Tourism Management 73 (2019) 172–181

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Tourism Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tourman

Hotel employee's artificial intelligence and robotics awareness and its T

impact on turnover intention: The moderating roles of perceived
organizational support and competitive psychological climate
Jun (Justin) Lia, Mark A. Bonnb, Ben Haobin Yea,∗
a
School of Tourism Management, South China Normal University, Higher Education Mega Center, Guangzhou, 510006, China
b
Dedman School of Hospitality & Tourism Management, Florida State University, B4104 University Center, 288 Champions Way, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: The advent of machines powered by artificial intelligence (AI) and robotics technologies have already strongly
AI awareness influenced the hospitality industry, and the effects of its replacement upon the human workforce has been a
Perceived organizational support highly debated topic. Despite this, empirical evidence in the form of published empirical studies have yet to
Competitive psychological climate appear in academic journals that present compelling evidence addressing what hospitality employees’ awareness
Turnover intentions
of those potential impacts could be pertaining to AI and robotics specifically applied within the context of their
Hotel employees
turnover intention and future employment prospects. The purpose of this study was to present new empirical
findings on this issue using data from a sample of 468 full-time five star hotel employees in Guangzhou, China.
AI and robotics awareness was found to be significantly associated with employee turnover intention. This
relationship was moderated by perceived organizational support and competitive psychological climate.
Implications and directions for future research are provided.

1. Introduction automation solutions to create a more personalized and memorable

experience for lodging guests while also lowering the businesses' labor
Fueled by rapid advances in automation, robotics, and artificial costs. However, the potential effects that the introduction of AI lodging
intelligence (AI) technologies (Syam & Sharma, 2018), the emergence systems may have upon the well-established working relationships re-
of the Industry 4.0 concept, or the fourth industrial revolution, has led lated to increased productivity and reduced costs attributed to the re-
to applications that are expected to prompt significant changes to many placement of human labor has been largely ignored. The introduction of
business sectors such as hospitality and tourism (Almada-Lobo, 2016). AI robots into the workplace may inadvertently cause psychological
The Industry 4.0 movement, which has been directly responsible for damage to employees and their emotional feelings related to a sense of
increased data volumes and advanced algorithms, has now introduced workplace belonging and dedication. This negative workplace attitude
AI, automation, and robotics technologies that hospitality businesses could motivate employees to contemplate and make alternative career
are strategically implementing as essential corporate functions for sol- choices. In consideration of this potential employment dilemma, the
ving multiple daily management challenges (Makridakis, 2017). AI is first objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between
appearing more frequently in various hospitality settings globally. AI and robotics awareness and turnover intention among hotel em-
Service automation systems now feature robots which are being used by ployees.
airport management as substitutes for traveler information centers, Ongoing technological developments regarding AI, automation, and
while hotels are using AI to streamline processes and accelerate tasks robotics will have significant effects upon workplace job profiles, hours
traditionally conducted by front-line service employees for concierge, worked, employee relationships with co-workers and managers, and
guest registration (check-in/out), room service, bartending, chatbots, remuneration models. Businesses are more likely to adopt new tech-
and virtual voice assistance (Ivanov & Webster, 2017; Kuo, Chen, & nologies involving AI since greater deployment of these cost-saving
Tseng, 2017; Tung & Law, 2017). mechanisms could boost economic growth by improving efficiency in
The emergence of this type of advanced technology in a constantly the workplace. However, employees need to acknowledge that AI and
changing environment has enabled today's hoteliers to now use AI and robotics must not be categorized as total labor-replacement, since it

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: justinli83@scnu.edu.cn (J.J. Li), mbonn@dedman.fsu.edu (M.A. Bonn), ben_ye@m.scnu.edu.cn (B.H. Ye).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2019.02.006
Received 11 April 2018; Received in revised form 18 December 2018; Accepted 8 February 2019
Available online 01 March 2019
0261-5177/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J.J. Li, et al. Tourism Management 73 (2019) 172–181

could only impact certain low-skilled positions (Brougham & Haar, up new possibilities for humans to work alongside robots to maximize
2017). The majority of jobs requiring human interaction are estimated efficiencies. The usage of AI and robotics within the hospitality industry
to face the lowest risks of elimination given that the relatively high is becoming more commonplace, with applications ranging from arti-
proportion of skills for these positions are seen as extremely difficult to ficially intelligent chatbots, designed to assist with guest service pro-
automate. Corporate management should minimize potential threats to cesses, to robot assistants used for smart concierge services, in an effort
the workplace posed by AI and robotics through the establishment of an to improve the guest's on-site hotel experience (Ivanov & Webster,
atmosphere with internal systems having excellent internal commu- 2017). U.S. hotels such as The Wynn Las Vegas and Aloft have already
nications and smooth interactions between managers and employees installed virtual assistants in rooms that respond to guest requests. AI
(Ivanov & Webster, 2017). For example, the adoption of continuous and robotics have also been adopted widely across different hotel de-
training and technological support has been shown to be an effective partments including revenue management, sales & marketing, catering,
method for promoting healthy employment relationships (Madden, and facility management (Ivanov & Webster, 2017).
Mathias, & Madden, 2015). Employees are known to respond to high
levels of organizational support with high levels of organizational
2.2. The impact of artificial intelligence and robotics upon employment
commitment and psychological attachment, obligation and loyalty
(Brougham & Haar, 2017). Thus, the relationship between AI and ro-
Once AI and robots have been implemented on a global scale, a very
botics awareness and turnover intention could be attenuated by em-
natural question to ask related to AI is whether it will put millions of
ployees' perceptions concerning the extent to which the organization
jobs at risk, causing massive unemployment and job loss (Smith &
cares about their evolving professional objectives and benefits in the
Anderson, 2014). The majority of prior research on human capital has
workplace. Thus, perceived organizational support (POS) can be con-
focused on whether employees would be displaced by robotics and the
sidered as a potential moderator of the relationship between employees'
emerging AI revolution. To illustrate this concern, using the Gaussian
AI and robotics awareness and their turnover intention such that the
process classifier, Frey and Osborne (2013) estimated that nearly half of
relationship would be weakened when those individuals perceive a
all U.S. jobs are likely to be automated in the coming decades. In an
higher level of organizational support. The second objective of this
attempt to transfer Frey and Osborne (2013)'s study approach from the
study was to examine whether hotel employees’ POS moderates the
US to Europe, Bowles (2014) predicted that 54% of European occupa-
relationship between AI and robotics awareness and turnover intention.
tions could be computerized by rapid automation. Lee (2017) applied
Today's organizations live in an era characterized by a variety of
the Frey-Osborne estimates to Asian countries and found that about
new technologies which have radically altered the way work is man-
one-quarter of Singaporean employment is at high risk of computer-
aged and performed (Anandarajan, Teo, & Simmers, 2014). Many
ization. Another study, involving 1900 experts regarding the possible
businesses may now have an alternative for reducing labor costs and
influence of machines with AI, stated that by 2025, a significant
becoming more competitive by investing in high tech systems involving
number of both blue and white-collar employees will be at risk of dis-
service automation, robotics and AI (Brougham & Haar, 2017). As
placement by automated and networked AI applications (Smith &
technology development continues to become more advanced and au-
Anderson, 2014). Research conducted by Chui, Manyika, and Miremadi
tonomous, AI and intelligent robots will become more affordable,
(2015), found that as the world becomes more technology-driven, AI
faster, and far more reliable than humans. Considering the precision,
and robotics could directly displace 45% of work activities previously
endless energy, and high skill levels of machines, today's businesses will
performed by U.S. employees. Finally, research conducted by Acemoglu
save financial resources in most fields by using AI rather than using
and Restrepo (2017) documented that an extra industrial robot per
human employees to perform many tasks (Smith & Anderson, 2014).
1000 U.S. workers could reduce the employment-to-population ratio by
Under this competitive work environment, AI and robotics' usage will
0.18–0.34 percentage points.
inevitably cause employees to compete against one another for re-
Recent studies have demonstrated the impact of rapid development
cognition, bonuses and promotions (Schrock, Hughes, Fu, Richards, &
of modern robotics and the AI influence on employee's attitudes and
Jones, 2016). Previous research has suggested that employees tend to
behaviors in the workplace. Chui et al. (2015) argued that it may in-
quit jobs when they experience stress under competitive conditions
evitably lead to a potentially high turnover rate across different occu-
(Gim, Desa, & Ramayah, 2015). The relationship between AI and ro-
pations and industries if companies continue taking advantage of the AI
botics awareness and turnover intention is obviously strengthened
and robotics in the workplace (Chui et al., 2015). Brougham and Haar
where the perception of a highly competitive psychological climate
(2017) further underscored this point through their research findings
(CPC) exists. It is therefore expected that within the hotel setting, CPC
that substantiated employees feel undervalued and unappreciated when
will moderate the relationship between AI and robotics awareness and
employers actively explore today's advanced technological options for
employee turnover intention. It is expected CPC will strengthen the
human labor, such as with AI and robotics. More specifically, re-
positive impact that AI and robotics awareness has upon an employee's
searchers examined the effects of STARA (e.g., smart technology, AI,
intention to leave. Thus, the third objective of this study was to examine
robotics, and algorithms) awareness on selected key job-related out-
the CPC as a moderator of the relationship between AI and robotics
comes such as organizational commitment, career satisfaction, etc. and
awareness and turnover among hotel employees.
have provided evidence that a strong negative relationship exists be-
tween STARA awareness and job-related outcomes. One notable result
2. Literature review
of the Brougham and Haar (2017) study was that employees' STARA
awareness exhibited a significantly positive effect on intention to quit.
2.1. Adoption of artificial intelligence and robotics in the hospitality
Thus, if advanced technologies make employees feel insecure or
industry
stressed enough about their future prospects and apprehensiveness in
their jobs, then employees are more likely to contemplate resigning
Artificial intelligence (AI) is the simulation of human intelligence
from their current position with their employer. Based on this previous
processes that allows computer systems to automatically learn from
body of literature, the following hypothesis is formulated:
experience and perform human-like tasks to improve efficiency of daily
tasks (Aghaei, Nematbakhsh, & Farsani, 2012). AI can power robots to Hypothesis 1. Hotel employees' AI and robotics awareness have a
complete important tasks. The rise of collaborative robotics has opened significantly positive effect on their turnover intention.

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2.3. Moderating role of perceived organizational support hotel employees' AI and robotics awareness and turnover intentions.
That is, the relationship is weakened when hotel employees perceive a
Employees develop beliefs concerning the degree to which their high level of organizational support.
organizations trust them and recognize their contributions and take
care of their well-being. These beliefs have been gaining importance
and recognition as critical indicators in the assessment of their per-
2.4. Competitive psychological climate as a moderator
ceived organizational support (POS) (Arogundade, Arogundade, &
Adebajo, 2015). POS focuses on incentives and vigorous support pro-
The role of competitive psychological climate (CPC) reflects the
vided by the organization to motivate employees at all levels to develop
extent to which employees perceive their job performance, and is de-
a more productive mindset and create a winning work environment
pendent upon their relative standing among their peers (Brown, Cron, &
(Chiang & Hsieh, 2012). POS has become one of the top strategies to
Slocum Jr., 1998). The majority of organizations attempt to differ-
help employees dramatically reduce stress levels and regain control of
entiate their products from others in a competitive market. Competition
their work-life balance (Duke, Goodman, Treadway, & Breland, 2009).
among firms increase efficiencies, develops better services and pro-
The technology sector has grown exponentially in recent decades.
ducts, and minimizes costs while establishing greater operational sta-
However, modern technology is one of the stressors in the work en-
bility (Brown, Cron, & Slocum, 1998).
vironment, attributed to generating highly negative job-related out-
An AI platform can be designed to improve operational efficiencies,
comes associated with damaging employment relations, causing high
accelerate the development of new products, eliminate duplicate-ma-
job insecurity levels, and creating ambiguity about future career de-
terials inventory and redundant processes, enhance customer service,
velopment (Brougham & Haar, 2017). Today's employees must not only
and create new revenue streams (Makridakis, 2017). However, an AI
be able to tolerate the normal stresses of their daily workplace, but also
robot solution could be a double-edged sword for employers in the
be able to cope with the ever-changing effects of technology. When
workplace. AI robots can spur employees' continuous improvement ef-
workers feel threatened as their expertise becomes eroded by con-
forts, using performance of machines as an inspiring yardstick
tinuously evolving advances in workplace technology, they tend to
(Makridakis, 2017). However, an AI robot solution can also lead to a
experience high levels of anxiety, sadness, and frustration (Gabriel &
stressful environment since workplace competitiveness can divide
Pessl, 2016). Thus, management and occupational health care should
coworkers by hoarding information and not sharing knowledge or ex-
remove those adverse environmental conditions to prevent and/or re-
pertise with one another, creating a toxic workplace (Brougham &
duce any job-related emotional stress in order to devote more attention
Haar, 2017). The emergence of AI robots has led to applications which
to providing employees with satisfactory working conditions.
are now having a profound impact on the workplace. Due to the lack of
A large body of evidence indicates a significant reduction in em-
job security, and because of these advanced technologies, employees
ployee psychological strain and burnout when they perceived a high
are forced to compete against each other for more recognition, bonuses,
level of organizational support (Arogundade et al., 2015). An effective
and promotions from their employers. Thus, with AI robots’ evolving
organizational support system includes such favorable job conditions as
presence in the daily routine, competition between employees has
fairness, training, autonomy, rewarding and role stressor coping me-
significantly intensified (Frey & Osborne, 2017).
chanisms, etc., all of which can reduce employees' overall stress levels
Employees have begun to feel a higher level of CPC because em-
and help them to regain a sense of control within the workplace (Duke
ployers are actively comparing their performances to other coworkers
et al., 2009). Organizational support guarantees employees that the firm
during the course of the very intense and stressful day-to-day en-
is behind them as they handle stressful situations and execute their jobs
vironment with AI and robotics applications. A higher level of CPC in
(Chiang & Hsieh, 2012). Thus, by providing employees with a supportive
the workplace has shown to add more unpleasant tasks and errands,
work environment, manageable workloads, and increased autonomy,
and has shown to provide long-term negative effects on employees’
POS can help anticipate and mitigate the negative outcomes of AI and
attitudes and behaviors, triggering low productivity (Bolumole, Grawe,
robotics application in the workplace by improving their employees'
& Daugherty, 2016). Thus, employees who work in a higher level of
overall well-being and increasing their overall level of job satisfaction
CPC are most likely to quit their jobs because of increasing internal
(Duke et al., 2009). Substantiating this position, one research study
pressure from competitive peers and higher thresholds of expectations
documented that employees were more satisfied with their jobs and were
from higher-level managers (Gim et al., 2015). (See Fig. 1) According to
less likely to transfer or leave their positions at a work environment that
these arguments, the following hypothesis is formulated:
was supportive of them (Cheng, Yang, Wan, & Chu, 2013). Thus, the
influence of employees’ AI and robotics awareness on their turnover Hypothesis 3. CPC affects the strength of the relationship between
intention is moderated by POS such that the relationship is weakened by hotel employees' AI and robotics awareness and turnover intentions.
a higher level of POS. The following hypothesis is proposed: Specifically, the relationship is strengthened when hotel employees
perceive a high level of CPC.
Hypothesis 2. POS affects the strength of the relationship between

Fig. 1. Multilevel research model.

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3. Methodology possibly being replaced by an artificial intelligence system”.

Perceived organizational support. Eight items were adapted from
3.1. Samples prior studies (Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison, & Sowa, 1986) and
modified to fit the study's hotel context. POS was measured using a
The traditional face-to-face and voice-to-voice contact between seven-point Likert-type scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to
employees and guests is changing. In today's workplace, many hotels strongly agree (7). Sample items included: “Our hotel cares about the
use automation technologies, such as self-service check-in kiosks and voice of employees,” “Our hotel genuinely cares about each individual's
mobile service requests, to minimize costs and maximize operations well-being,” and “I can get immediate assistance if I need it”.
efficiencies. This study was conducted among luxury hotels in Competitive psychological climate. Four scale items were taken from
Guangzhou, China, a major international metropolis and innovative Fletcher, Major, and Davis (2008) with modified wording used to fit the
South China city. Guangzhou has become an international science and context of the research. Responses were given a seven point rating scale
technology innovation hub. Many hotels in this global city are taking (from strongly disagree = 1 to strongly agree = 7). Sample questions
advanced technologies to a new level by introducing robots into guest included “The reward I receive depends upon my performance com-
service roles. Accordingly, hotel employees in Guangzhou are subjected pared to my colleagues” and “Everyone wants to be recognized as a top
to advanced technology pressures. Thus, Guangzhou luxury hotel em- performer in this hotel”.
ployees were selected as the research participants. To generate samples, Turnover intention. A five-item scale developed by Wayne, Shore,
one of the authors contacted human resources (HR) managers at 35 and Liden (1997) was used to measure turnover intention. Respondents
hotels from a list provided by the local tourism administration office to were asked to evaluate these five items on a 7-point Likert scale, ran-
seek their approval to participate in this study. A total of 12 hotel HR ging from “strongly disagree = 1” to “strongly agree = 7”. For ex-
managers agreed to participate in this study. These 12 properties were ample, respondents were asked if they agreed that “I think it might be
all five-star rated ‘luxury’ hotels, offering the opportunity to interview time to seriously consider quitting”, or on the contrary, “I will not leave
various employees from different positions within similar departments my current position”.
or teams, offering the highest level of accommodations and guest ser-
vices in Guangzhou. 3.3. Analyses
A team of research assistants distributed surveys at random to em-
ployees beginning their work shifts once written permission was ob- This study investigated cross-level relationships with POS and CPC
tained from the top management of all hotel properties. A total of 550 at the hotel level and AI and robotics awareness and turnover intentions
questionnaires were distributed among these 12 hotels with ten prop- at the employee level. However, because there are methodological and
erties receiving 46 surveys and two properties receiving 45 surveys. A conceptual weaknesses for both analyses, hierarchical linear modeling
total of 468 valid, and useable responses were returned from these 12 (HLM) was used to remedy the methodological biases and limitations.
hotel properties. The duty roster for each hotel as reported by the As an example, using the individual level analysis with the dis-
human resource staff determined that about 80% of all total employees aggregation method could provide a biased estimate of standard errors,
at all 12 properties worked primarily in three departments representing whereas the statistical testing power could be seriously weakened by
Food and Beverage, Housekeeping and the Front Office. Thus, 80 per- using the aggregation method within the organizational level. Thus,
cent of the surveys, or 37 surveys out of 46 for the 10 hotel properties, hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) software version 7.01 was used to
and 36 out of 45 surveys for the two other hotel properties were dis- analyze this unique nature of the multilevel data.
tributed to employees working in those three departments at random
during a one-week period in early 2018. The remaining 8 or 9 surveys 3.4. Data aggregation
for each property were distributed at random to employees in various
other departments including engineering, maintenance, security, spa A two-level model was identified using an outcome variable to re-
and fitness following the same procedure. Because social desirability present turnover intentions and two independent variables were used at
bias could possibly affect the validity of the questionnaire since this the hotel-level to represent the POS and CPC. The direct consensus
study attempted to collect socially sensitive data, participants were model was performed to assess POS and CPC; that is, to estimate the
required to return their completed questionnaires by ballot boxes to within-group agreement in the employee's POS and CPC for each hotel
further guarantee their anonymity. Results from this effort showed that by aggregating the lower-level units to higher level variables. To justify
nearly 42 percent of those participants had at least a four-year uni- the suitability of aggregating POS and CPC at the hotel level, both γwg
versity degree. The average age of all respondents was 31.2 years and and intra-class correlations (ICCs) were calculated. The γwg(j) were 0.90
61.6 percent of all respondents held non-management jobs. Women for POS and 0.83 for CPC, which were well above the recommended
represented 52 percent of all respondents. In addition, the mean job threshold value of 0.7. Thus, the results do support the underlying as-
tenure for all participants was 2.5 years. sumption that employees within hotels generally agreed on their POS
and CPC. In addition, the ICC (1) was 0.19 and ICC (2) was 0.76
3.2. Measures (F = 4.46, p < .001) for POS, the ICC (1) was 0.17 and ICC (2) was
0.70 (F = 3.04, p < .001), providing sufficient evidence for both
Initially, a total of 20 hotel employees were invited to participate in within-group agreement and between-group reliability.
a pilot survey that verified the survey questionnaire and identified any
ambiguities. Data were collected for five different measures: AI and 4. Results
robotics awareness, perceived organizational support, competitive
psychological climate, turnover intention, and personal background 4.1. Descriptive statistics
(see the Appendix for the complete questionnaire).
AI and robotics awareness. Four items were taken and modified from Table 1 presents the summary of descriptive statistics. Cronbach's
Brougham and Haar (2017)'s study to better align them within the alpha coefficients were computed to assess the internal consistency of
context of hotels. All AI and robotics awareness items were measured these multiple Likert-type scales and items. The values of Cronbach's
using seven-point Likert scales ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 alpha coefficients all exceeded the recommended value of 0.7. The
(strongly agree). Sample items included: “I think my job has a high risk correlation coefficients support the hypotheses proposed in the present
of bowing to automation and will be replaced by machines with AI” and study. AI and robotics awareness was shown to be significantly related
“I am quite pessimistic about my future in this hotel due to employees to turnover intentions (γ = 0.23, p < .001) and CPC (γ = 0.11,

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Table 1
Means, standard deviations and correlations of study variables.
Variables M SD 1 2 3 4

1. AI and robotics awareness 5.08 1.14 0.90

2. Perceived organizational support 4.70 1.08 0.04 0.93
3. Competitive psychological climate 4.27 0.92 0.11** −0.08 0.85
4. Turnover intentions 4.62 1.28 0.23*** −0.55** 0.24** 0.92

Note: N = 468, SD = standard deviation; Individual-level scale reliability in bold along diagonal.
***p < .001; **p < .05; *p < .10.

Table 2
Model comparisons.
Models Factors χ2 df CFI GFI RMSEA comparison Δ2 Δdf

Model 1 Four factors 293.41 183 0.95 0.94 0.04

Model 2 Three factors; based on Model 1, AI awareness and perceived organizational support were 464.93 186 0.64 0.91 0.06 2 vs. 1 171.52** 3
combined into one factor
Model 3 Two factors; based on Model 1, AI awareness, perceived organizational support, and competitive 620.05 188 0.44 0.87 0.07 3 vs. 1 326.64** 5
psychological climate were combined into one factor
Model 4 One factor; all four factors were combined into one factor. 760.99 189 0.25 0.84 0.08 4 vs. 1 467.58** 6

***p < .001; **p < .05; *p < .10.

p < .05). POS was negatively related to turnover intentions Lastly, slope-as-outcomes models were computed to assess moderating
(γ = −0.55, p < .05). However, CPC correlated with turnover inten- effects with interaction terms between hotel-level variables (POS and
tions positively (γ = 0.24, p < .05). CPC) and individual level variable (AI and robotics awareness) to pre-
dict employees’ turnover intentions. The effects of socio-economic
4.2. Confirmatory factor analysis factors such as gender, age, educational qualification, and job tenure
were controlled as prior research has shown their linkages with turn-
Four competing measurement models were evaluated first to assess over intentions (Brougham & Haar, 2017).
which model provided perfect fit to the given data (e.g., a single-factor
model versus a multiple-factor model). Table 2 illustrates the results of 4.3.1. Null hierarchical model
a systematic comparison of the four model comparison. First, a four- The null model was first proposed without independent variables to
dimensional structure with items associated to it was identified (Model calculate the within- and between-group variance for turnover inten-
1: χ2 = 293.41; df = 183; CFI = 0.95; GFI = 0.94; RMSEA = 0.04). tions. The obtained chi-square statistics (106.75, τ00 = 0.04, p < .001)
Three competing measurement models were then specified and com- demonstrated that employees' turnover intentions can be explained by
pared to Model 1. A three-factor model with AI and robotics awareness the percentage of the between groups variation. Further, the results
and POS combined into one single factor was developed (Model 2: demonstrated significant differences among hotels regarding em-
χ2 = 464.93; df = 186; CFI = 0.64; GFI = 0.91; RMSEA = 0.06). A ployees’ turnover intentions, thereby justifying the addition of the be-
two-factor model combined the AI and robotics awareness, POS, and tween-level predictor variables at a higher level analysis.
CPC statements into a single factor was then identified (Model 3:
χ2 = 620.05; df = 188; CFI = 0.44; GFI = 0.87; RMSEA = 0.07). A 4.3.2. Random coefficient model with individual-level variables only
global unidimensional model with all items joined together was finally AI and robotics awareness was entered to the individual level model
compared with the four-factor model (Model 4: χ2 = 760.99; df = 189; with no predictors specified for the hotel-level model. The R2 for the
CFI = 0.25; GFI = 0.84; RMSEA = 0.08). The four-factor solution relationship between AI and robotics awareness and turnover intentions
proved to be clearly superior to the other competing models and pro- accounted for 14% of the within-group variance. Specifically, the im-
vided an adequate fit to the given data. pact of AI and robotics awareness on employees’ turnover intentions
Table 3 demonstrated the average variance extracted (AVE) and was significantly positive (γ10 = 0.42, p < .05). Therefore, Hypothesis
composite reliability (CR) for the all reflective latent factors (AI and 1 is supported. The hotel-level variables such as POS and CPC may
robotics awareness, POS, CPC, and TI) and loadings, t-values, etc. for explain the remaining variation among individual and group differ-
their items. The factor loadings for these indicators ranged from 0.76 to ences since the between-group variance (χ2 = 132.83, p < .001) was
0.87, with all values statistically significant, validating that these in- still significant after entering the AI awareness in the analysis.
dicators adequately represent these reflective factors. The values of
composite reliability (CR) in Table 3 exceeded the recommended ac- 4.3.3. Intercept-as-outcomes models
cepted threshold of 0.7. Moreover, the value of AVE for each construct Two intercept-as-outcomes models were then analyzed to identify if
was very close to the benchmark of 0.6, indicating a high discriminant the variance component for the level 1 slope associated with observed
validity. hotel-level variables (POS and CPC). The results of the intercepts-as-
outcomes models showed that the POS and CPC do have a significant
4.3. Hypotheses testing impact on turnover intentions (γ01 = −0.86, p < .05; γ02 = 0.58,
p < .05).
The cross-level interaction hypotheses were tested using the method
suggested by Mathieu and Taylor (2007). First, an individual null 4.3.4. Slope-as-outcomes model (cross-level moderating model)
hierarchical model was identified without specifying any predictor Two slopes-as-outcomes models were computed, as demonstrated in
variables. Second, this step examined the random coefficient regression Table 3, and POS and CPC variables were multiplied with AI and ro-
model where the level-one variable, AI and robotics awareness, was botics awareness. The results showed that the relationship between AI
added. Third, two intercept-as-outcomes models were computed. and robotics awareness and turnover intentions was moderated by POS

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Table 3
Measurement model.
Paths Loadings (t−value) Reliability Skewness; Kurtosis Error variance Item R-Square

AI awareness (AIA) CR = 0.90, AVE = 0.69

AIA → AIA1 0.83*** −0.81; 0.42 0.31 0.69
AIA → AIA2 0.83***(19.91) −0.48; −0.34 0.31 0.69
AIA → AIA3 0.87***(20.76) −0.63; −0.02 0.24 0.76
AIA → AIA4 0.80***(17.01) −0.51; −0.07 0.36 0.64
Perceived organizational support (POS) CR = 0.94, AVE = 0.66
POS → POS1 0.83*** −0.16;-0.57 0.31 0.69
POS → POS2 0.82***(19.67) 0.06; −0.92 0.33 0.67
POS → POS3 0.80***(20.30) −0.34; −0.55 0.36 0.64
POS → POS4 0.80***(20.03) 0.01; −0.63 0.36 0.64
POS → POS5 0.83***(19.25) −0.08; −0.46 0.31 0.69
POS → POS6 0.81***(19.43) 0.12;-0.75 0.34 0.66
POS → POS7 0.81***(18.11) −0.30; −0.54 0.34 0.66
POS → POS8 0.81***(18.72) −0.04; −0.67 0.34 0.66
Competitive psychological climate (CPC) CR = 0.85, AVE = 0.59
CPC → CPC1 0.78*** 0.28;-0.29 0.39 0.61
CPC → CPC2 0.77***(15.12) 0.36;-0.24 0.41 0.59
CPC → CPC3 0.76***(15.59) 0.16;-0.34 0.42 0.58
CPC → CPC4 0.77***(15.17) 0.37; 0.03 0.41 0.59
Turnover intentions (TI) CR = 0.93, AVE = 0.71
TI → TI1 0.85*** −0.32;-0.32 0.28 0.72
TI → TI2 0.83***(21.89) −0.31;-0.42 0.31 0.69
TI → TI3 0.84***(22.35) −0.38;-0.42 0.29 0.71
TI → TI4 0.87***(22.73) −0.40;-0.19 0.24 0.76
TI → TI5 0.83***(19.76) −0.38; 0.15 0.31 0.69
Fit indices of the reflective measurement model: χ2(d.f.) = 293.41 (183), p < .00 (χ2/d.f. = 1.60);
CFI = 0.95; GFI = 0.94; NFI = 0.96; RMSEA = 0.04; SRMR = 0.03

Note. ***p < .001; **p < .05; *p < .10. The average variance extracted (AVE) and the composite reliability (CR) appear in the reflective scales to evidence
reliability.

(γ21 = −0.26, p < .05). Further, the relationship between AI aware- hotels specifically regarding employee perceptions of AI and robotics as
ness and employees’ turnover intentions was moderated by CPC a significant predictor of their intention to leave the lodging company,
(γ31 = 0.40, p < .01). Approximately 4% and 5% of the variances in and perhaps the industry overall. These findings supported previous
the level-one slope were attributed to the addition of the interaction research conducted in non-hospitality settings that indicated those
terms. Thus, the second and third hypotheses were supported (see employees deciding to remain with their organizations would be in-
Table 4). fluenced by robotics, machine learning and AI (Brougham & Haar,
2017). Employee turnover and retention has historically been one of the
5. Discussion and conclusions main concerns facing the hospitality industry (Bonn & Forbringer,
1992), and remains as the industry's major challenge (Zopiatis,
5.1. Theoretical implications Constanti, & Theocharous, 2014). In particular, turnover intention is
proposed to have a predominantly negative impact on organizations,
Organizations in today's competitive market require unprecedented and especially with respect to low productivity and low staff morale (Li,
levels of flexibility, offering a wide and varied array of services and Kim, & Zhao, 2017). For lodging properties to reduce turnover rates,
products. As well, organizations must be effective, responsive, and cost- they must first understand the main causes for why employees defect to
efficient, almost to the point beyond what is now expected from human other lodging companies, or other industries. Thus, it is important to
employees. The fast-moving field of robotics, AI, and service automa- identify the antecedents of turnover intention as early as possible for
tion is accelerating at unprecedented levels, creating new business lodging organizations to be able to increase employees' enthusiasm and
opportunities leading to future growth potential (Lee & Lee, 2015). The commitment to work and fully leverage a strong competitive advantage
development of robots, AI, and service automation has gained more (Kim, Lee, & Carlson, 2010). Because the majority of hotel employees
sophisticated sensors in the past decade or so, and they have increas- work in front line service positions where they have very little control
ingly been used in the travel, tourism and hospitality industry (Ivanov & over how changes in daily operations are actually implemented and
Webster, 2017). When applied to hotel operations, the typical benefits controlled, they might be more aware of impending changes involving
for using AI are reduced costs, increased speed, improved accuracy and new AI applications, which provide them the motivation for developing
consistency. In addition, AI applications could enhance perceived ser- perceptions of higher levels of turnover intent. This study's findings
vice quality through new, attractive and interactive methods for service corroborate that hotel employees having higher perceptions of AI are
delivery, and also for communicating with and engaging hotel guests. likely to have higher adverse effects on turnover intentions. This finding
Thus, increasing numbers of hotels are adapting robotics into their alone adds tremendous value to the existing theoretical base regarding
guest services operations to provide what they envision as vitally ne- lodging employee perceptions pertaining to AI and their turnover in-
cessary technology to enhance their already successful business models. tentions. If human resource management departments within lodging
Although AI implementation for hotel service automation is now ad- properties can now anticipate high levels of anticipated turnover intent
vancing at a rapid pace, little attention to its impact on employment with service employees whenever the operation is initiating AI pro-
among hotel front line service career employees has yet to be ad- grams within various lodging departments, there can be actions de-
dressed. This study contributes to this void by providing a detailed veloped by the lodging property to counter these negative feelings and
understanding of the interfaces between hotel employees, their AI minimize workforce defects. Theoretical testing still needs to be as-
awareness and employment relations for the lodging industry. sessed according to lodging departmental areas (housekeeping, food
This current study contributes to new theory within the context of and beverage, front desk, engineering, etc.) to determine if differences

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Table 4
Hierarchical linear modeling results.
TI TI TI TI TI TI

Null model Random coefficient model Intercept as outcomes model Intercept as outcomes model Slope as outcomes model (Cross-level Slope as outcomes model (Cross-level
(1) (2) moderating model 1) moderating model 2)

Individual level (level 1)

Intercept (γ00) 4.64***(13.37***) 4.60***(13.09) 4.60***(19.47) 4.60***(14.06) 4.61***(12.01) 4.67***(14.20)
AIA (γ10) 0.42**(1.99**) 0.42**(2.00**) 0.42**(1.99**) 0.32**(2.32**) 0.24***(5.19***)
Hotel level
(level 2)
POS (γ01) −0.86**(-3.73**)
CPC (γ02) 0.58**(2.40)
Cross level
AIA × POS −0.26**(-2.03**)

178
(γ21)
AIA × CPC 0.40***(4.42***)
(γ31)
Total R2 0.03 0.07 0.09 0.14 0.13
Deviance 848.20 748.93 739.41 745.11 733.39 674.76
(-2LL)
Number of 2 2 2 2 2 2
estimated
parameters
Level-1 TIij = β0j + γij TIij = β0j + β1j × AIA ij + γij TIij = β0j + β1j × AIA ij + γij TIij = β0j + β1j × AIA ij + γij TIij = β0j + β1j × AIA ij + γij TIij = β0j + β1j × AIA ij + γij
Level-2 β0j = γ00 + υ0j β0j = γ00 + υ0j β0j = γ00 + γ01 × POSj +υ0j β0j = γ00 + γ01 × CPCj +υ0j β0j = γ00 + υ0j β0j = γ00 + υ0j
β1j = γ10 β1j = γ10 β1j = γ10 β1j = γ10+ γ11 × POSj β1j = γ10+ γ11 × CPCj
Mixed model TIij = γ00+υ0j+γij TIij = γ00 + γ10 × AIA ij + υ0j+ γij TIij = γ00 + γ01 × POSj+ TIij = γ00 + γ01 × CPCj+ TIij = γ00 + γ10 × AIA ij + γ11 × POSj × AIA TIij = γ00 + γ10 × AIA ij + γ11 × CPCj × AIA
γ10 × AIA ij + υ0j+ γij γ10 × AIA ij + υ0j+ γij ij + υ0j+ γij ij + υ0j+ γij

Note: AIA = AI awareness, POS = perceived organizational support, CPC = competitive psychological climate, TI = turnover intentions.
***p < .01; **p < .05; *p < .10.
Tourism Management 73 (2019) 172–181
J.J. Li, et al. Tourism Management 73 (2019) 172–181

may exist in levels of employee perceptions regarding negative per- 5.2. Managerial implications
ceptions about AI program implementation and turnover intention. As
well, theoretical testing related to rewards programs and what types of Given the high costs associated with turnover intention, it is im-
employee recognition would be considered most effective is necessary. portant for hotel human resource professionals to implement various
This study also contributed to new theoretical knowledge regarding mitigation measures to reduce or alleviate the severity of those negative
AI when its findings confirmed that employee perceptions of organi- impacts of AI applications. Hotels should understand through these
zational support weakens the relationship between AI awareness and research findings that lower skilled positions involving routine, re-
turnover intentions. Brougham and Haar's research (2017) called for petitive service tasks are at risk of being replaced by AI. To reduce
more focus on moderators in studying employees' perceptions of ro- employee turnover in hotels and assure employees are remaining cur-
botics and AI related to work outcomes. This current research not only rent with marketplace trends and new practices, human resource pro-
answers Brougham and Haar's (2017) call, but sheds new, additional fessionals should consider developing and implementing internal
theoretical knowledge on examining how AI awareness and POS when training programs on a regularly scheduled and long-term basis to assist
combined, affect employee turnover intention. These new study find- employees in establishing a positive outlook towards their personal
ings demonstrate that the relationship between AI awareness and skills development. The bottom line is that these study's findings will
turnover intentions weaken with greater support received by employees provide excellent developmental information for human resource
from their organization when those employee behaviors and actions are managers working in the lodging setting challenged by retention issues
recognized and rewarded. Previous empirical studies in other dis- caused by employees that express intentions to leave their jobs due to
ciplines have found a moderating role of POS on the relationship be- AI implementation. Study results have clearly documented that there is
tween work attitude and work behavior (Duke et al., 2009; Erdogan & a relationship between employee turnover intention and their AI
Enders, 2007), where POS was found to reduce the negative effect of awareness. But results of this study also prove that turnover intention
perceived stressors on performance. Using hotels as the context, this weakens when greater employee support is provided from the organi-
current study again confirmed the role of POS as a moderator sug- zation. Organizational support can take many forms, including soft skill
gesting that POS moderates the relationship between AI awareness and development such as communications (achieve clarity and concision),
turnover intentions in such a way that it will weaken the positive im- team work and team building (define roles within teams and involve
pact of AI awareness on turnover intention as more support is given by collaborative tasks), problem solving (use initiative and develop sui-
these hotels to their employees. The present results are consistent with table solutions), analytical thinking (evaluate information and make a
prior research findings that documents enhancing organizational sup- good decision), learning (learn throughout life more effectively), lea-
port from top management has been shown to be effective in increasing dership (motivate and inspire other people to engage with a vision),
productivity and minimizing stressors. This suggests that those hotel interpersonal skills (communicate and interact with people), creative
employees who receive adequate recognition and feel their contribution thinking (devise new ways to carry out tasks), time management
is valued are more energized and productive than those who do not feel (control over the amount of time to increase effectiveness and effi-
appreciated and valued in their workplace. ciency), and conflict resolution (facilitate the peaceful ending of con-
Perhaps the most significant theoretical contribution made by this flict and retribution). Evidence shows employees that have to in-
research is through the findings associated with examining the mod- corporate these essential soft skills into daily routines in today's fast
erator ‘Competitive Psychological Climate’, regarding the relationship changing, technology-driven world tend to tolerate normal job stresses
between AI awareness and turnover intentions among hotel employees. and improve their overall well-being (Duke et al., 2009).
Previous studies have proposed and identified the moderator of CPC at Second, these study findings documented that the consequence of
the individual level analysis (Arnold, Flaherty, Voss, & Mowen, 2009). turnover intentions was weakened when organizational support was
This study contributes to the body of knowledge of turnover by in- perceived to be high, supporting findings from studies in non-hospi-
troducing the corporate level variable, CPC, which has been mostly tality industries (Arogundade et al., 2015). Therefore, in order to pro-
absent from the literature. Results supported that CPC moderates the mote prosocial work behaviors towards other individuals, hotel orga-
relationship between AI awareness and turnover intentions. As ex- nizations should ensure that support is available to their employees.
pected, the positive relationship between AI awareness and turnover Since human capital is a critical component of any organization's suc-
intentions strengthened when high levels of CPC were present in the cess, effort must be devoted to improve employees' POS, in order to
workplace. This suggests that the relationship between AI awareness make them feel more appreciated and valued, which results in a healthy
and turnover intentions were stronger when employees felt that they organizational climate, and ultimately leads to maintaining a low
were working in a highly competitive environment. This finding has turnover rate, which is essential in achieving higher output levels.
major theoretical implications since this was the first attempt to iden- There are several ways hotel executive management can demonstrate
tify the possible moderating role of CPC in the employment relation- their appreciation for employees. For example, managers could design
ships in AI's business coming of age. Designing AI platforms to improve support mechanisms in place and encourage frontline service em-
human efficiencies is an interesting concept, but ultimately it is the ployees to build positive relationships. One way could be by providing
employee that competes against one another. Competitive Psycholo- coffee breaks or meal breaks during shifts to improve internal com-
gical Climates create negative relationships in the workplace, leading to munications by requiring all team members to participate in friendly
high levels of job defection and job dissatisfaction. This study clearly discussions and brainstorming exercises. In addition, managers should
demonstrates that AI awareness and turnover intent were strongest recognize the importance of work-life balance to maintain a healthy
when employees felt they were working in a highly competitive en- workforce. Encouraging employees to pursue hobbies (e.g., bike riding,
vironment. Theoretical contributions are significant with these findings gardening, golfing, etc.) outside of their work-related responsibilities is
because organizations use competition to gain advantage over their an important part of life and support work-life balance. Those hobbies
rivals. If organizations cannot maintain a motivated and productive can help them feel equipped to reduce stress and better establish their
workforce that is loyal to the business, the opportunity for those busi- own priorities. Further, managers could implement and manage
nesses to hold a competitive advantage diminishes. Ultimately, turn- workplace flexibility by designing better working arrangements and
over plays a role in having a negative impact upon morale and pro- supporting their employees in planning their work (Cheng et al., 2013).
ductivity. Thus, the identification of those factors causing a negative Finally, this study confirmed that CPC as a moderator can increase
competitive psychological climate are critical to the businesses' survival the prediction of the relationship between AI awareness and intention
and ultimate success. CPC theory documents this correlation with hotel to terminate their position. A positive level of CPC is linked to superior
employee turnover intent and its influence by robotics. business performance with increased profitability and employee

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productivity (Brown, Cron & Slocum Jr., 1998). A healthy competitive Acknowledgements
workplace thrives on harmony, mutual benefits, trust, and respect,
which could reduce the potential for work-life conflict and the pressure The corresponding author would like to acknowledge the financial
that goes with it. Employees or personnel will be more motivated and support of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No:
engaged if their managers are choosing to adopt a competitive strategy 71772192).
in their hotels to increase the well-being of their staff. However, an
employee that works at a level of severe work pressure and in a com- Appendix A. Supplementary data
petitive work environment with a desire to outperform their colleagues
could remove the pleasure out of daily tasks, and experience direct Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
negative effects on their job-related affective well-being and physical doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2019.02.006.
and mental health. The stress and pressure that pushes them to perform
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Authorship contribution statement
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and Behavioral Sciences, 172, 658–665.
The three authors made substantial contributions to conception and Ivanov, S., & Webster, C. (2017). Adoption of robots, artificial intelligence and service
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International scientific conference “contemporary tourism–traditions and innovations”, 19-
important intellectual content. They made the broadest range of dif- 21 October 2017. Sofia University.
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Lee, K. F. (2017). Automation, computerization and future employment in Singapore. Mark A. Bonn is the Dedman Professor in Services
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Lee, I., & Lee, K. (2015). The internet of things (IoT): Applications, investments, and Florida State University, located in Tallahassee, Florida. He
challenges for enterprises. Business Horizons, 58(4), 431–440. received his Ph.D. from Texas A&M University in Resource
Li, J. J., Kim, W. G., & Zhao, X. R. (2017). Multilevel model of management support and Development with a supporting field in Organizational
casino employee turnover intention. Tourism Management, 59, 193–204. Behavior. His primary areas of research focus has been
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perceived organizational support and positive relationships at work on turnover in- hospitality and travel industry, sustainability, organiza-
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Center. Tourism Management at South China Normal University.
Syam, N., & Sharma, A. (2018). Waiting for a sales renaissance in the fourth industrial He received his Ph.D. from the Hong Kong Polytechnic
revolution: Machine learning and artificial intelligence in sales research and practice. University. His research interests include consumer beha-
Industrial Marketing Management, 69, 135–146. vior, tourism destination marketing, service marketing, in-
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Management, 41, 129–140.

Jun (Justin) Li is a full professor in School of Tourism

Management at South China Normal University. He did his
postdoctoral work at the Florida State University between
January 1st, 2015 and April 6th, 2017. He received his PhD
in Business Administration from University of Macau. His
current research interests include tourism sharing economy,
big data analytics in hotel industry, social media marketing,
and human resource management.

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