Chapter 1: Basic Logical Concepts

1. What Logic Is?

Logic is the study of the methods and principles used to distinguish
correct from incorrect reasoning.
Detail:

Premise 1: All birds can fly. Premise 2: A sparrow is a bird.

Conclusion: Therefore, a sparrow can fly.

In this example, we're using the premise that all birds have the ability to fly.
Since a sparrow is classified as a bird, we can logically conclude that it can
fly based on the general characteristic of birds.

2. Propositions and Arguments

In reasoning we construct and evaluate arguments; arguments are built
with propositions.
 A.Propositions
A statement; what is typically asserted using a declarative
sentence, and hence always either true or false—although
its truth or falsity may be unknown.

Detail: Propositions are statements or ideas that can be either true or

false. They express something that can be affirmed or denied. In easy
words, propositions are sentences that tell us about something and can be
either right or wrong. For example, "The sky is blue" and "It is raining
outside" are propositions because they make a claim that can be evaluated
as true or false.
  Statement
A proposition; what is typically asserted by a declarative sentence, but not
the sentence itself. Every statement must be either true or false, although
the truth or falsity of a given statement may be unknown.

Detail : Statement: "Apples are fruits."

This is a statement because it's a simple declaration about apples.

It can be evaluated as either true or false. In this case, it's true that
apples are classified as fruits based on their botanical definition.
Therefore, the statement "Apples are fruits" is considered true.

B. Arguments

Inference
A process by which one proposition is arrived at and affirmed on the basis
of some other proposition or propositions.

Example: Premise 1: All humans are mortal. (General statement)

Premise 2: John is a human. (Specific example)

Inference: Therefore, John is mortal. (Logical conclusion)

In this example, we're using the general premise that all humans
(including John) share the characteristic of mortality. Based on this
general principle and the specific information that John is a
human, we can logically infer that John, like all humans, is mortal
Argument
Any group of propositions of which one is claimed to follow from the others,
which are regarded as providing support or grounds for the truth of that
one.

Example: Premise 1: Every time it rains, the flowers in the garden bloom.
Premise 2: It is currently raining.

Conclusion: Therefore, the flowers in the garden will bloom.

In this argument, the conclusion (the flowers in the garden will bloom) is
claimed to follow logically from the premises (every time it rains, the
flowers bloom, and it is currently raining). The premises provide support or
grounds for the truth of the conclusion by establishing a cause-and-effect
relationship between rain and the blooming of flowers. This argument
demonstrates inductive reasoning, where the conclusion is likely to be true
based on the observed pattern or correlation between rain and flower
blooming

Conclusion
In any argument, the proposition to which the other propositions in the
argument are claimed to give support, or for which they are given as
reasons.

Details Premise 1: All mammals have hair. Premise 2: A dog is a mammal.

Conclusion: Therefore, a dog has hair.

In this argument, the conclusion is "a dog has hair." It's the proposition that
the other propositions (premises) in the argument are claimed to support
or provide reasons for. The premises establish the general rule that all
mammals have hair and the specific fact that a dog is a mammal. Based on
these premises, the conclusion logically follows that a dog, being a
mammal, also has hair.
Premises
In an argument, the propositions upon which inference is based, the
propositions that are claimed to provide grounds or reasons for the
conclusion.

Details : Premise 1: Every time I eat chocolate cake, I feel happy. Premise 2: I
just ate a slice of chocolate cake.

In this argument, the premises are:

Premise 1: Every time I eat chocolate cake, I feel happy. Premise 2: I just ate
a slice of chocolate cake.

These propositions form the basis of the argument and are claimed to
provide grounds or reasons for the conclusion. They establish a pattern or
correlation between eating chocolate cake and feeling happy, which leads
to the conclusion that the person (the arguer) will feel happy after eating a
slice of chocolate cake.

3.Recognizing Arguments
Recognizing arguments means identifying statements that present reasons or evidence
to support a main conclusion or claim. In other words, it's understanding when someone
is trying to persuade you by providing reasons to believe something.

Here's an example in easy wording:

Example: Statement 1: "Eating vegetables is good for your health because they are rich
in vitamins and fiber."

Statement 2: "Most people who exercise regularly have better cardiovascular health."

Both of these statements are arguments because they present reasons (eating
vegetables for health benefits, and exercising for better cardiovascular health) to
support their main conclusions (eating vegetables is good for health, and regular
exercise improves cardiovascular health).
 a. Conclusion Indicators and Premise Indicators
Conclusion indicator
A word or phrase (such as “therefore” or “thus”) appearing in an
argument and usually indicating that what follows it is the conclusion of
that argument.

Therefore for these reasons

Hence, it follows that
So, I conclude that
Accordingly, which shows that
In consequence, which means that
Consequently, which entails that
Proves that which implies that
As a result, which allows us to infer that
For this reason which points to the conclusion that
Thus, we may infer

Other words or phrases typically serve to mark the premises of an argument and
hence are called premise indicators.
Premise indicators.: In an argument, a word or phrase (like “because”
and “since”) that normally signals that what follows it are statements
serving as premises.

Since as indicated by
Because the reason is that
For the reason that
As may be inferred from
Follows from may be derived from
As shown by may be deduced from
Inasmuch as in view of the fact that

B. Arguments in Context:
 "Arguments in context" refers to discussions or debates where people put
forward reasons or evidence to support their views or opinions on a
particular topic.

Imagine you're discussing with your friends whether or not chocolate ice
cream is the best flavor. Each person gives their reasons:

1. "I think chocolate ice cream is the best because it's creamy and rich."
2. "I prefer vanilla because it's light and refreshing."
3. "I love strawberry because it's fruity and sweet."

Each of these statements represents an argument in context. It's not just

about stating preferences; it's about giving reasons or evidence to support
those preferences. Arguments in context help us understand different
perspectives and make informed decisions

b. Premises or Conclusions Not in Declarative Form

"Premises or conclusions not in declarative form" refers to statements
that do not directly state facts or beliefs but are still used to support
an argument or point of view.

Detail: Premise (Not in Declarative Form): If more people switch to electric

cars, we could significantly reduce air pollution in our cities.

In this example, the premise is expressed as a conditional statement,

suggesting a potential outcome if more people adopt electric cars. It
doesn't directly state a fact but implies a connection between increased
electric car usage and reduced air pollution. This statement could be part of
an argument supporting the conclusion that promoting electric cars is
beneficial for environmental health

Rhetorical question
 A rhetorical question is a question that is asked not to receive an answer
but to make a point, emphasize a statement, or provoke thought. It's a
figure of speech where the speaker or writer poses a question for effect or
to engage the audience, even though the answer is already implied or
obvious. Rhetorical questions are often used in persuasive writing or speech
to influence the audience's thinking or to create a dramatic effect

Example : Rhetorical Question: "Do birds fly?"

In this example, the question is asked to emphasize a well-known fact (that birds fly)
rather than to seek an actual answer. It's used to make a point or to draw attention to a
common understanding.

D. Unstated Propositions
Unstated propositions refer to ideas or assumptions that are not explicitly
expressed in a statement or argument but are implied or understood. These
propositions are essential for understanding the context or implications of
the main point being made but are not directly stated. They often represent
underlying beliefs, assumptions, or implications that support or contribute
to the overall argument or message.

Example Statement: "Tom is not a good fit for the job."

Unstated Propositions:

1. There are specific qualifications or characteristics required for the job.

2. Tom does not possess these qualifications or characteristics.
3. A good fit for the job must have certain skills or experiences.
4. Tom lacks the necessary skills or experiences.

In this example, the unstated propositions help to clarify the reasons

behind the statement that "Tom is not a good fit for the job." While these
propositions are not explicitly stated, they are implied in the assessment of
Tom's suitability for the position

Enthymeme
An argument that is stated incompletely, the unstated part of it being taken
for granted.

Statement: "She's a vegetarian, so she won't eat the steak."

Enthymeme (Unstated Premise): "Vegetarians don't eat meat."

In this example, the unstated premise "Vegetarians don't eat meat" is taken
for granted or assumed to be understood. The argument is incomplete
without this unstated premise, but it's implied in the conclusion that the
person referred to as "she" won't eat the steak because she is a vegetarian.

5. Arguments and Explanations

Arguments:
Purpose: The primary purpose of an argument is to persuade or convince the
audience to accept a particular claim or viewpoint.

Argument: Claim: Dogs make great pets. Reason: They are loyal and provide
companionship.

Explanations:
 Purpose: The main purpose of an explanation is to provide clarification or
understanding of why something is the case or how something works

Explanation: Statement: The sun rises in the east because Earth rotates from west
to east.
In the argument, we're trying to persuade someone that dogs make great pets by
giving reasons why. In the explanation, we're just providing information about
why the sun appears to rise in the east based on Earth's rotation.

5. Deductive and Inductive Arguments

Deductive argument
One of the two major types of argument traditionally
distinguished, the other being the inductive argument. A deductive
argument claims to provide conclusive grounds for its conclusion.
If it does provide such grounds, it is valid; if it does not, it is
invalid.

Example: Premise 1: All humans are mortal. (General statement)

Premise 2: John is a human. (Specific example)

Conclusion: Therefore, John is mortal.

In this deductive argument, the conclusion logically follows from the premises. If we
accept that all humans are mortal (Premise 1) and that John is a human (Premise 2), then
it logically follows that John must be mortal as well (Conclusion). This is an example of
deductive reasoning, where the conclusion necessarily follows from the premises if they
are true.

A deductive argument makes the claim that its conclusion is supported by its
premises conclusively.

Inductive argument
One of the two major types of argument traditionally
distinguished, the other being the deductive argument. An
inductive argument claims that its premises give only some
degree of probability, but not certainty, to its conclusion.

Example: Premise 1: Every time I've eaten peanuts, I've had an allergic reaction. Premise
2: Peanuts contain allergens known to trigger allergic reactions.

Conclusion: Therefore, it's likely that eating peanuts will cause an allergic reaction.

In this inductive argument, the conclusion is based on the observed pattern or

correlation between eating peanuts and experiencing allergic reactions (Premise 1).
Additionally, the premise that peanuts contain allergens known to trigger allergic
reactions (Premise 2) provides further support for the conclusion. However, unlike
deductive arguments, inductive arguments do not guarantee the truth of the conclusion;
instead, they suggest that the conclusion is probable or likely based on the available
evidence
An inductive argument, in contrast, does not make such a
claim.

Detail: When the claim is made that the premises of an argument (if true) provide
incontrovertible grounds for the truth of its conclusion, that claim will be either
correct or not correct. If it is correct, that argument is valid. If it is not correct (that
Is, if the premises when true fail to establish the conclusion irrefutably although
Claiming to do so), that argument is invalid.

Validity:
A characteristic of any deductive argument whose premises, if they were all
true, would provide conclusive grounds for the truth of its conclusion. Such
an argument is said to be valid. Validity is a formal characteristic; it applies
only to arguments, as distinguished from truth, which applies to
propositions.
Example:
Certainly! Here's an example of validity in an argument:

Premise 1: All mammals are warm-blooded. Premise 2: A cat is a mammal.

Conclusion: Therefore, the cat is warm-blooded.

In this example, the argument is valid because the conclusion logically

follows from the premises. If we accept that all mammals are warm-
blooded (Premise 1) and that a cat is a mammal (Premise 2), then it
logically follows that the cat must be warm-blooded (Conclusion). The
argument is valid because the conclusion is necessarily true if the premises
are true.