Dynamic Systems and Control

Modelling of Dynamic
Systems

Phuong-Tung Pham, Ph.D.

Department of Mechatronics
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

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 CONTENTS

Introduction

Mathematical Modeling of Control System

Ordinary Differential Equation

Laplace Transform

Transfer Function

State-Space Representation
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 Introduction

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 Mathematical Model (I)
DC motor system Pendulum system
V
5

t
0 1 6

θ = ? (rad)

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 Mathematical Model (II)
DC motor system

V Dynamic model of a DC motor

5

t
0 1 6

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 Mathematical
Modeling of
Control System

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 Mathematical Model
• In studying control systems, we must be able to model dynamic systems in
mathematical terms and analyze their dynamic characteristics.
• A mathematical model of a dynamic system is defined as a set of equations that
represents the dynamics of the system accurately, or at least fairly well.
• A mathematical model is not unique to a given system. A system may be
represented in many different ways and, therefore, may have many mathematical
models, depending on one’s perspective.
k
x(t) Ordinary Differential Equations (Phương trình vi phân toàn phần)
F
i
M cart
( M + m ) x − mlθ cos θ − ml sin θ − 2mlθ cos θ + mlθ2 sin θ = F
θ(t) ml 2θ − mlx cos θ + 2mllθ + mgl sin θ = 0
rod
l(t)
( M + m ) x − mlθ − mlθ − 2mlθ = F
object m
ml 2θ − mlx + 2mllθ + mglθ = 0

Deriving reasonable mathematical models is the most important part of the entire
analysis of control systems.
Simplicity VS Accuracy
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 Mathematical Model

Models are a mathematical representations of system dynamics:

• Models allow the dynamics to be simulated and analyzed, without
having to build the system
• Models are never exact, but they can be predictive
The model you use depends on the questions you want to answer
• A single system may have many models
• Time and spatial scale must be chosen to suit the questions you
want to answer
• Always formulate questions before building a model

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 Mathematical Model

Linear systems
A system is called linear if the principle of superposition applies
Given 𝑯: 𝑿 → 𝒀 then 𝒚 𝜶𝟏 𝒙𝟏 + 𝜶𝟐 𝒙𝟐 = 𝜶𝟏 𝒚 𝒙𝟏 + 𝜶𝟐 𝒚 𝒙𝟐

Linear time invariant system (LTI)

The coefficients are constants or functions only of the independent variable

Linear time-varying system (LTV)

The coefficients are functions of time
Ex: Spacecraft control system. (The mass of a spacecraft changes due to fuel
consumption)

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 Approach to dynamic system modeling

1. Define the system and its components.

2. Formulate the mathematical model and fundamental necessary

assumptions based on basic principles.

3. Obtain the differential equations representing the mathematical model.

4. Solve the equations for the desired output variables.

5. Examine the solutions and the assumptions.

6. If necessary, reanalyze or redesign the system.

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Example: Modeling a shock absorber (I)

Shock absorber Equivalent damper Free body diagram

(from wikipedia) spring mechanism

Mathematical model

∑𝐹 = 𝑚𝑦ሷ 𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑏𝑦ሶ 𝑡 − 𝑘𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑚𝑦ሷ 𝑡

𝑚𝑦ሷ 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦ሶ 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡

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 Consider the shock absorber system:
𝑚𝑦ሷ 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦ሶ 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡
The response 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑦𝑖𝑐 (𝑡) + 𝑦𝑠𝑠 (𝑡),
where 𝑦𝑖𝑐 (𝑡) is the initial condition response
𝑦𝑠𝑠 (𝑡) is steady state response
Finding 𝒚𝒊𝒄 (𝒕)
The initial response is derived by solving the ODE after removing f(t):
𝑦ሷ 𝑖𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜎 𝑦ሶ 𝑖𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜌𝑦𝑖𝑐 𝑡 = 0 (2𝜎 = 𝑏/𝑚 and 𝜌 = 𝑘/𝑚)
Candidate solution: 𝑦𝑖𝑐 𝑡 = A𝑒 𝛼𝑡
- Case 1: if Δ = 𝜎 2 − 𝜌 > 0, 𝑦𝑖𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐴1 𝑒 (−𝜎+ Δ)𝑡 +𝐴2 𝑒 (−𝜎− Δ)𝑡
- Case 2: if Δ = 𝜎 2 − 𝜌 = 0, 𝑦𝑖𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐴1 𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 +𝐴2 𝑡𝑒 −𝜎𝑡

- Case 3: if Δ = 𝜎 2 − 𝜌 < 0, 𝑦𝑖𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 𝐴1 cos 𝑡 −Δ + 𝐴2 sin(𝑡 −Δ)

Finding 𝒚𝒔𝒔 (𝒕) : Steady solution is obtain by solving the ODE after removing
the derivatives
𝑦𝑠𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑡)/𝑘
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 Example: Modeling a shock absorber (III)
m=1
Dynamic model of the shock absorber system:
b=2 𝑦ሷ 𝑡 + 2𝑦ሶ 𝑡 + 5𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡
k=5
−3𝑡
The initial response is derived by solving the
𝑓 𝑡 =𝑒
ODE after removing f(t):
𝑦ሷ 𝑖𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝑦ሶ 𝑖𝑐 𝑡 + 5𝑦𝑖𝑐 𝑡 = 0

Δ = 12 − 5 = −4 < 0 Case 3: 𝑦𝑖𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑡 𝐴1 cos 2𝑡 + 𝐴2 sin(2𝑡)

𝑓 𝑡
𝑦𝑠𝑠 𝑡 = = 0.2𝑒 −3𝑡
𝑘

𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑡 𝐴1 cos 2𝑡 + 𝐴2 sin(2𝑡) + 0.2𝑒 −3𝑡

Initial conditions: 𝑦 0 =0 𝐴1 = −0.2

𝑦ሶ 0 = 0 𝐴2 = 0.8

𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑡 −0.2 cos 2𝑡 + 0.8sin(2𝑡) + 0.2𝑒 −3𝑡

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 Examples

Pendulum oscillator model

𝑑 2 θ(𝑡) 𝑔
+ sin(θ(𝑡)) = 0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐿

RLC circuit model

Source: Wikipedia
𝑑 2 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑅 𝑑𝑖 1
+ + 𝑖(𝑡) = 0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶
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 Examples

Dynamics of Thermal Systems

Using heat-balance equation, derive dynamic equation of the tank

𝑑𝜃
𝐶𝑑𝜃 = ℎ𝑖 − ℎ0 𝑑𝑡 ↔ 𝐶 = ℎ𝑖 − ℎ0
𝑑𝑡
C: Thermal capacitance
hi: Heat rate of input
ho: Heat rate of output
𝜃: Change of temperature

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 Examples

DC motor model
Back efm

Application of Newton’s laws yields

Analysis of the electric circuit shows

the electrical equation to be

Source: Franklin et al. (2022) Feedback

Control of Dynamic Systems

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Governing Differential Equations for Ideal Elements

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Governing Differential Equations for Ideal Elements (II)

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 Laplace Transform

Pierre Simon
Laplace

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 Definition
Laplace transform: A transformation from t (time) to s (Laplace
variable)

Definition: Laplace transformation L{.} is used to map time

domain function f(t) into s domain function F(s). This mapping
𝐿 . : 𝑓(𝑡) → 𝐹(𝑠) is defined as
∞
𝐹 𝑠 = 𝐿 𝑓(𝑡) = න 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0

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List of Common Transforms

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Example: RC circuit (I)

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Example: RC circuit (II)

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Examples

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Examples

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Properties of Laplace Transform

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 Solving a ODE using the Laplace Transform
m=1
Dynamic model of the shock absorber system:
b=2 𝑦ሷ 𝑡 + 2𝑦ሶ 𝑡 + 5𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡
k=5
−3𝑡
The initial response is derived by solving the
𝑓 𝑡 =𝑒
ODE after removing f(t):
𝑦ሷ 𝑖𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝑦ሶ 𝑖𝑐 𝑡 + 5𝑦𝑖𝑐 𝑡 = 0

Δ = 12 − 5 = −4 < 0 Case 3: 𝑦𝑖𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑡 𝐴1 cos 2𝑡 + 𝐴2 sin (2𝑡)

1
𝑦𝑠𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐵𝑒 −3𝑡 9𝐵𝑒 −3𝑡 − 6𝐵𝑒 −3𝑡 + 5𝐵𝑒 −3𝑡 = 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝐵=
8

1
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑡 𝐴1 cos 2𝑡 + 𝐴2 sin (2𝑡) + 𝑒 −3𝑡
8
1
Initial conditions: 𝑦 0 =0 𝐴 1 = −
8
1
𝑦ሶ 0 = 0 𝐴2 =
8

1 −𝑡 1 −𝑡 1 −3𝑡
𝑦 𝑡 = − 𝑒 cos 2𝑡 + 𝑒 sin(2𝑡) + 𝑒
8 8 8
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Solving a ODE using the Laplace Transform
Dynamic model of the shock absorber system:
𝑦ሷ 𝑡 + 2𝑦ሶ 𝑡 + 5𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡

𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑒 −3𝑡
𝑦 0 =0 𝐿{𝑦ሷ 𝑡 } = 𝑠 2 𝑌 𝑠 − 𝑠𝑦 0 − 𝑦ሶ 𝑡
𝑦ሶ 0 = 0 𝐿{𝑦ሶ 𝑡 } = 𝑠𝑌 𝑠 − 𝑦 0

1 1
𝑠 2 𝑌(𝑠) + 2𝑠𝑌 𝑠 + 5𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐹 𝑠 𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐹 𝑠 𝐿{𝑓 𝑡 } =
(𝑠 2 +2𝑠 + 5) 𝑠+3
1 1 1
1 1 −8𝑠 + 8
𝑌 𝑠 = 𝑌 𝑠 = 2 + 8
(𝑠 2 +2𝑠 + 5) (𝑠 + 3) (𝑠 +2𝑠 + 5) (𝑠 + 3)

1 𝑠+1 1 2 1 1
𝑌 𝑠 =− + +
8 (𝑠 + 1)2 +22 8 (𝑠 + 1)2 +22 8 (𝑠 + 3)

1 −𝑡 1 −𝑡 1 −3𝑡
𝑦 𝑡 = − 𝑒 cos 2𝑡 + 𝑒 sin(2𝑡) + 𝑒
8 8 8
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 Transfer Function

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 Definition
The transfer function of a linear, time-invariant, differential equation system is
defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output (response function)
to the Laplace transform of the input (driving function) under the assumption
that all initial conditions are zero.
Consider the linear time-invariant system defined by the following differential
equation:

𝑎0 𝑦 (𝑛) + 𝑎1 𝑦 (𝑛−1) + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑦ሶ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑏0 𝑥 𝑚 + 𝑏1 𝑥 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑥ሶ + 𝑏𝑚 𝑥

(𝑚 ≤ 𝑛)
where 𝑥(𝑡) is the input and 𝑦(𝑡) is the output.
The transfer function of this system is

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 Comments on Transfer Function
The applicability of the concept of the transfer function is limited to
linear, time-invariant, differential equation systems.
We shall list important comments concerning the transfer function

The transfer function of a system is a mathematical model in that it is an

operational method of expressing the differential equation that relates the
output variable to the input variable.

The transfer function is a property of a system itself, independent of the

magnitude and nature of the input or driving function.

The transfer function includes the units necessary to relate the input to the
output; however, it does not provide any information concerning the physical
structure of the system.

If the transfer function of a system is known, the output or response can be

studied for various forms of inputs with a view toward understanding the
nature of the system.

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 Example (I)
Transfer function of mass-damper-spring system

𝑚𝑦ሷ 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦ሶ 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡

𝐿{𝑦ሷ 𝑡 } = 𝑠 2 𝑌 𝑠 − 𝑠𝑦 0 − 𝑦ሶ 𝑡
𝐿{𝑦ሶ 𝑡 } = 𝑠𝑌 𝑠 − 𝑦 0

1
𝑚𝑠 2 𝑌(𝑠) + 𝑏𝑠𝑌 𝑠 + 𝑘𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐹 𝑠 𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐹 𝑠
(𝑚𝑠 2 +𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘)

𝑌 𝑠 1
Transfer function 𝐺 𝑠 = = 2
𝐹 𝑠 (𝑠 +2𝑠 + 5)

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 Example (II)

Transfer functions of RLC circuit:

- Consider a RLC circuit. The governing differential equation (DE) is given by
𝑡
𝑑𝑖
𝑅 𝑖ሶ + 𝐿 + 𝐶 න 𝑖 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑣 𝑡 .
𝑑𝑡 −∞
𝑑𝑞
Letting 𝑖 = ; the governing differential equation becomes
𝑑𝑡

𝑑2 𝑞 𝑑𝑞
𝐿 2 +𝑅 + 𝐶𝑞 = 𝑣 𝑡 .
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Taking the Laplace transform of the following equation (assume all initial
conditions are zero), an equivalent frequency domain equation results
𝐿𝑠 2 + 𝑅𝑠 + 𝐶 𝑄(𝑠) = 𝑉 𝑠 .
Finally, the transfer function of RLC circuit is obtained
𝑄(𝑠) 1
𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝑉(𝑠) 𝐿𝑠 2 + 𝑅𝑠 + 𝐶
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 Block Diagram
Model

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 Block Diagram Model
Block Diagram: A block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of
the functions performed by each component and of the flow of signals. Such
a diagram depicts the interrelationships that exist among the various
components.

Summing point: A circle with a cross is the symbol that indicates a

summing operation. The plus or minus sign at each arrowhead indicates
whether that signal is to be added or subtracted.
Branch point: A branch point is a point from which the signal from a block
goes concurrently to other blocks or summing points.

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 Automatic Control System Diagram

- Transfer function of a closed loop system:

- We have 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐸 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 .

- However, 𝐸 𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑠 − 𝐵 𝑠 , 𝐵 𝑠 = 𝐶 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 .

- Using the above equations, we obtain

𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 [𝑅 𝑠 − 𝐻 𝑠 𝐶(𝑠)] =
𝑅(𝑠) 1 + 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)
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Block Diagram Transformations (I)

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Block Diagram Transformations (II)

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Automatic Control System Diagram (I)

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Automatic Control System Diagram (II)

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 Signal-flow graphs

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 Signal-flow graphs (sfgs)

For complex systems, the block diagram method can become difficult to
complete. By using the signal-flow graph model, the reduction procedure
(used in the block diagram method) is not necessary to determine the
relationship between system variables.

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Signal-flow graphs (sfgs)

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Signal-flow graphs

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Signal-flow graphs
RLC network. (a) Block diagram (b) Signal-flow graph. .

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Signal-flow graph Model

Y1(s) G11(s)R1(s) + G12(s)R2(s)

Y2(s) G21(s)R1(s) + G22(s)R2(s)

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Signal-flow graph Model

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Signal-flow graph Model

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Mason’s Gain Formula for SFG

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Mason’s Gain Formula for SFG

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Mason’s Gain Formula for SFG

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 State-Space
Representation

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 State-Space Representation

The idea of state-space comes from the state-variable method of describing

differential equations.
The difequations describing a dynamic system are organized as a set of
first-order differential equations in the vector-valued state of the system,
and the solution is visualized as a trajectory of this state vector in space.

Differential equations State-Space Representation

𝑎𝑛 𝑦 𝑛
𝑡 + ⋯ + 𝑎2 𝑦ሷ 𝑡 + 𝑎1 𝑦ሶ 𝑡 + 𝑎0 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 𝐱ሶ = 𝐀𝐱 + 𝐁𝐮
𝑦 = 𝐂𝐱 + 𝐃𝐮
State-Space Representation of the MSD system

𝑥ሶ 1 0 1 𝑥1 0
= −𝑘 1 ∙u
𝑥2 +
𝑏
𝑥ሶ 2 − 𝑚
𝑚 𝑚

𝑥1
𝑚𝑦ሷ 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦ሶ 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 𝑦 = 1 0 𝑥 +0∙u
2

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 State-Space Representation

Why we need state space model?

Q: Are transfer function (TF) enough to model systems?
A: TF is not applicable and convenience for MIMO (multi input multi output),
LTV, and nonlinear system
States and States Variables
▪ State of a dynamic system is the smallest set of variables with the input
that completely determines the behavior of the system.
▪ State variables of a dynamic system are the variables making up the
smallest set of variables that determine the state of the dynamic system
▪ State vector: If n state variables are needed to completely describe the
behavior of a given system, then these n state variables can be considered
the n components of a vector x.
▪ State space: The n-dimensional space whose coordinate axes consist of the
x1 axis, x2 axis,…, xn axis, where x1 axis, x2 axis,…, xn axis are state variables,
is called a state space.
▪ State-space equations include modeling of dynamic systems input
variables, output variables, and state variables.

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 State-Space Representation
Differential equation of a mass-spring-damper system
𝑚𝑦ሷ 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦ሶ 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡

System matrix
0 1 Input matrix
𝐀= 𝑘 𝑏 0
− − 𝑩= 1
𝑚 𝑚
𝑚

States of the system 𝑥ሶ 1 0 1 𝑥1 0

= −𝑘 1 ∙u
𝑥2 +
𝑏
𝑥ሶ 2 −
𝑥1 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
𝐱= 𝑥 𝑥1
2 𝑦 = 1 0 𝑥 +0∙u
2

𝑥ሶ 1
𝐱ሶ =
𝑥ሶ 2
𝐂= 1 0 𝐃=0
Output matrix Direct transmission term
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 State-Space Representation

Differential equation of states Output equation LTI model

LTV model
Define

State equation

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 State-Space Representation
DC motor

State-Space Representation
𝐱ሶ = 𝐀𝐱 + 𝐁𝐮
𝑦 = 𝐂𝐱 + 𝐃𝐮

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 Differential Equation and State Equation
Differential Equation → State Equation
𝑛
𝑎𝑛 𝑦 𝑡 + ⋯ + 𝑎2 𝑦ሷ 𝑡 + 𝑎1 𝑦ሶ 𝑡 + 𝑎0 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑏0 𝑓 𝑡

Letting
 x1   0 1 0 0   x1   0 
𝑥1 = 𝑦(𝑡) x   0 0 1 0   x2   0 
 2  
𝑥𝑖 = 𝑥ሶ 𝑖−1  =   +   f (t )
      
x
 n −1   0 0 0 1   xn −1   0 
 xn   −an −an −1 −an − 2 −a1   xn  b0 
 x1 
x 
 2 
y (t ) = 1 0 0 0  
 
 xn −1 
 xn 

 Find the state equation of the following system

2ഺ
𝑦 𝑡 + 5𝑦ሷ 𝑡 + 6𝑦ሶ 𝑡 + 10𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡
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 Differential Equation and State Equation

 Find the state equation of the following system

𝑦ഺ 𝑡 + 5𝑦ሷ 𝑡 + 6𝑦ሶ 𝑡 + 10𝑦 𝑡 = 10𝑓ሶ 𝑡 + 20𝑓 𝑡

State Equation → Differential Equation

𝑥ሶ 1 0 1 𝑥1 0 𝑥ሶ 1 = 𝑥2
= −𝑘 1 ∙u
𝑥2 +
𝑏 𝑘 𝑏 1
𝑥ሶ 2 − 𝑥ሶ 2 = − 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑢
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
𝑥1 𝑦 = 𝑥1
𝑦 = 1 0 𝑥 +0∙u
2

𝑥ሷ 1 = 𝑥ሶ 2
𝑘 𝑏 1
𝑥ሶ 2 = − 𝑥1 − 𝑥ሶ 1 + 𝑚 𝑢 𝑚𝑦ሷ 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦ሶ 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡
𝑚 𝑚
𝑦 = 𝑥1

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 Transfer Function and State Equation
State Equation → Transfer Function
𝐱ሶ = 𝐀𝐱 + 𝐁𝑢
𝑦 = 𝐂𝐱 + 𝐃𝑢
Using the Laplace transform

𝑠𝐗(𝑠) = 𝐀𝐗(𝑠) + 𝐁𝑈(𝑠) 𝑠𝐗 𝑠 − 𝐀𝐗 𝑠 = 𝐁𝑈(𝑠)

(𝑠𝐈 − 𝐀)𝐗 𝑠 = 𝐁𝑈(𝑠)
𝐗 𝑠 = (𝑠𝐈 − 𝐀)−1 𝐁𝑈(𝑠)

𝑌(s) = 𝐂𝐗(𝑠) + 𝐃𝑈(𝑠)

𝑌 s = [𝐂(𝑠𝐈 − 𝐀)−1 𝐁 + 𝐃]𝑈(𝑠)
Transfer function
𝑌 s
G s = = [𝐂(𝑠𝐈 − 𝐀)−1 𝐁 + 𝐃]
𝑈(𝑠)
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 Transfer Function and State Equation
Example
0 1 𝑚𝑦ሷ 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦ሶ 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡
0
𝐱ሶ = − 𝑘 − 𝐱 + 𝑚 ∙u
𝑏 1
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚𝑠 2 𝑌(𝑠) + 𝑏𝑠𝑌 𝑠 + 𝑘𝑌 𝑠 = 𝑈 𝑠
𝑦= 1 0 𝐱+0∙u
𝑌 s 1
G s = =
0 1 𝑠 −1 𝑈(𝑠) (𝑚𝑠 2 +𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘)
1 0 𝑘 𝑏 = 𝑘 𝑏
𝑠𝐈 − 𝐀 = 𝑠 −
0 1 − − 𝑠+
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚

𝑏
𝑚 𝑠+ 1
(𝑠𝐈 − 𝐀)−1 = 𝑚
𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘 𝑘
− 𝑠
𝑚
𝑏
𝑚 𝑠+ 1 0
G s = [𝐂 𝑠𝐈 − 𝐀)−1 𝐁 + 𝐃 = 1 0 𝑚 1
𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘 𝑘
− 𝑠 𝑚
1 𝑚
G s =
𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘
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 Transfer Function and State Equation
Transfer Function → State Equation

Approach 1: Transfer Function → Differential Equation → State Equation

Y ( s ) b0 s m + b1s m −1 + ... + bm −1s + bm

Approach 2: G ( s) = =
R ( s ) a0 s n + a1s n −1 + ... + an −1s + an

Using an auxiliary variable C(s)

Y ( s ) = ( b0 s m + b1s m −1 + ... + bm −1s + bm ) C ( s )

R ( s ) = (a0 s n + a1s n −1 + ... + an −1s + an )C ( s )

d m c(t ) d m −1c(t ) dc(t )

y (t ) = b0 + b + ... + b + bm c(t )
dt m
1
dt m −1
m −1
dt d i −1 y
xi = i −1
d n c(t ) d n −1c(t ) dc(t ) dt
r (t ) = a0 n
+ a1 n −1
+ ... + a n −1 + an c(t )
dt dt dt

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 Transfer Function and State Equation
Transfer Function → State Equation

 Using Approach 2 to find the state equation of the following system diagram

R(s) 1 10 Y(s)
+-
𝑠 𝑠+3

1
𝑠+2

x = Ax + Br  0 1 0 0 
y = Cx A =  0 0 1  ; B = 0 
 −10 −6 −5 1 
C =  20 10 0

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 Transfer Function and State Equation
Transfer Function → State Equation

Approach 3: Setting state variables directly on the block diagram

R(s) 1 X3(s) 10 X2(s) Y(s)

+-
𝑠 𝑠+3

X1(s) 1
𝑠+2

x = Ax + Br  −2 1 0 0 
y = Cx A =  0 −3 10  ; B = 0 
 −1 0 0  1 
C = 0 1 0

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 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
❖ The solutions of det(λI - A) = 0 is called as the  −1 3 −1
eigenvalues of matrix A A =  −3 5 −1
   + 1 −3 1   −3 3 1 
 
det (  I − A ) = det   3  − 5 1  
 3 −3  − 1  1 = 1

=  3 − 5 2 + 8 − 4 = 0 2 = 3 = 2

❖ The eigenvector qi associated with the eigenvalue λi is any nonzero solution of the
following equation
( A − i I ) qi = 0
For eigenvalue λ1 = 1, we have
 −2 3 −1 1
( A − 1I ) q1 =  −3 4 −1 q1 = 0  q1 = 1
 −3 3 0  1 1 1 1 
Q = 1 1 0 
1  1 1 0 −3
q 2 = 1  ; q3 =  0 
0   −3
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 Diagonal Canonical Form
A is a diagonal matrix
 −2 0 0 
A =  0 −3 0 
x = Ax + Br
y = Cx  0 0 7 

To obtain the diagonal canonical form, we transform the system matrix A

ഥ
into a diagonal matrix 𝐀
Using the transformation: 𝐱 = 𝐌ത
𝐱

M =  q1 q2 qn 
A = M -1 AM
where qi is the eigenvectors of matrix A

Mx = AMx + Br x = M −1AMx + M −1Br

y = CMx y = M −1CMx

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Diagonal Canonical Form
 −1 3 −1 0 
x = Ax + Br A =  −3 5 −1 ; B = 0 
y = Cx  −3 3 1  1 
C = 0 1 0

A = M -1 AM
−1
1 1 1  1 1 1   −1 3 −1 1 1 1 
M =  q1 q2 q 3  = 1 1 0  = 1 1 0   −3 5 −1 1 1 0 
  
1 0 −3 1 0 −3  −3 3 1  1 0 −3
1 0 0 
= 0 2 0 
1 0 0 1 0 0 2 
x = 0 2 0  x +  −1 r
0 0 2   0 
y = 1 1 0 x

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 Appendix

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 Properties of Laplace Transform (I)

1. Linearity

2. Exponential scaling

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 Properties of Laplace Transform(II)

3. Time delay

- The Laplace transform of

e e

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 Properties of Laplace Transform (III)
4. Multiplication by time 𝑡𝑓(𝑡)

- The Laplace transform of

- By repetitive application of the above procedure, it can be

proven that

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 Properties of Laplace Transform (IV)
5. Laplace transform of a function derivative,

- Using integration by parts, , the following

expression are identified

- Then, the one obtains

- By repetitive application of the above procedure, it can be proven that

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 Properties of Laplace Transform (V)

6. Laplace transform of time scaling,

𝜏 = 𝑎𝑡
- Introduce the new variable

- Then, the one obtains

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 Properties of Laplace Transform (VI)

7. Initial value theorem: an interesting observation is made when the

𝑑𝑓(𝑡)
limit of 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 as 𝑠 → ∞ is evaluated as follows

- Since 𝑓 0 can be replaced by lim 𝑓(𝑡), then

𝑡→0

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 Properties of Laplace Transform (VII)

8. Final value theorem: an interesting observation is made when the

𝑑𝑓(𝑡)
limit of 𝐿 as 𝑠 → 0 is evaluated as follows
𝑑𝑡

- Since 𝑓(∞)can be replaced by lim 𝑓(𝑡), then

𝑡→∞

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 Properties of Laplace Transform (VIII)

9. Convolution integral, 𝑟(𝑡) ∗ 𝑔(𝑡), is defined as follows

Exogenous input 𝑟(𝑡) and its response 𝑦(𝑡) after elapsed time 𝑡 − 𝜏

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 Properties of Laplace Transform (IX)

- The Laplace transform of the convolution integral can be obtained

as follows

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 State-Space Representation
𝐱ሶ = 𝐀𝐱 + 𝐁𝑢
𝑦 = 𝐂𝐱 + 𝐃𝑢
Controllability: Ability of a control system to reach a definite state from a
initial state in a finite time
Consider the controllability matrix: C =
A continuous time-invariant linear state-space model is controllable if
only if 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘{ C } = 𝑛

Rank? Gaussian elimination

1 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 0

Rank = 3 Rank = 2

Consider 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix A: if det A ≠ 0 → rank A = 𝑛

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 State-Space Representation
Example. 0 1 𝑎 1
𝐀𝐁 = =
−𝑘 −𝑘 1 −𝑎𝑘 − 𝑏
0 1 𝑎
𝐱ሶ = 𝐱+ ∙u
−𝑘 −𝑏 1
𝑎 1
𝑦 = 1 0 𝐱+0∙u 𝐶 = 𝐁 𝐀𝐁 =
1 −𝑎𝑘 − 𝑏

det 𝐶 = 𝑎 −𝑎𝑘 − 𝑏 − 1 = − 𝑘𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑎 + 1

Case 1: 𝑎 = 0 0 1 0
𝐱ሶ = 𝐱+ ∙u Controllable!!!
det 𝐶 = −1 ≠ 0 → rank 𝐶 = 2 −𝑘 −𝑏 1
𝑦 = 1 0 𝐱+0∙u

Case 2: 𝑘 = 1, 𝑏 = 2, 𝑎 = −1

det 𝐶 = 0 → rank 𝐶 ≠ 2 0 1 −1
𝐱ሶ = 𝐱+ ∙u Uncontrollable!!!
−1 −2 1
𝑦 = 1 0 𝐱+0∙u

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 State-Space Representation

𝑥ሶ 1 0 1 𝑥1 0
𝐱ሶ = 𝐀𝐱 + 𝐁𝑢 = −𝑘 1 ∙u
𝑥2 +
𝑏
𝑥ሶ 2 − 𝑚
𝑚 𝑚
𝑦 = 𝐂𝐱 + 𝐃𝑢 𝑥1
𝑦= 1 0 𝑥 +0∙u
2
Observability
Ability to measure the internal states of a system by examining its
outputs.

Consider the observability matrix:

A continuous time-invariant linear state-space model is observable if

only if 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘{O} = 𝑛

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 State-Space Representation
Example.
𝑥ሶ1 01 𝑥1 0
= 𝑥 + ∙u
𝑥ሶ 2 −𝑘
−𝑏 2 1
𝑥1
𝑦 = 1 0 𝑥 +0∙u
2

𝐂 0 1
O= 𝐂𝐀 = 1 0 = 0 1
𝐂𝐀 −𝑘 𝑏
1 0
O=
0 1

𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘{O} = 2 Observable!!!

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