Chapter 1.

2
History of Science &
Technology
(Historical antecedents in which social
considerations changed the course of
science
and technology)

To merely understand the

discoveries and inventions Learning Outcomes:
that scientists and  Discuss the interactions
technologists have made is between S&T and society
not enough. Beyond scientific
research, we must see its
throughout history.
benefits and consequences  Discuss how scientific and
affecting our way of life here technological developments
and now and in the future. affect society and the
Throughout history, science environment.
can be viewed as a
1 continuous expansion at the  Identify the paradigm shifts
expense of religion, in history
philosophy and the
humanities. Hence, the ways
and processes science
undertake to produce
changes and transformations
must be conscientiously
scrutinized.

15
 In the World: Ancient,
Middle and Modern Ages
Prehistoric Period
Although recorded as the
longest period in the history of men, this  First civilizations emerged independently
period of history is the least we know along the river valleys of Mesopotamia
about. Time and circumstances (Tigris-Euphrates Valley), Egypt (Nile
practically left no historical evidences of Valley), China (Huang Ho Valley) and
how people lived here and there. India (Indus Valley)
Because written records of any kind  People of the first civilizations developed
began from only 5,000 years ago, science and technology as implements in
chronological events were documented their search for food and other survival
largely based on deductions from needs.
archaeological findings. Therefore,  Early hominids and primitive human used
anything prior to the first written stone tools
accounts of history is prehistoric.  Stone Age and Metal Age

Stone Age (Paleolithic Age, Mesolithic

Age and Neolithic Age) – prehistoric
period in which stone was widely
used as implements for hunting.
Started during the 6000 BC and
ended 2000 BC.

Paleolithic Age – consisted of

hunter-gatherer civilizations that
utilized primitive stone tools
• H. erectus utilized and controlled
fire. It was generated through
percussion method and used to Metal Age
produce heat for warmth and for Bronze Age – characterized by the use of
cooking. copper and tin as the chief materials
• Evidences of clothing, painting, in the production of implements such as
sculptures and carvings/engravings weapons and utensils. Wheel was used
as implement for transportation mechanics.
Mesolithic Age – transitional period
that gave way to the rise of shifting- Iron Age – characterized by the widespread use
farming civilizations of iron and steel which was used and modified
2 • Usage of microliths, small stone for use such as in religious practices,
tools made of flint used as agricultural usage, artistic tools and weapons
spearheads and arrowheads. and armors.
• Evidences of construction such as
that of Stonehenge in England.
Neolithic Age – the first agricultural
revolution, making way for
agricultural-mining civilizations
• Developed complex evidences of
numeric counting
• Development of metallurgy and
metalworking, the art and science
of extracting mineral ores and
modifying them for practical use.
• Invention of the wheel, primarily
introduced in making pottery.

16
 Ancient Period

The ancient times saw the rise of the world’s first great
civilizations. Science and technology during this period have diverted from
being solely for survival needs but also to satisfy curiosity. During this period,
knowledge became increasingly available due to the creation of proper writing
systems and record keeping.

Sumerian Civilization
• Invented the world’s first writing
system called cuneiform; a set of
word pictures depicted in symbols
made of triangular marks.
• Standardized measuring following
the sexagesimal (60 as base) system
of counting, e.g. 60 mins is 60
seconds. Babylonian Civilization
Babylonia was the ancient region bordering
Egyptian Civilization Tigris and Euphrates river, which once served
• Developed the first crude and early as the center of commerce and religion in the
version of paper from the plant valley. During the rule of Nebuchadnezzar II,
papyrus. the Hanging Gardens of Babylon (one of the 7
• Writing was in the form of pictorial wonders of the ancient world) was built.
symbols known as hieroglyphics.
• The Pyramids of Giza (wonder of the
Minoan Civilization
Ancient World) was built during the
Situated in the Island of Crete with Knossos as
Golden Age of Egypt.
its capital. The Minoan’s script system was
called Linear A, which has not been fully
Roman Civilization deciphered.
Emperor Hadrian designed the
Pantheon. The Colosseum was built
during the reign of Vespasian for Greek Civilization
gladiatorial contests. Vespasian also Greece served as the foundation of cultural and
implemented a public urinal system philosophical development in the west.
called vespasiano. Thales of Miletus – Father of Philosophy, said that
nature was composed of or convertible to water
Anaxagoras – argued that matter was composed
Arabic/Islamic Civilization of countless tiny particles
3 The Arabic cities prospered by Empedocles – stated that nature was a mixture of
exploiting their strategic location. earth, fire, air and water.
Muhammad founded the religion Islam Hippocrates – Father of Greek Medicine, was first
at the Holy City of Mecca. In to regard medicine as science apart from religion.
technology, the Arabs were the first to Galen – Greek physician, made the first steps for
use glass lens for magnification. the advancement of anatomy.
Aristotle – regarded as Father of many sciences,
Chinese Civilization pioneered and discovered information on variety,
• Acupuncture was used to treat structure and behavior of animals and plants.
illnesses Archimedes – performed experiments which led to
• Royal astronomer Chang Heng the discovery of the laws of levers and pulleys
invented the earthquake that resulted in the invention of machines
weathercock (which is now the thereof.
modern-day seismograph)
• Cai Lun invent the paper and the
paper-making process.

17
 SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION (17th Century)
MEDIEVAL ERA
One legacy of the Renaissance that pushed
The Middle Ages is generally known as the forward the spread of scientific knowledge was
period between the Ancient Times and the the emphasis on the supremacy of reason over
Modern Times. It witnessed the rise of the religion. And while no conflict existed between
Christian empire of Byzantium; the Islamic science and religion, Galileo’s defense of the
empire of the Arabs; the T’ang dynasty in Copernican Theory launched the Scientific
China; Nara culture in Japan; and the Revolution.
Mayans in Central America. Francis Bacon – English statesman who
The power of the Catholic Church served as promoted observation and experimentation as
a unifying force in Europe. The most notable the proper way of deductive reasoning in the
invention during the Medieval Era was the conduct of scientific method.
Printing Press of Johannes Gutenberg in Tycho Brahe – Danish astronomer who studied
Germany. It was the first movable metal type geometric calculations and mathematical
printing press. The Gutenberg Bible, was precisions on celestial observations.
recorded as the world’s oldest mechanically Johannes Kepler – German astronomer who
printed book. made the crucial discovery that orbits of planets
were not circular but elliptical, based on the
RENASSAINCE ERA works of Brahe.
John Napier – Scottish mathematician who
Renaissance is the history of western Europe discovered logarithms, which shortened the
which served as the period of rebirth. This laborious process of multiplying, dividing and
period regarded the publication of books and finding square roots.
the technology of printing most impactful. Rene Descartes – French mathematician who
The rebirth began with the publication of two strengthened the power of reason against the
books which shook the ancient foundations philosophy of Aristotle and Ptolemy. He worked
of knowledge. out analytical geometry.
Nicolaus Copernicus – Polish astronomer Isaac Newton – English physicist who arrived at
who published On the Revolutions of theories on revolutionary hypotheses on
Heavenly Spheres. It challenged the astronomy and physics. Invented calculus.
centuries-old geocentric universe of Ptolemy. Explained the properties of light in the book The
Copernicus proposed the heliocentric Optiks.
theory of the universe, which was not Gottfried von Leibniz – simultaneously and
readily accepted and actually rejected by the independently invented calculus with Newton.
Catholic Church. Christian Huygens – Dutch physicist who
Andreas Vesalius – recognized as the started the use of pendulum as time-controller
founder of modern medicine, surgeon and in clocks.
anatomist Vesalius published On the Fabric Hans Lippershey – improved the magnification
4of the Human Body. Vesalius laid out in of telescopes.
detail the first scientifically accurate Jan Swammerdam – invented microscope and
description of human anatomy. discovered red blood corpuscles.
Leonardo da Vinci – was a great Italian Anthony van Leeuwenhoek – invented
artist and inventor. He anticipated and drew microscope and discovered animalcules.
up plans of future inventions such as the William Harvey – published diagrams of
helicopter, submarine, machine gun and human circulatory system.
motor car. Robert Hooke – discovered cells, a term that he
Galileo Galilei – was a major scientist used to refer to thin layers of cork under his
prosecuted by the Church for heavily microscope.
supporting the heliocentric system. He
conducted scientific experiments on gravity
and falling objects, improved the telescope
and discovered celestial bodies.

18
 Evangelista Toricelli – Italian Guglielmo Marconi – adapted Hertz’s works
mathematician who invented the and created a system of radiotelegraphy,
barometer. which became basis of the modern radio.
George Stephenson – developed the first
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION (18th steam-powered locomotive.
Century)
19TH CENTURY
From the dawn of history, people relied on
physical labor, either directly or with tools 19th century witnessed the rise of modern
held or with animals guided by human industry. An unending stream of new products
hands. Gradually, power of production drove the emerging world. This century was
was supplied by human muscle with considered as the age of machine tools.
assistance from simple machines. The
phenomenal process of doing work from John Dalton – published the atomic theory.
human muscles to machines was aptly Louis Pasteur – developed pasteurization, a
called Industrial Revolution. method of food preservation by killing bacteria.
James Watt – Scottish engineer who Dmitri Mendeleev – formulated the Periodic
invented the first satisfactory condensing Table of Elements
steam engine. Hermann von Helmholtz – invented the
Benjamin Franklin – American statesman ophthalmoscope.
who experimented on electricy. Henri Becquerel – discovered radioactivity.
Luigi Galvani – pioneered Marie Curie & Pierre Curie – discovered the
bioelectromagnetic by putting two element radium.
different metals in contact with frog Joseph Thomson – discovered electron.
muscle. Karl Benz – made the first automobile.
Alessandro Volta – Italian physicist who Rudolf Diesel – developed the first diesel
successfully invented electric battery. engine.
Michael Faraday – British physicist who
conducted experiments on 20TH CENTURY
electromagnetism and in accordance
with Oersted and Ampere’s works, 20th century is one of the most noticeable in
eventually inventing the first dynamo. history in terms of technological advancements
Hans Oersted – Danish scientist who and scientific discoveries. With extensive use of
confirmed and expanded Faraday’s works the scientific method and research funding,
leading to the invention of electric motor. science and technology progressed rapidly. The
Andre Ampere – French physicist who Space Race between USA and Soviet Union
explained magnetic effects. proved that the sky is not the limit, with
Samuel Morse – used electromagnets and expeditions of men reaching as far as the
practically produced the first telegraph moon.
and developed the Morse Code system of
5 signals. Astronomy
Alexander Graham Bell – invented the Big Bang and Steady State Theory –
telephone and carried out the first explained the origin and evolution of the
telephone conversation. universe.
Thomas Edison – invented the Space probes closely observed the planets and
incandescent light bulb, phonograph, moons of the solar system.
motion picture equipment among Sputnik 1 – the first orbiting space probe
others. launched by the Soviet Union in 1957
Heinrich Hertz – produced Yuri Gagarin – the first man to journey in
electromagnetic waves through space and outer space
utilized them to broadcast and receive Neil Armstrong – first human to walk in
radio waves. another celestial body, the moon, through the
Apollo 11 mission.

19
 Biology
DNA Structure – the double helix was
determined and elucidated by the Rosalind
Franklin, Maurice Wilkins, James Watson
and Francis Crick.
Vaccine – the first vaccine was developed
by Jonas Salk for polio.
Spanish Flu – killed an approximate of 20
Technology
to 100 million people from 1918-1919.
Computers were developed and improved
HIV – a viral disease which arose in Africa
from the classical abacus.
and results in AIDS
Intel developed a microprocessor that made
computers smaller, cheaper, and more
Engineering and Production
user-friendly.
Home appliances increased dramatically
Bill Gates founded Microsoft, which would
due to the availability of electricity.
eventually turn out to be one of the biggest
Washing machines, dryers, refrigerators,
corporations in techno-science.
electric stoves and vacuum cleaners
Steve Jobs & Steve Wozniak introduced
became popular. Cassette tapes, transistor
Apple in 1976.
radio, CDs, VCRs and VHS were made. New
Internet was created for defense-related
materials such as stainless steel, Velcro,
research known as ARPANet or Advanced
silicone, Teflon, polyethylene, nylon, PVC
Research Projects Agency Network.
became widespread in application.
Tim Berners Lee invented the World Wide
Thousands of chemicals were developed for
Web.
industry and home application.
Henry Ford devised a system of mass
production for Model T in 1908 which
Physics and Chemistry
made cars available and affordable to the
Albert Einstein – explained physical
masses.
phenomena and published his Theory of
Artificial Intelligence was invented that
Relativity.
gave computers the capacity to perform
Wolfgang Pauli – developed the Pauli
human-like intellectual processes. Modern
Exclusion principle, explaining the state of
AI features specifically designed computers
electrons in an atom in quantum state.
that can respond similarly to humans.
Werner Heisenberg – key creator of
quantum mechanics and published
6 Uncertainty Principle
Gilbert Lewis – suggested that a chemical
bond is a pair of electrons shared by two
atoms. Lewis Structures.
Niels Bohr – proposed the Bohr model of
the atom.

Social Sciences
Ivan Pavlov – proposed the theory of
Classical Conditioning.

20
 History of STS in the
Philippines

PRECOLONIAL S&T
SPANISH COLONIAL PERIOD (1521-1898)
There is a very little reliable written
information about Philippine society, culture In 1521, Ferdinand Magellan discovered the
and technology before the arrival of the Philippines for Spain. The colonization has
Spaniards in 1521. The early Filipinos had largely contributed to the development of
attained a generally simple level of S&T in the country. The beginnings of
technological development, compared with modern science and technology in the
those of the Chinese and Japanese, but this Philippines can be traced to the Spanish
was sufficient for their needs at that period regime. The Spaniards established schools,
of time. hospitals and started scientific research and
Archaeological findings indicate that modern these had important consequences for the
men from the Asian mainland first came rise of the country’s professions. Several
over-land and across narrow channels to expeditions from Mexico have been sent for
live in Palawan and Batangas around religious conversion. In 1571, Manila was
50,000 years ago. For about 40,000 years, established as the capital of the central
they made simple tools or weapons of stone government of the Governor-general.
flakes but eventually developed techniques There was very little development in
for sawing, drilling and polishing hard Philippine agriculture and industry during
stones. the first two centuries of Spanish rule. This
Filipinos had also learned to build boats for was largely due to the dependence of the
the coastal trade. By the tenth century A.D., Spanish colonizers on the profits from the
this had become a highly developed Galleon or Manila-Acapulco trade, which
technology. In fact, the early Spanish lasted from 1565 to 1813.
chroniclers took note of the refined plank- Roads for horses and coaches were built to
built warship called caracoa. These boats connect provinces and towns. Stone
were well suited for inter-island trade raids. churches were built as religious centers.
By the tenth century A.D., the inhabitants Stone walls and fortifications were also built.
of Butuan were trading with Champa San Lazaro Hospital in Manila is considered
(Vietnam); those of Ma-i (Mindoro) with the oldest in the Far East, established in
China. These indicate that regular trade 1578 and still exists today. In 1602, Roman
relations and barter between the two alphabet was introduced and Spanish and
countries had been well established during Tagalog texts were published.
the tenth to the fifteenth centuries. Academic institutions were mandated to be
7 By the time the Spaniards came to colonies built, and this sparked the progress of
the Philippines in 1565; they found many science in the country. The first educational
scattered, autonomous village communities institutions offering courses above primary
(called barangays) all over the archipelago. levels were:
These were kinship groups or social units Colegio de San Ildefonso (University of
rather than political units. San Carlos) 1595, Colegio de Nuestra
On the whole, the pre-colonial Filipinos were Senora del Rosario (University of Santo
still highly superstitious. The Spaniards Tomas) 1611, Colegio de San Juan de
found no temples or places of worship. Letran 1706, Ateneo Municipal de Manila
Although the Filipinos knew how to read 1859
and write in their own system of baybayin, In 1802, Escuela de Nautica was organized
this was mainly used for messages and and offered courses in navigation,
letters. They seem not to have developed a meteorology and cosmology.
written literary tradition at that time.

21
 AMERICAN COLONIAL PERIOD
Throughout the Spanish regime, the royal
and pontifical University of Santo Tomas S&T in the Philippines advanced rapidly during
remained as the highest institution of the American regime. This was made possible by
learning. Run by the Dominicans, it was the
established as a college in 1611 by Fray simultaneous government encouragement and
Miguel de Benavides. It initially granted support for an extensive public education
degrees in theology, philosophy and system.
humanities.
In 1876, the UST granted the bachelor's The Americans introduced a system of
degree in pharmacy to its first six secularized public school education as soon as
graduates in the school of pharmacy. civil government was set up in the islands. On
Among them was Leon Ma. Guerrero, 21 January 1901, the Philippine Commission,
who is usually referred to as the "Father which acted as the executive and legislative body
of Philippine Pharmacy" because of his for the Philippines until 1907, promulgated Act
extensive work on the medicinal plants of No. 74 creating a Department of Public
the Philippines and their uses. Higher Instruction in the Philippines. It provided for the
education during the Spanish regime was establishment of schools that would give free
generally viewed with suspicion and primary education, with English as the medium
feared by the colonial authorities as of instruction. Subsequent establishment of
encouraging conspiracy and rebellion public educational institutions eventually led to
among the native Filipinos. For this the creation of the first state university in the
reason, only the more daring and country, University of the Philippines.
persevering students were able to Act in 1933 creating the National Research
undertake advantaged studies. Council of the Philippine Islands (NRCP). Aside
The prosperity that resulted from from working for the promotion of scientific
increased commerce between the research, the NRCP actively participated in the
Philippines and the rest of the world deliberations and drafting of provisions affecting
through the Suez Canal enabled Filipino science and industry in the 1934 Constitutional
students to go to Europe for professional Convention.
advanced studies. These included Jose
Rizal who was able to pursue studies in COMMONWEALTH ERA
Medicine and specialize in ophthalmology In 1935, the Philippine Commonwealth was
in Spain and Germany; Graciano inaugurated and ushered in a period of
Apacible who studied medicine in transition to political independence. The
Madrid; Antonio Luna who obtained his Constitution acknowledged the importance of
Ph.D. in pharmacy in Madrid and later promoting scientific development for the
worked with renowned scientists in economic development by incorporating a
Ghent and Paris; Jose Alejandrino who provision (Article XIII, Section 4) "The State shall
8 took up engineering in Belgium, and promote scientific research and invention, Arts
others. and Letters shall be under its patronage..."
Meteorological studies were promoted by The government, which was by this time
Jesuits who founded the Manila completely under Filipino management,
Observatory in 1865. The Observatory continued to expand its public school system to
collected and made available typhoon accommodate the increasing number of
and climatological observations. These schoolchildren.
observations grew in number and On the whole, higher education was provided
importance so that by 1879, it became mainly by the private sector. By 1936, there
possible for Fr. Federico Faura to issue were 425 private schools recognized by the
the first public typhoon warning. In government, 64 of which we institutions at the
1901, the Observatory was made a College level and 7 were universities. These were
central station of the Philippine Weather Centro Escolar University, Far Easter University,
Bureau which was set up by the National University,
American colonial authorities.

22
 Philippine Women's University, Science Education Institutions (SEI) was
Silliman University, University of created to accomplish the task of administering
Manila and the University of Santo scholarships, awards and grants in S&T and
Tomas. Together with the University of formulating plans for the promotion and
the Philippines these had a total of 19,575 development of S&T.
college students in all universities in the Science and Technology Information
country. Institute was created to establish and develop
In spite of all these efforts, the a S&T databank and library.
Commonwealth government was unable to Philippine Council for Advanced Science and
achieve its goal of economic self-reliance. Technology Research and Development was
This was primarily because foreign trade a sectoral council of the DOST tasked for the
and tariff policies remained under the coordination of a national system of advance
control of the American government. S&T.
Moreover, the Pacific War broke out in Philippine Atmosphere Geophysical and
1941 and the Philippines was occupied by Astronaut Services Administration was
Japanese troops. established to give environmental protection
The occupation of the Philippines by the and utilize scientific information to ensure
Japanese during the War brought safety of the nation.
educational and scientific activities
practically to a halt as able bodied citizens CURRENT STATE OF S&T IN THE
joined the resistance movement. Manila, PHILIPPINES
which was the center of all educational
and scientific activities, was razed to the According to the Technology Index of 1982,
ground, destroying everything that had the S&T in the Philippines is defined to be -0.1
been built up before. It was in this compared to the U.S., the world's technology
condition that the Philippines became an leader, which is 100. The technology index is
independent state. defined as the average of the sum of the
number of patents and registration of new
SINCE INDEPENDENCE designs, technology trade, value added in
manufacturing and the export of technology-
The Science Act created the National intensive goods.
Science Development Board (NSDB) to The Philippines also ranks low in terms of
formulate policies for the development of technological capacity. This is seen in the
science and coordinate the work of shortage of scientists and engineers doing R&D
science agencies. In 1982, NSDB was (research and development), and of the
further reorganized into a National inadequate national resources and budget
Science and Technology Authority devoted to R&D. All these factors translate to
9 (NSTA) composed of four research and
Development Councils; Philippine Council
the minimal patents granted in the Philippines,
which likewise indicates little or no economic
for Agriculture and Resources Research significance.
and Development; Philippine Council for With regards to the type of basic technologies--
Industry and Energy Research Materials Technology, Equipment Technology,
Development; Philippine Council for Energy Technologies, Information Technologies,
Health Research and Development and Life Technologies and Management
the NRCP. In 1987, under Aquino’s Technologies, the Philippines has only a pre-
administration, the NSTA was reorganized operative capability in the third-wave of
into the Department of Science and development in these technologies.
Technology (DOST). DOST is a central
agency mandated to provide direction,
leadership and coordination of all
scientific and technological activities in
the country.

23