CELLULAR NETWORKS

Questions Bank
1. What are the two basic types of communication channels?
Ans .Basically, there are following two types of communication channels
(i) wired channels
(ii) radio or wireless channels
The wired channels are stationary and predictable whereas the radio channels are extremely random and
do not offer easy analysis. Even the speed of motion affects how rapidly the signal level fades as a mobile
terminal moves in space. Therefore, it has been most difficult to model a radio channel in mobile radio
system design. However, the model of a radio channel is achieved in a statistical manner which is based
upon the measurement observed for the desired communication system or spectrum allocation.

2. What is bandwidth?
Ans. Bandwidth is the range of frequencies and represented as BW = f2 – f1 where f1 and f2 are the first
and last frequencies of the signal graph.

3. Define attenuation.
Ans.It is nothing but reduction in signal strength mainly at higher frequency ranges and at receiving end
this attenuated signal has reduced voltage levels.

4. Differentiate guided and unguided mediums.

Ans.In a guided medium, the electromagnetic waves are guided by the transmission medium e.g., Copper
coaxial cable.
In an unguided medium, the electromagnetic wave is not guided by the medium. e.g., the radiated energy
is not guided in wireless communication.

5. Give the significance of Eb/No.

Ans. The bit energy to output noise ratio is important in mobile communication where the bit error rate of
data. It is generally expressed in decibel.

6. What is known as multipath?

Ans.When a signal from a cell phone emerges, due to many obstacles it radiates in many directions and
finally reaches its base station receiver and vice versa. Such multiple signals take multipaths to reach the
base station or the cell phone.

7. What is the propagation mechanism?

Ans.(a) Reflection
(b) Diffraction
(c) Scattering

8. What are types of fading?

Ans.
(a) Fast fading
(b) Slow fading
(c) Flat fading
(d) Selective fading

9. What are the advantages of radio transmission?

Ans.(a) It is cheap and simple in design.
(b) Infrared transmission is not interfered with by electrical devices.
(c) The radio transmission can cover a larger geographical region.
10. Define refractive index.
Ans.At the interface of two materials (m1 and m2) of different densities, there will be bending or
refraction taking place.

11 .Write a short note on reflection.

Ans.Reflection is the act of reflection or a means to turn back. This reflection with respect to
electromagnetic waves will occur whenever an incident wave hits a boundary of any two media. In this
case, some of the total incident power of the signal will not enter the second media.

12. When does Rayleigh fading occur?

Ans.Rayleigh fading will take place when there are many paths between the transmitter and receiver.

13. What is dBm0?

Ans.It is dBm referred to as zero (0) transmission level point.

14. What is known as scattering?

Ans.When the radio wave impinges on a surface that is rough, then the reflected energy spreads out in all
directions and it is known as scattering. It generally occurs when1 the medium of wave travel comprises
many objects with smaller dimensions when compared to the signal wavelength (λ) and also if the number
of objects per unit volume is large it increases the scattering effect.

15 .List the material properties over which the Fresnel zone reflection coefficient depends on.
Ans.The reflection coefficient (G) depends on the material’s properties namely,
(i) Wave polarization
(ii) Frequency of propagation of the wave
(iii) Angle of incidence

16. Write a short note on reflection.

Ans.The reflection mechanism takes place when an electromagnetic wave impinges on an object that has
larger dimensions than the wavelength (λ) of the propagating wave. Reflection occurs from buildings,
walls, and surfaces of the earth.

17. Write a short note on diffraction.

Ans.Diffraction is a propagating mechanism that will take place when the radio path available between
transmitter and receiver (T-R) is obstructed by any surface with sharp irregularities or edges and it creates
secondary waves due to diffraction.

18. When the reflection of the radio signal will take place?
Ans.The reflection mechanism takes place when the electromagnetic wave travels from one medium to
another medium that has different electrical properties. For example, if a wave enters from medium 1 to
medium 2 and in case medium 2 is a perfect conductor then the entire radio energy will get reflected back
into medium 1.

19. What is the plane of incidence?

Ans.The plane of incidence is defined as a plane containing reflected, incident and also the transmitted
rays.

20. Give two advantages of diffraction mechanism.

Ans. (i) Diffraction allows radio signals to travel around curved surfaces and to propagate beyond
obstructions.
(ii) Even when the receiver moves into a shadowed region the diffraction field will exist.
21. What is the main cause for diffraction effect?
Ans.Diffraction is caused by the propagation of secondary wavelets into the shadowed regions. Also, the
field strength of the diffracted wave will be a vector sum of all the electric field components of the
secondary wavelets.

22. List few outdoor propagation models.

Ans.1.Durkins model
2. Longley-Rice model
3. Okumura model
4. PCS extension model
5. Hata model
6. Wideband PCS microcell model

23. Mention any three indoor propagation models.

Ans. (i) Log-distance path loss model
(ii) Ericsson multiple breakpoint model
(iii) Partition losses considering the same floor of a building

24. What will be the level of attenuation for reinforced concrete partitions and wooden partitions?
Ans.If the partitions of a multistoried building are concrete (permanent), the attenuation from 1 room to
another will be high whereas for wood like movable partitions in a building the level of attenuation of
mobile radio propagation will be less.

25. List any three factors influencing small scale fading.

Ans.(i) Speed of mobile unit
(ii) Multipath propagation
(iii)Transmission bandwidth of the signal

26. What are the two types of fading of multipath delay spread?
Ans. 1. Time dispersion fading
2. Frequency selective fading

27. What are the two types of fading of Doppler spread?

Ans.1. Frequency dispersion fading
2. Time selective fading

28. What are the fading effects of Doppler spread?

Ans. Fast fading
2. Slow fading

29. What are level crossing rates and Rayleigh fading in multipath fading channels?
Ans.The level crossing rate (LCR) and Rayleigh fading signal predictions are important for designing
error controls codes and diversity schemes that have to be implemented. The level crossing rate is also
taken as an expected rate at which the Rayleigh fading envelope crosses a specified level in the positive
going signal directed and the number of level crossings is denoted as Nr.

30. What is slow and fast fading?

Ans.Under slow fading case, the channel impulse response varies at a rate much slower rate when
compared to a transmitted baseband signal.
In the fast-fading case, the impulse response of the channel varies rapidly within the respective symbol
duration. In other words, the channel’s coherence time period is smaller than the symbol time period of
the signal being transmitted.

31. List two parameters that describe a time varying nature of the channel.
Ans.1. Doppler spread
2. Coherence time

32. What is coherence bandwidth?

Ans.The coherence bandwidth represents a range of frequencies over which the channel is almost flat In
other words it is the range of frequencies over which the frequency components have enough potential for
proper amplitude correlation.

33. What is a small-scale fading model?

Ans.The radio propagation models that characterize the fluctuations in received signals over short
distances of short time periods are called as small scale fading model.

34. What is a free space propagation model?

Ans.It is a propagation model that can predict the received signal strength whenever the transmitter and
receiver (T-R) have a clear line of sight (LOS) path between them.

35. Define path loss.

Ans.The signal attenuation is represented as path loss (P L). It is defined as the difference between the
power transmitted and power received by the antenna and it is expressed in decibels (dB).

36. What are the components of propagation path characteristics?

Ans.The propagation path characteristics can be divided into three components in indoor and outdoor
environments. They are:
(i) Shadowing
(ii) Multipath fading
(iii) Path loss with respect to distance.

37. What are the demerits of LoS wireless transmissions?

Ans. (a) Free space loss
(b) Noise
(c) Multipath fading
(d) Refraction
(e) Distortions

38. Define multipath-propagation.

Ans.In cellular mobile communication, the received signal arrives through delayed multiple paths (due to
obstacles in its wave travel) and this is termed as multipath propagation.

39. What are the effects of ‘fading’?

Ans.As fading occurs,
(a) The error rate of the transmission system will increase
(b) There will be a significant fluctuation in BER value

40. What are the propagation mechanisms of EM waves?

The four propagation mechanisms of EM waves are
i. Free space propagation
ii. Reflection
iii. Diffraction
iv. Scattering

41. What is the significance of propagation model?

The major significance of propagation model are:
i. Propagation model predicts the parameter of receiver.
ii. It predicts the average received signal strength at a given distance from the transmitter.

42. What do you mean by small scale fading?

Rapid fluctuations of the amplitude, phase as multipath delays of a radio signal over a short period of time
is called small scale fading.

43. What are the factors influencing small scale fading?

The factors which influence small scale fading are:
Multipath propagation, Speed of the mobile, Speed of surrounding objects and the transmission
bandwidth of the signal.

44. When does large scale propagation occur?

Large scale propagation occurs due to general terrain and the density and height of buildings and
vegetation, large scale propagation occurs.

45. Define Doppler shift.

If the receiver is moving towards the source, then the zero crossings of the signal appear faster
and the received frequency is higher. The opposite effect occurs if the receiver is moving away
from the source. The resulting chance in frequency is known as the Doppler shift (fD).
FD = fr – f0 = -f0V/C
Where f0 -> transmission frequency
fr -> received frequency

46. Differentiate time selective and frequency selective channel.

The gain and the signal strength of the received signal are time varying means then the channel
is described as time selective channel. The frequency response of the time selective channel is
constant so that frequency flat channel. The channel is time invariant but the impulse response
of the channel show a frequency-dependent response so called frequency selective channel.

47. Define coherence time and coherence bandwidth.

Coherence time is the maximum duration for which the channel can be assumed to be
approximately constant. It is the time separation of the two time domain samples. Coherence
bandwidth is the frequency separation of the two frequency domain samples.

48. What do you mean by WSSUS channels?

In multipath channels, the gain and phase shift at one delay are uncorrelated with another delay
is known as uncorrelated scattering of WSSUS.

49. What is free space propagation model?

The free space propagation model is used to predict received signal strength, when
unobstructed line-of-sight path between transmitter & receiver. Friis free space equation is
given by, The factor (λ/4πd)2 is also known as the free space loss factor.
50. Define EIRP.
EIRP (Equivalent Isotropically Radiated Power) of a transmitting system in a given direction
is defined as the transmitter power that would be needed, with an isotropic radiator, to produce
the same power density in the given direction.
EIRP=PtGt
Where Pt-transmitted power in W
Gt-transmitting antenna gain

51. Explain path loss.

The path loss is defined as the difference (in dB) between the effective transmitted power and
the received power. Path loss may or may not include the effect of the antenna gains.

52. What is intrinsic impedance and Brewster angle?

Intrinsic impedance is defined by the ratio of electric to magnetic field for a uniform plane
wave in the particular medium.
Brewster angle is the angle at which no reflection occurs in the origin. Brewster angleis denoted by θB

53. What is scattering?

When a radio wave impinges on a rough surface, the reflected energy is spread out in all
directions due to scattering.

54. Define radar cross section.

Radar Cross Section of a scattering object is defined as the ratio of the power density of the
signal scattered in the direction of the receiver to the power density of the radio wave incident
upon the scattering object & has units of squares meters

55. Name some of the outdoor propagation models?

Some of the commonly used outdoor propagation models are
i. Longely-Rice model
ii. Durkin’s model
iii. Okumura model.

56. Define indoor propagation models.

The indoor propagation models are used to characterizing radio propagation inside the
buildings. The distances covered are much smaller, and the variability of the environment is
much greater for smaller range of Transmitter and receiver separation distances. Features such
as lay-out of the building, the construction materials, and the building type strongly influence
the propagation within the building.

57. Mention some indoor propagation models?

Some of the indoor propagation models are:
i. Long –distance path loss model
ii. Ericession multiple break point model
iii. Attenuation factor model.

58.What are merits and demerits of Okumara’s model?

Merits:
Accuracy in parameter prediction.
Suitable for modern land mobile radio system.
Urban, suburban areas are analyzed.

Demerits:
Rural areas are not analyzed.
Analytical explanation is not enough.

59. List the advantages and disadvantages of Hata model?

Advantages: Suitable for large cell mobile system. Cell radius on the order of 1km is taken for analysis.
Disadvantages: Not suitable for PCS model. This model does not have any path specific correction.
60.What is the necessity of link budget?
The necessities of link budget are:
i. A link budget is the clearest and most intuitive way of computing the required Transmitter
power.
It tabulates all equations that connect the Transmitter power to the received SNR
ii. It is reliable for communications.
iii. It is used to ensure the sufficient receiver power is available.
iv. To meet the SNR requirement link budget is calculated.
61. What is meant by frequency reuse?

If an area is served by a single Base Station, then the available spectrum can be divided into N
frequency channels that can serve N users simultaneously. If more than N users are to be served,
multiple BSs are required, and frequency channels have to be reused in different locations.
Since spectrum is limited, the same spectrum has to be used for different wireless connections
in different locations. This method of reusing the frequency is called as frequency reuse.
62. What are the trends in cellular radio systems?

The trends in personal cellular radio systems are:

i. PCS – Personal Communication Services

ii. PCN – Personal Communication Networks

63. What do you mean by forward and reverse channel?

Forward channel is a radio channel used for transmission of information from base station to
mobile. Reverse channel is a radio channel used for transmission from mobile to base station.
64. What is the function of control channel? What are the types?

The function of control channel is to transmit call setup, call request, call initiation and
Control. There are two types of control channels,
i. Forward control channel
ii. Reverse control channel

65. What is channel assignment? What are the types?

For efficient utilization of radio spectrum a frequency reuse scheme with increasing capacity
and minimizing interference is required. For this channel assignment is used. The types of
channel assignment are:
i. Fixed channel assignment
ii. Dynamic channel assignment.
66. What is fixed channel assignment?
If the channels in each cell are allocated to the users within the cell, it will be called as fixed
channel assignment. If all channels are occupied, the call will be blocked.

67. What is dynamic channel assignment?

If the voice channels are not allocated permanently in a cell, it will be called as dynamic channel
assignment. In this assignment, channels are dynamically allocated to users by the MSC.

68. Define MS, BS and MSC.

MS – Mobile station. A station in the cellular radio service intended for use.
BS – Base Station. A fixed station in a mobile radio system used for radio communication with
MS.
MSC – Mobile Switching Centre. Mobile switching centre coordinates the routing of calls in
large service area. It connects the base station and mobiles to PSTN. It is also called as
MTSO(Mobile telephone switching office.

69. Define hand off and mode of hand off.

A handoff refers to the process of transferring an active call or data session from one cell in a
cellular network to another or from one channel in a cell to another. A well-implemented
handoff is important for delivering uninterrupted service to a caller or data session user. Modes
of hand off are:
i. MCHO – Mobile Controlled Hand off
ii. NCHO – Network Controlled Hand off
iii. MAHO – Mobile Assisted Hand off

70. Write the types of hand off.

Types of handoff are:
i. Hard hand off – Mobile monitors BS and new cell is allocated to a call with strong signal.
ii. Soft hand off – MS with 2 or more calls at the same time and find which is the strongest
signal BS, the MSC automatically transfers the call to that BS.

71. Define Cell, Cluster.

For a large geographic coverage area, a high powered transmitter therefore has to be used. But
a high power radio transmitter causes harm to environment. Mobile communication thus calls
for replacing the high power transmitters by low power transmitters by dividing the coverage
area into small segments, called cells.
Each cell uses a certain number of the available channels and a group of adjacent cells together
use all the available channels. Such a group is called a cluster.

72. What do you mean by foot print and dwell time?

The region over which the signal strength lies above this threshold value x dB is known as the
coverage area of a BS and it must be a circular region, considering the BS to be isotropic
radiator. Such a circle, which gives this actual radio coverage, is called the foot print of a
cell. The time over which a call may be maintained within a cell without hand off is called the
dwell time.

73. What are the major types of cellular interference?

The major types of cellular interferences are as follows
1.CCI – Co-channel interference is the interference between signals from co-channel cells.
2.ACI – Adjacent channel interference resulting from signals which are adjacent in
frequency to the desired signal.
74. What are the techniques used to expand the capacity of cellular system?
Cell splitting, Sectoring, Coverage Zone approaches are the techniques used to expand the
capacity of cellular system.
Cell splitting – Cell-splitting is a technique which has the capability to add new smaller cells
in specific areas of the system. i.e. divide large cell size into small size.
Sectoring – use of directional antennas to reduce Co-channel interference.
Coverage Zone approaches – large central BS is replaced by several low power transmitters
on the edge of the cell.

75. What is frequency reuse ratio?

If the cell size and the power transmitted at the base stations are same then co-channel
interference will become independent of the transmitted power and will depend on radius of
the cell (R) and the distance between the interfering co-channel cells (D). If D/R ratio is
increased, then the effective distance between the co-channel cells will increase and
interference will decrease. The parameter Q is called the frequency reuse ratio and is related to
the cluster size. For hexagonal geometry
Q = D/R
From the above equation, small of `Q' means small value of cluster size `N' and increase in
cellular capacity.

76. Define FDMA, TDMA and CDMA.

FDMA - the total bandwidth is divided into non-overlapping frequency subbands.
TDMA – divides the radio spectrum into time slots and in each slot only one user is allowed
to either transmit or receive.
CDMA – many users share the same frequency same tome with different coding.

77. Define Grade of service.

Grade of service is defined as the measure of the ability of a user to access a trunked system
during the busiest hour.

78. What is blocked call clear system (BCC)?

In a system, a user is blocked without access by a system when no channels are available in the
system. The call blocked by the system is cleared and the user should try again .This is called
BCC system.

79. What is blocked call delay system?

If a channel is not available immediately, the call request may be delayed until a channel
becomes available. This is called as blocked call delay system.

80. Define cell splitting.

Cell splitting is the process of subdividing congested cells into smaller cells each with its own
base stations and a corresponding reduction in antenna height and transmitter power. It
increases the capacity of cellular system.

81. What is sectoring?

Sectoring is a technique for decreasing co-channel interference and thus increasing the system
performance by using directional antennas.

82. How the link performance can be improved?

Link performance can be improved by various techniques such as
i. Equalization
ii. Diversity
iii. Channel coding

83. Why diversity and equalization techniques are used?

To reduce ISI, Equalization technique is used. Diversity is used to reduce fading effects.

84.What is diversity?
Signal is transmitted by more than one antenna via channel. It ensures that the same information reaches
the receiver on statistically independent channels.

85. Differentiate selection diversity and combining diversity.

Selection Diversity Combining DiversityThe best signal is selected and processed while all other signals
are discarded. All signals are combined beforeprocessing and the combined signal is decoded. Simple
circuits are used. At individual receiver, phasing circuits are needed. None of the signal is not in
acceptable SNR. It works well.

86.Define Switched Diversity

If the signal level falls below the threshold, then the receiver switches to a new antenna which is called as
switched diversity.

87. Define feedback or scanning diversity.

All the signals are scanned in a fixed sequence until one signal is found to be above a
predetermined threshold.

88. Define temporal diversity.

Wireless propagation channel is time variant, so for sufficient decorrelation, the temporal
distance between antennas must be atleast the half of maximum Doppler frequency.

89.What is meant by frequency diversity?

Correlation is increased by transmitting information on more than one carrier frequency.
Frequencies are separated by more than one coherence bandwidth of the channel. So the signals
will not experience same fades.

90. Differentiate micro and macro diversity.

Micro diversity Macro diversity Used to effects. reduce small scale fading Used effects to reduce large
scale fading Multiple reflection causes deep fading. This effect is reduced. Deep shadow causes fading.
This effect is reduced. BS-MS are separated by small distance. BS-MS are separated by large distance.

91.What is transmit diversity?

Diversity effect is achieved by transmitting signals from several transmit antenna.

92.What is an equalizer?
Equalizer is a linear pulse shaping circuit which is used to reduce ISI.

93.What is linear and non-linear equalizer?

Linear equalizer: the current and past values of the received signal are linearly weighted by the filter
coefficients and summed to produce the output. No feedback path is used. Simple and easy to implement.
Not suitable for severely distorted channel. Noise power signal is enhanced.
Nonlinear equalizer: If the past decisions are correct, then the ISI contributed by present symbol
can be cancelled exactly, feedback path is used. Suitable for severely distorted channel. Noise
power signal is not enhanced. Complex in structure. channels with low SNR. Suffers from error
propagation.

94. Mention the advantage of RAKE receiver.

A RAKE receiver collects the different time delayed versions of original signal so that
in multipath environment. if any useful information , available in multipath components is not
left out. By receiving all possible multiple components with the help of separate correlation
receivers for each multipath a better signal to noise ratio is achieved and finally it will lead to
signal quality

95.What are the nonlinear equalization methods used?

Decision feedback equalization (DFE), Maximum likelihood symbol detection and Maximum likelihood
sequence estimation (MLSE).

96. Where DFEs are used?

DFE is particularly useful for channels with severe amplitude distortions and is widely used in wireless
communications.

97.What are the factors used in adaptive algorithms?

Rate of convergence, Misadjustment, Computational complexity and numerical properties.

98. Define rate of convergence.

The no of iterations required for the algorithm in response to stationary inputs to
converge close enough to the optimum solution.

99. Write the basic algorithms used for adaptive equalization.

Zero forcing algorithm(ZF), least mean square algorithm(LMS) and recursive least
square algorithm(RLS).

100. Write the advantages of LMS algorithm.

It maximizes the signal to distortion at its output within the constraints of the equalizer filter length,Low
computational complexity and Simple program

101. Define waveform coders.

Waveform coders are used to reproduce the time waveform of the speech signal as closely as possible.
They are designed to be source dependent.

102. Define vocoders.

Vocoder is a circuit used for digitizing voice at a low data rate by using knowledge of
the way in which voice sounds are produced. A vocoder is an example of lossy compression
applied to human speech

103. Write short notes on OFDM.

OFDM splits the information into N parallel streams which are modulated by N distinct carriers
and then transmitted. In order to separate the subcarriers by the receiver, they have to be
orthogonal.

104. Why cyclic prefix?

In delay dispersive channel, inter carrier interference occur. To overcome the effect of inter
carrier interference and ISI, cyclic prefix is introduced. It is a cyclically extended guard interval whereby
each symbol sequence is preceded by a periodic extension of the sequence
itself.

105. Write the goals of GSM standard.

Better and more efficient technical solution for wireless communication. Single standard was
to be realized all over Europe enabling roaming across borders.

106. What is OFDM?

Ans: OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) is a broadband multicarrier modulation
method that offers superior performance and benefits over older, more traditional single-carrier
modulation methods because it is a better fit with today’s high-speed data requirements and operation in
the UHF and microwave spectrum.

107. How does OFDM work?

Ans: OFDM is based on the concept of frequency-division multiplexing (FDD), the method of
transmitting multiple data streams over a common broadband medium. That medium could be radio
spectrum, coax cable, twisted pair, or fiber-optic cable. Each data stream is modulated onto multiple
adjacent carriers within the bandwidth of the medium, and all are transmitted simultaneously. A good
example of such a system is cable TV, which transmits many parallel channels of video and audio over a
single fiber-optic cable and coax cable.

108 Why has there been all the interest in OFDM in the past few years?
Ans: OFDM has been adopted as the modulation method of choice for practically all the new wireless
technologies being used and developed today. It is perhaps the most spectrally efficient method
discovered so far, and it mitigates the severe problem of multipath propagation that causes massive data
errors and loss of signal in the microwave and UHF spectrum.

109. Name some of the wireless technologies that use OFDM?

Ans: The list is long and impressive. First, it is used for digital radio broadcasting. It is used in TV
broadcasting.You will also find it in wireless local-area networks (LANs) like Wi-Fi. The wideband
wireless metro-area network (MAN) technology WiMAX uses OFDM. And, the almost completed 4G
cellular technology standard Long-Term Evolution (LTE) uses OFDM. The high-speed short-range
technology known as Ultra-Wideband (UWB) uses an OFDM standard set by the WiMedia Alliance.
OFDM is also used in wired communications like power-line networking technology. One of the first
successful and most widespread uses of OFDM was in data modems connected to telephone lines. ADSL
and VDSL used for Internet access use a form of OFDM known as discrete multi-tone (DMT). And, there
are other less well known examples in the military and satellite worlds.

110. How is OFDM implemented in the real world?

Ans: OFDM is accomplished with digital signal processing (DSP). We can program the IFFT and FFT
math functions on any fast PC, but it is usually done with a DSP IC or an appropriately programmed
FPGA or some hardwired digital logic. With today’s super-fast chips, even complex math routines like
FFT are relatively easy to implement. In brief, we can put it all on a single chip.

111. What are the benefits of using OFDM?

Ans: The first reason is spectral efficiency, also called bandwidth efficiency. What that term really means
is that you can transmit more data faster in a given bandwidth in the presence of noise. The measure of
spectral efficiency is bits per second per Hertz, or bps/Hz. For a given chunk of spectrum space, different
modulation methods will give you widely varying maximum data rates for a given bit error rate (BER)
and noise level. Simple digital modulation methods like amplitude shift keying (ASK) and frequency shift
keying (FSK) are only fair but simple. BPSK and QPSK are much better. QAM is very good but more
subject to noise and low signal levels. Code division multiple access (CDMA) methods are even better.
But none is better than OFDM when it comes to getting the maximum data capacity out of a given
channel. It comes close to the so called Shannon limit that defines channel capacity C in bits per second
(bps) as
C = B * log2(1 + S/N)Here, B is the bandwidth of the channel in hertz, and S/N is the power signal-to-
noise ratio. With spectrum scarce or just plain expensive, spectral efficiency has become the holy grail in
wireless.

112. What else makes OFDM so good?

Ans: OFDM is highly resistant to the multipath problem in high-frequency wireless. Very short-
wavelength signals normally travel in a straight line (line of sight, or LOS) from the transmit antenna to
the receive antenna. Yet trees, buildings, cars, planes, hills, water towers, and even people will reflect
some of the radiated signal. These reflections are copies of the original signal that also go to the receive
antenna. If the time delays of the reflections are in the same range as the bit or symbol periods of the data
signal, then the reflected signals will add to the direct signal and create cancellations or other anomalies.
The result is what we usually call Raleigh fading.

113.What are the downsides to OFDM?

Ans: Like anything else, OFDM is not perfect. It is very complex, making it more expensive to
implement. However, modern semiconductor technology makes it pretty easy. OFDM is also sensitive to
carrier frequency variations. To overcome this problem, OFDM systems transmit pilot carriers along with
the subcarriers for synchronization at the receiver. Another disadvantage is that an OFDM signal has a
high peak to average power ratio. As a result, the complex OFDM signal requires linear amplification.
That means greater inefficiency in the RF power amplifiers and more power consumption.

114. What is OFMDA?

Ans: The A stands for access. It means that OFDM is not only a great modulation method, it also can
provide multiple access to a common bandwidth or channel to multiple users. You are probably familiar
with multiple access methods like frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) and time division multiplexing
(TDM). CDMA, the widely used cellular technology, digitally codes each digital signal to be transmitted
and then transmits them all in the same spectrum. Because of their random nature, they just appear as
low-level noise to one another. The digital coding lets the receiver sort the individual signal out later.
OFDMA permits multiple users to share a common bandwidth with essentially the same benefits.

115. Is there anything better than OFDM?

Ans: Not right now. What makes OFDM even better is MIMO, the multiple-input multiple-output
antenna technology.

116. What is MIMO and what is the functionalities of MIMO?

 (MIMO) stands for Multiple Input Multiple Output.
 The functionalities of MIMO it have multiple antenna at the transmitter side and multiple antenna
also have at the receiver side.
117. What is diversity and why it use in MIMO?
 Diversity is using to improve the reliability of the system.
 In diversity sender sends the data at different propagation (different paths).
 In MIMO we need the reliability or high speed data transmission so that we use two technique
here 1. Spatial Diversity 2. Spatial Multiplexing.

118. What is Spatial Diversity?

 Spatial diversity is one of the fundamental benefits of MIMO technology.
 In short, diversity aims to improve the reliability of the system by sending same data over
different propagation, or spatial, paths.

119. What is Spatial Multiplexing in MIMO?

 Spatial Multiplexing (SM, SMX) also known as Space Division Multiplexing (SDM) used to
transmit data into independent channels separated by space.
 It’s like a pipeline through which data is flowing between the base station and the phone on a
mobile network.
 Imagine a situation with one antenna on the base station and one on the phone that allows so
much data to flow.
 Now, by installing more antennas on base station side with proper spatial separation, multiple
virtual pipelines can be created in the space between phone and the base station.
 This creates multiple paths for more data to travel between the base station and mobile.

120. What are the advantages of MIMO?

 In MIMO UE experiencing good coverage (with high signal to noise ratios) can take advantage of
the spatial multiplexing gain and can receive multiple parallel streams of data.

 Transmit and receive antenna have maximum number of parallel streams For example, 2x2
MIMO, 4x2 MIMO and 2x4 MIMO arc all capable of transferring a maximum of 2 parallel
streams of data.
 UE in poor coverage (with a low signal to noise ratios) can take advantage of the diversity gain to
help improve their signal to noise ratio.
  The magnitude of the diversity gain is dependent upon the number of receive antenna and the
level of correlation between each of the propagation paths, i.e. the gain is maximised for a large
number of receive antenna and uncorrelated propagation paths.
 This dependency upon channel conditions means that MIMO is used to transfer multiple parallel
streams of data in good coverage conditions to maximise throughput, and is used to transfer a
single stream of data in poor coverage conditions to maximise the diversity gain.

121. What are the disadvantages of MIMO?

 The drawbacks of MIMO are its increased implementation complexity and increased hardware
requirement.
 MIMO requires additional processing at both the transmitter and receiver.
 It also requires additional signalling in terms of feedback from the receiver and resource
allocation infonnation from the transmitter.
 MIMO requires additional power amplifiers at the transmitter side and additional receiving paths
 at the receiver side.
 lt also requires additional antenna elements at both the transmitter and receiver.

122. What is open loop? Why it use in MIMO?

 Open loop MIMO sender requires feedback from the receiver in terms of Rank Indication (RI)
and Channel Quality Indicator (CQI).
 It’s called 'open loop' because of sender does not requiring feedback from transmitter in terms of
a Precoding Matrix Indicator (PMI).
 Open loop MIMO can be beneficial for high mobility scenarios which would cause a reported
PMI to become invalid after only a short period of time

123. What is Close Loop in MIMO?

 In Closed loop MIMO sender require feedback from the receiver in terms of RI, CQI and PMI.
 The receiver selects a PMI to help improve the properties of the composite channel coefficient
matrix.
 Closed loop MIMO allows senders to transmits with increased informations.
 But it also increased the signalling overhead.

124. What is diversity gain in MIMO?

 Diversity gain reduces the impact of fading when the fades on each propagation path are
uncorrelated, i.e. one path may experience a fade while another path may not experience a fade.
 The receiver takes advantage of the paths which are not experiencing fades.

125. what is array gain in MIMO?

 Array gain is achieved from the beamforming effect which is generated when transmitting from
multiple antenna elements.
 Beamforming directs the transmitted signal towards the UE and improves the received signal to
noise ratio.
126. What is spatial multiplexing gain MIMO?
 Spatial multiplexing gain increases throughput by transferring multiple streams of data in parallel
using the same set of time and frequency domain resources.
 Uncorrelated transmission paths allow the receiver to differentiate between the data streams.

127. According to 3GPP release 15 is mimo support in uplink direction if yes the what’s are combination
support of mimo have?
 The 3GPP release 15 version of the specifications for New Radio (NR) supports MIMO in both
the uplink and downlink directions.
 The uplink supports 2x2 MIMO and 4x4 MIMO, whereas the downlink supports 2x2 MIMO. 4x4
MIMO and 8x8 MIMO.
 The release 15 version of the specifications also supports Multi-User MfMO in both the uplink
and downlink directions.

128. What is Single-User MIMO?

 Single User MIMO allocates a different subset of PRB to each UE, i.e. the UE are separated in
the frequency domain.
 The UE which are scheduled during a specific time slot do not need to be spatially separated and
a relatively high MCS can be allocated, because the transmissions to each UE do not interfere
with each other.

129. What is Multi-User MIMO?

 Multi-User MIMO takes advantage of beamforming to allocate the same set of time and
frequency domain resources to multiple UE.
 These UE are separated in the spatial domain so they are able to re-use Physical Resource Blocks
(PRB) without generating significant levels of interference towards each other.
130. What are the advantage of MU-MIMO?
 Increased Network Capacity – Network Capacity is defined as the total data volume that can be
served to a user and the maximum number of users that can be served with certain level of
expected service.
 Improved Coverage – With massive MIMO, users enjoy a more uniform experience across the
network, even at the cell’s edge, so users can expect high data rate service almost everywhere.
 User experience – Ultimately, the above two benefits result in a better overall user experience
users can transfer large data files or download movies, or use data-hungry apps on the go,

131. What is LTE?

Ans: LTEi (Long Term Evolution) is initiated by 3GPP i to improve the mobile phone standard to cope
with future technology evolutions and needs.

132. What speed LTE offers?

Ans: LTE provides downlink peak rates of at least 100Mbit/s, 50 Mbit/s in the uplink and RAN (Radio
Access Network) round-trip times of less than 10 ms.

132. What is goal of LTE?

Ans: The goals for LTE include improving spectral efficiency, lowering costs, improving services,
making use of new spectrum and reformed spectrum opportunities, and better integration with other open
standards.

133. What is LTE Advanced?

Ans: LTE standards are in matured state now with release 8 frozen. While LTE Advanced is still under
works. Often the LTE standard is seen as 4G standard which is not true. 3.9G is more acceptable for LTE.
So why it is not 4G? Answer is quite simple - LTE does not fulfill all requirements of ITU 4G definition.
Brief History of LTE Advanced: The ITU has introduced the term IMT Advanced to identify mobile
systems whose capabilities go beyond those of IMT 2000. The IMT Advanced systems shall provide best-
in-class performance attributes such as peak and sustained data rates and corresponding spectral
efficiencies, capacity, latency, overall network complexity and quality-of-service management. The new
capabilities of these IMT-Advanced systems are envisaged to handle a wide range of supported data rates
with target peak data rates of up to approximately 100 Mbit/s for high mobility and up to approximately 1
Gbit/s for low mobility.

134. What is EUTRAN?

Ans: The E-UTRAN (Evolved UTRAN) consists of eNBs, providing the E-UTRA user plane
(PDCP/RLC/MAC/PHY) and control plane (RRC) protocol terminations towards the UE. The eNBs are
interconnected with each other by means of the X2 interface. The eNBs are also connected by means of
the S1 interface to the EPC (Evolved Packet Core), more specifically to the MME (Mobility Management
Entity) by means of the S1-MME and to the Serving Gateway (S-GW) by means of the S1-U.
135. What are LTE protocols & specifications?
Ans:
 Air Interface Physical Layer
 GPRS Tunnelling Protocol User Plane (GTP-U)
 GTP-U Transport
 Medium Access Control (MAC)
 Non-Access-Stratum (NAS) Protocol
 Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP)
 Radio Link Control (RLC)
 Radio Resource Control (RRC)
 S1 Application Protocol (S1AP)
 S1 layer 1
 S1 Signalling Transport
 X2 Application Protocol (X2AP)
 X2 layer 1
 X2 Signalling Transport

136. What are LTE Interfaces?

Ans: The following are LTE Interfaces : (Ref: TS 23.401 v 841)
 S1-MME :- Reference point for the control plane protocol between E-UTRAN and MME.
 S1-U:- Reference point between E-UTRAN and Serving GW for the per bearer user plane
tunnelling and inter eNodeB path switching during handover.
 S3:- It enables user and bearer information exchange for inter 3GPP access network mobility in
idle and/or active state.
 S4:- It provides related control and mobility support between GPRS Core and the 3GPP Anchor
function of Serving GW. In addition, if Direct Tunnel is not established, it provides the user plane
tunnelling.
 S5:- It provides user plane tunnelling and tunnel management between Serving GW and PDN
GW. It is used for Serving GW relocation due to UE mobility and if the Serving GW needs to
connect to a non-collocated PDN GW for the required PDN connectivity.
 S6a:- It enables transfer of subscription and authentication data for authenticating/authorizing
user access to the evolved system (AAA interface) between MME and HSS.
 Gx:- It provides transfer of (QoS) policy and charging rules from PCRF to Policy and Charging
Enforcement Function (PCEF) in the PDN GW.
 S8:- Inter-PLMN reference point providing user and control plane between the Serving GW in
the VPLMN and the PDN GW in the HPLMN. S8 is the inter PLMN variant of S5.
 S9:- It provides transfer of (QoS) policy and charging control information between the Home
PCRF and the Visited PCRF in order to support local breakout function.
 S10:- Reference point between MMEs for MME relocation and MME to MME information
transfer.
 S11:- Reference point between MME and Serving GW.
 S12:- Reference point between UTRAN and Serving GW for user plane tunnelling when Direct
Tunnel is established. It is based on the Iu-u/Gn-u reference point using the GTP-U protocol as
defined between SGSN and UTRAN or respectively between SGSN and GGSN. Usage of S12 is
an operator configuration option.
 S13:- It enables UE identity check procedure between MME and EIR.
 SGi:- It is the reference point between the PDN GW and the packet data network. Packet data
network may be an operator external public or private packet data network or an intra operator
packet data network, e.g. for provision of IMS services. This reference point corresponds to Gi
for 3GPP accesses.
  Rx:- The Rx reference point resides between the AF and the PCRF in the TS 23.203.
 SBc:- Reference point between CBC and MME for warning message delivery and control
functions.

137. What do you know about 5G?

A. 5G is the next generation mobile technology. Go through this link to get basic idea of 5G.

138. What is ENDC?

A. ENDC stands for Evolved-Universal Terrestrial Radio Access New Radio Dual Connectivity. Go
through this link for more info.

139. What is the difference between NSA and SA?

A. NSA stands for non standalone and SA stands for standalone. Click this link for complete answer.

140. Why 5G?

 Faster download and upload speeds.
 Low Latency i.e the time it takes devices to communicate with each other in wireless networks,
will be very less compared to 4G.
 Won’t be harmful to human.
 Low cost.
 Machine to machine communication will be improved.

141. What is dual connectivity?

Dual connectivity means mobile terminal will be connected to 4G as well 5G NR base station.
The UE attaches to the LTE network first. Then the UE signals to the network that it can simultaneously
connect to the 4G and 5G networks. The 4G eNB and 5G gNB exchange message to set up the bearer on
the 5G gNB. The UE will then have bearer set up for 4g as well as 5G NR.
142. Explain protocol structure in 5G?
A. Here is the protocol architecture for 5g NR.
143. What are the features of 5G?
A. Same as question 4.

144. What is virtualization?

A. Service base architecture of 5g core Network will support virtualization deployment. In SBA network
can be deployed as fully distributed, fully redundant, stateless, and fully scalable. Within a same network
set, many Network Instances can be present. With this virtualization, services can be provided from
anywhere.
Consider an example of UDR set. When a UE invoke a UDR services like registration, this virtualization
will help to route the request to any UDR within the set of UDRs
This will also help to turn off any specific instance of UDR for planned maintenance. There will also be
UDR auto-recovery feature without any service disruption.

145. What is network slicing?

A. Network slicing is a new concept in 5G. A network slicing is a set of network elements. These NFs are
specialized to provide a particular service. For examaple we can have a Network slice for IoT, one for
general UEs and one for V2X. Different users may have different requirements like latency, mobility and
data rates. So, we can have Network Slicing based on user types also.

146. What is Network capability exposure?

A. Network capability exposure allows operator to expose it’s network capabilities like QoS policy to
third party ISPs/ICPs.

147. What is Unified access control?

A. The 5g core Network is adaptable. Contingent upon administrator arrangements, organization
situations, endorser profiles, and accessible administrations. Various criteria will be utilized in figuring
out which user to be permitted or blocked when congestion happens in the 5G System.

148. What is the role of small cell in 5G

A. Small cell is going to play a big role in 5G. As you know 5G will have mm wave. Because of high
range frequencies mm wave cannot travel long distance. So we will need small cells placed everywhere.
Read about mm wave