CBSE Class 12 History

Part-I: Chapter 1
The Harappan Civilisation
Bricks breads and bones class 12 Notes History
Key concepts in nutshells
1. Period:-
1. Early Harappan culture – Before 2600 BCE
2. Mature Harappa culture – 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE
3. Late Harappa culture – After 1900 BCE
4. Extent of Harappan civilisation:-
1. Northern boundary- Manda Southern Boundary- Daimabad
2. Eastern boundary- Alamgirpur Western boundary- Sutkagendor Characteristics
of the Harappan Civilisation.

Time Line 1
Major Periods in Early Indian Archaeology

2 million BP (Before
Lower Palaeolithic
Present)

80,000 Middle Palaeolithic

35,000 Upper Palaeolithic

12,000 Mesolithic

Neolithic (early agriculturists

10,000
and pastoralists)

6,000 Chalcolithic (first use of copper)

2600 BCE Harappan civilization

1000 BCE Early iron, megalithic burials

600 BCE – 400 CE Early Historic

1. Subsistence strategies
1. The Harappans ate wide range of plants and animal products.
2. Animal bones found at Harappan sites include those of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo
and pig.
3. The bones of wild species found suggest the Harappans hunted these animals
themselves or obtained meat from other hunting communities. Bones of fish and fowl
are also found.
4. Agricultural technologies:
• Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was
known, and archaeologists extrapolate from this that oxen were used for
ploughing.
• Terracotta models of the plough have been found at sites in Cholistan and at
Banawali. Evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibangan has also been found.
• Traces of irrigation canals have been found at Shortugahi in Afghanistan.
• Traces of rainwater harvesting found in Dholavira in Gujarat through water
reservoirs.
2. MOHENJODARO: A planned urban city
Two Sections of settlement:-
1. The Citadel
• These were constructed on mud brick platforms and were walled, which meant
that it was physically separated from the Lower Town
• These include the warehouse – a massive structure of which the lower brick
portions remain.
• The upper portions, probably of wood, was – the Great Bath. It was a large
rectangular tank in courtyard surrounded by a corridor on all four sides.
2. The Lower Town
• It had carefully planned drainage system. The roads and streets were laid out
along an approximate “grid” pattern.
• It provides examples of residential buildings. Many were centred on a courtyard,
with rooms on all sides.
• Every house had its own bathroom paved with bricks, with drains connected
through the wall to the street drains.
• The uniqueness of the structure, as well as the context in which it was found (the
Citadel, with several distinctive buildings), has led scholars to suggest that it was
meant for some kind of a special ritual bath.
3. Social differences
 • Burials: At burials in Harappan site,s the dead were generally laid in
pits. Sometimes, there were differences in the way the burial pit was made. Some
graves contain pottery and ornaments, perhaps indicating a belief that these could
be used in the afterlife. Jewellery has been found in burials of both men and women.
• Looking for “luxuries”: The artefacts are classified as utilitarian and luxuries by
the archaeologists. Utilitarian objects are of daily use made fairly easily out of
ordinary materials such as stone or clay. Luxuries are those items if they are rare or
made from costly, non-local materials or with complicated technologies. The situation
becomes more complicated when we find what seem to be articles of daily use, such
as spindle whorls made of rare materials such as faience.
4. Craft Production
• Chanhudaro is a tiny settlement exclusively devoted to craft production, including
bead-making, shell-cutting, metal-working, seal-making and weight-making.
• The variety of materials used to make beads is remarkable.
• Techniques for making beads differed according to the material.
• Nodules were chipped into rough shapes, and then finely flaked into the final form.
• Specialised drills have been found at Chanhudaro, Lothal and more recently at
Dholavira.
• Nageshwar and Balakot were specialised centres for making shell objects – including
bangles, ladles and inlay.
• Centres of production: Archaeologists identified centres of production by looking
for raw materials and tools used.
• Waste is one of the best indicators of craft work. Sometimes, larger waste pieces
were used up to make smaller objects.
• These traces suggest that apart from small, specialised centres, craft production was
also undertaken in large cities such as Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
5. Strategies for procuring material
• Procured from the subcontinent and beyond: The Harappans procured materials
for craft production in various ways.
• Terracotta toy models of bullock carts suggest that this was one important means of
transporting goods and people across land routes.
• Another strategy for procuring raw materials may have been to send expeditions,
which established communication with local communities.
• Contact with distant lands: archaeological finds suggest that copper was also
probably brought from Oman, on the southeastern tip of the Arabian peninsula.
• Mesopotamian texts datable to the third millennium BCE refer to copper coming from
a region called Magan, perhaps a name for Oman.
• Other archaeological finds include Harappan seals, weights, dice and beads which
suggests contacts with regions named Dilmun (probably the island of Bahrain),
Magan and Meluhha, possibly the Harappan region.
 • It is likely that communication with Oman, Bahrain or Mesopotamia was by sea.
Mesopotamian texts refer to Meluhha as a land of seafarers. Besides, we find
depictions of ships and boats on seals.
6. Seals, Script, Weights
• Seals and sealings were used to facilitate long distance communication. The sealing
also conveyed the identity of the sender.
• An enigmatic script: Harappan seals usually have a line of writing, probably
containing the name and title of the owner. Scholars have also suggested that the
motif (generally an animal) conveyed a meaning to those who could not read.
• Most inscriptions are short, the longest containing about 26 signs. Although the script
remains undeciphered to date, it was evidently not alphabetical as it has just too
many signs – somewhere between 375 and 400. The script was written from right to
left.
• Weights: Exchanges were regulated by a precise system of weights, usually made
of a stone called Chert and generally cubical, with no markings.
• Metal scale-pans have also been found.
7. Ancient Authority
• There are indications of complex decisions being taken and implemented in
Harappan society.
• Palaces and kings: A large building found at Mohenjodaro was labelled as a palace
by archaeologists but no spectacular finds were associated with it. A stone statue
was labelled and continues to be known as the “priest-king”.
• Some archaeologists are of the opinion that Harappan society had no rulers,
whereas other archaeologist feels that there was no single ruler but several
rulers, Mohenjodaro had a separate ruler, Harappa another. While some believe
that there was a single state.
8. The End of the Civilisation
• There is evidence that by c. 1800 BCE most of the Mature Harappan sites in regions
such as Cholistan had been abandoned. Simultaneously, there was an expansion of
population into new settlements in Gujarat, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh.
• Several explanation for the decline of Harappan civilisation are climatic changes,
deforestation, excessive floods, the shifting and/or drying up of rivers.
• The end was evidenced by the disappearance of seals, the script, distinctive beads
and pottery, the shift from a standardised weight system to the use of local weights;
and the decline and abandonment of cities.
9. Discovering the Harappan Civilisation
• When Harappan cities fell into ruin, people gradually forgot all about them.
• Cunningham’s confusion: The first Director-General of the ASI, Cunningham used the
accounts left by Chinese Buddhist pilgrims who had visited the subcontinent between
the fourth and seventh centuries CE to locate early settlements. A site like Harappa,
which was not part of the itinerary of the Chinese pilgrims and was not known as an
Early Historic city.
 • A Harappan seal was given to Cunningham by an Englishman. He noted the object, but
unsuccessfully tried to place it within the time-frame with which he was familiar. It is not
surprising that he missed the significance of Harappa.
• A new old civilisation: In 1924, John Marshall, Director-General of the ASI, announced
the discovery of a new civilisation in the Indus valley to the world.
• It was then that the world knew not only of a new civilisation, but also of one
contemporaneous with Mesopotamia.
• Marshall tended to excavate along regular horizontal units, measured uniformly
throughout the mound, ignoring the stratigraphy of the site. This meant that all the
artefacts recovered from the same unit were grouped together.
• New techniques and questions: Since the 1980s, there has also been growing
international interest in Harappan archaeology.
• Specialists from the subcontinent and abroad have been jointly working at both Harappa
and Mohenjodaro.
• They are using modern scientific techniques including surface exploration to recover
traces of clay, stone, metal and plant and animal remains as well as to minutely analyse
every scrap of available evidence. These explorations promise to yield interesting results
in the future.

Time Line 2
Major Developments in Harappan Archaeology

Nineteenth
Century Report of Alexander Cunningham on
Harappan seal
1875

Twentieth
Century M.S Vats beings excavations at
Harappa
1921

1925 Excavations begin at mohenjodaro

1946 R.E.M wheeler excavates at Harappa

1955 S.R Rao beings excavations at Lothal

B.B Lal and B.K Thapar being

1960
excavations at Kalibangan
 M.R Mughal beings exploration in
1974
Bahawalpur

A team of German and Italian

1980 archaeologists beings surface
exploration at mohenjodaro

American team beings excavations at

1986
Harappa

R.S Bisht beings excavations at

1990
Dholavira

1. Problems of Piecing Together the Past

• It is not the Harappan script that helps in understanding the ancient civilisation.
Rather, it is material evidence that allows archaeologists to better reconstruct
Harappan life. This material could be pottery, tools, ornaments, household objects,
etc.
• Organic materials such as cloth, leather, wood and reeds generally decompose,
especially in tropical regions. What survive are stone, burnt clay (or terracotta),
metal, etc.
• Classifying finds: One simple principle of classification is in terms of material, such
as stone, clay, metal, bone, ivory, etc. The second, is in terms of function.
Archaeologists have to decide whether, for instance, an artefact is a tool or an
ornament, or both, or something meant for ritual use.
• Sometimes, archaeologists have to take recourse to indirect evidence. For instance,
though there are traces of cotton at some Harappan sites, to find out about clothing
we have to depend on indirect evidence including depictions in sculpture.
• Problems of interpretation: Early archaeologists thought that certain objects which
seemed unusual or unfamiliar may have had a religious significance.
• Attempts have also been made to reconstruct religious beliefs and practices by
examining seals, some of which seem to depict ritual scenes.
• Others, with plant motifs, are thought to indicate nature worship.
• Several reconstructions remain speculative at present.