L
alternative to
Characteristic X-rays
• occurs when the
energy produced
from filling vacancy K L
is transferred to
another electron
• called an Auger
Electron Auger Effect

Auger Electron
Atomic and Nuclear Emissions

Î Atomic and Nuclear Transitions

Î Atomic Structure / Emissions
Î Nuclear Structure / Emissions
Î Radioactive Decay
Î Interactions with Matter
Nuclear Structure

a Nucleus composed of protons + neutrons

a Atomic Number (Z) = # of protons (determines element)

a Atomic Mass (A) = # of protons and neutrons

a Neutron Number (N) = A - Z

A 131
a Element ‘X’ represented as I
Z N , e.g. I
53 78
Nuclear Families - Definition
a Isotopes - nuclides composed of the same number of
protons (125
53
I, 131I, 127I)
53 53
a Isotones - nuclides with the same number of neutrons
(131
53
I, 132Xe, 133Cs)
54 55
a Isobars - nuclides with the same atomic mass A
(131I, 131Xe, 131Cs)
53 54 55
a Isomers - nuclides in different excited / metastable
states (99mTc, 99mTc)
Basic Atomic and Nuclear
Physics
Nucleus
• Nuclear Forces
– Nucleons are Subject to Coulombic forces
and Exchange Forces
– When These Forces are Equal the Nuclide
is Called Stable or Ground State
– When these Forces are not Balanced, then
• Exited State - very unstable and transient
• Metastable State - unstable but longer lived
also called Isomeric States
Nuclear Energy Level Diagram
0.8
0.722
0.667
0.6 0.637
Relative Depends on
Energy 0.4 0.404 orientation on
0.364 nucleons
(MeV) 0.341
0.2
0.164
0.080 (metastable)
0.0
Ground State

Note: At the nuclear level, energy levels are typically

in the order of MeV rather than eV or keV
Nuclear Emissions
a Decay by β-emission with / without γ -emission (β -, γ )
a
99Mo → 99mTc
a Isomeric Transition (IT) or Internal Conversion (IC)
a
99mTc → 99 Tc

a Electron Capture and γ emission (EC, γ )

a
201Tl → 201Hg*
a * Hg characteristic x-rays
a Positron decay and γ emission (β +, γ )
a Decay by α emission or nuclear fission
Decay by β - Emission

Î Neutron converted into

Proton + Electron + neutrino + Energy
Î Proton remains in nucleus – increases Z by 1
Î Electron and neutrino ejected from nucleus
Î The transition energy is shared between
electron and neutrino

n Æ p + e (β-) + ν + energy
Decay by β - Emission
Decay Scheme for 14C
14
6C

β−
Transition energy,
Q = 0.156 Mev

14
Increasing Atomic Number, Z 7N
Basic Atomic and Nuclear
Physics
Radioactive Decay

• (β −, γ) Decay
– If the β − results in an unstable daughter, the
daughter
β- will likely decay by emitting a
γ - ray
γ A
• AX
Z
→ Z+1Y*
A →Z+1
Y
Decay by β− and γ -ray
Emission
ν
_
γ

β-

_
nÆp+e (β-) + ν + γ + energy
Basic Atomic and Nuclear
Physics
Radioactive Decay

• Isomeric Transition (IT) and Internal

Conversion (IC)
– if daughter is long lived a metastable state
occurs called Isomeric Transition
• gamma ray emission occurs
– if nulceus transfers energy to an electron,
then Internal Conversion occurs
• conversion electron is emitted
Decay by Isomeric Transition

Decay of metastable (isomeric) state to

ground state with emission of γ -ray
Decay by Isomeric Transition
99mTc 0.140 MeV

Transition
energy,
γ
Q = 0.140 Mev

99Tc
0 MeV

Decay scheme for 99mTc

Decay by Internal Conversion

Internal Conversion
Transition energy transferred
to an orbiting electron (usually
K-shell)

Conversion electron emitted

with energy equal to γ -ray
energy minus binding energy
of K-shell.
Ee = Eγ - EK
Basic Atomic and Nuclear
Physics
Radioactive Decay
99Mo → 99Tc
Decay by Electron Capture

Characteristic x-ray

e + p Æ n + ν + energy (EC)
e + p Æ n + ν + γ + energy (EC,γ )
Decay by Electron Capture
γ -ray emission
Decay Scheme for 125I
125
53 I

EC
Transition
energy,
0.035 MeV Q = 0.177 Mev
γ
0 MeV
125
52 Te Decreasing Atomic Number, Z
Basic Atomic and Nuclear Physics
Radioactive Decay
201Tl → 201Hg
Decay by Positron(β+)Emission

β+

p Æ n + e (β+) + ν + energy
Annihilation Reaction
Positron (β+) and an Electron (β-)

Positron collides with an

electron. Both are converted
to energy (E=mc2), resulting
in the emission of 2 gamma
rays, each of energy 511 keV
and emitted in opposing
directions (~180o)
Decay by Positron(β+)Emission
Decay Scheme for 18F
18 F
9
Note: 18F can also
decay by Electron
Capture
Transition
energy,
Q = 1.655 Mev
Eβmax = 0.633 MeV

18 O
8
Decreasing Atomic Number, Z
Decay by α- emission

In alpha-particle emission, 2 protons and 2 neutrons

are ejected from the nucleus

A X
Z ⇒ A -4Z-4Y + α

226 Ra
88 ⇒ 2 2286Rn + 22He

Only occurs in elements with high atomic mass

Atomic and Nuclear Emissions
Î Basic Definitions
Î Atomic and Nuclear Transitions
Î Atomic Structure / Emissions
Î Nuclear Structure / Emissions
Î Radioactive Decay
Î Interactions with Matter
Radioactive Decay
Definition

A process by which an unstable nucleus transforms

into a more stable one by emitting particles and / or
photons and releasing energy.

Terminology

Parent nucleus = the unstable nucleus

Daughter nucleus = the more stable product
Transition energy Q = energy released
Units of Radioactivity
Definitions

Curie (Ci) 1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations / sec

1 mCi = 3.7 x 107 disintegrations / sec

Becquerel (Bq) 1 Bq = 1 disintegration / sec

= 2.7 x 10-11 Ci

Conversion Factors
1 mCi = 37 megaBecquerels (MBq)
1 MBq = 27 μCi
The Decay Constant
Decay Constant (λ)

Fraction of the atoms undergoing radioactive decay

per unit time (during a time period that is so short,
only a small fraction decay during that interval)

For a sample of N radioactive atoms, the average

decay rate dN/dt is given by

dN/dt = -λN
Radioactive Decay
Law of Decay

Decay is an exponential function of

time

Nt = No e (- λt)

where Nt = number of atoms at time t

and No = number of atoms at time 0
λ = decay constant
The Decay Factor
Decay Factor (e -λt)
Fraction of the atoms remaining after time t

For a sample of N radioactive atoms, the remaining

atoms left after .25 hours is

e–(.1151)(.25hr) = .972
N(15’) = N (0) e(- λt)
= 30 (.972)
= 29.16
Radioactive Decay
Definitions

Half-life: Sometimes called Physical Half-life.

Time required for activity to decay to 50% of
its initial value.
Radioactive Decay
Physical Half-Life

1 .0
Decay curve with
0 .9
T1/2 = 4 hours
0 .8

0 .7

0 .6
Activity

0 .5

0 .4

0 .3

0 .2

0 .1

0 .0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

T im e - H o u r s
Radioactive Decay
The Physical Half-Life (T1/2 or T) is the time required for the
number of atoms to decrease by half. The relationship
between the Decay Constant λ, and Half-Life T
is given below

At t = T, Activity = 0.5 x Initial Activity

i.e. N / N0 = 0.5, or
0.5 = e- λ T1/2
∴ loge(0.5) = -λT1/2 , or
-0.693 = - λT1/2
∴ λ = 0.693 / T1/2
or T1/2 = 0.693 / λ
Physical Half-Life (T1/2)
Decay Constant (λ) NC Radionuclides

Radionuclide T1/2 λ

Tc-99m 6 hr 0.1151 hr-1

Mo-99 2.79 d 0.248 d-1
Tl-201 3.08 d 0.225 d-1
Radioactive Decay
Definitions
Biological Half-life: Unrelated to radioactive decay. Refers
to time required for 50% of a biochemical to be eliminated
from the body. Can be described by λbiol, similar to
radioactive decay.

Effective Half-life: Disappearance with time of a radioactive

biochemical in the body both by radioactive decay and
biological elimination.
λeffective = λbiological + λphysical
or
1/Teffective = 1/Tbiological + 1/Tphysical
Charged Particles in Matter

• α and β particles
loose energy through
Collisions
– Interactions with
charge fields…not
mechanical
• Excitation
• Ionization
• Bremsstrahlung
Charged Particles in Matter
• Excitation occurs when the incident particle
interacts with an outer shell electron
– Energy carried off by molecular vibrations,
infrared, visible or UV radiation
• Ionization occurs when an outer shell electron
is ejected
– Secondary electron ( δ ray) may cause
ionizations
• Bremsstrahlung occurs when the particle
penetrates the electron cloud
Photon Interactions with Matter

• 100% Energy • <100% Energy • High Energy

Conversion Conversion – > 1.022 MeV
– EM to Kinetic – Energy Degraded
Energy Photon
• Spatially Discrete • Altered Pathway
Photon Interactions with Matter
Photon Interactions with Matter
Photon Interactions with Matter
Photon Interactions with Matter
Pair Production
Photon Interactions with Matter
Multiple Interactions
Photon Interactions with Matter
Secondary Radiations
Photon Interactions with Matter
Probability Distribution
Photon Interactions with Matter
Probability Distribution

82Pb

99m Tc – 140 keV

Photon Interactions with Matter
Probability Distribution

H20

201 Tl – 72 keV 99m Tc – 140 keV

Photon Interactions with Matter
Attenuation
• Attenuation depends on
the thickness and Z of the
absorber
– Greater thickness
leads to greater
absorption
– Energy and Z
relationship is more
complicated
• Linear attenuation
coefficient (μl)…cm-1

I(x) = I(0) e -μx

 Photon Interactions with
Matter
Half Value Thickness
• Transmission
through an absorber
is described by:
• I(x) = I (0) e -µx
• HVT (aka HVL) is the
thickness required
to absorb 50% of the
beam
• HVT = .693/µl
Physics Principles for
Nuclear Cardiology
Summary
• Relationship of atomic structure to
– Mode of decay
– Emissions
• Understand and explain radioactive
decay
• Interactions of photons with matter
– Tissue
– Image quality