CSE Sec-C

4
 Process means any program is in execution.
 A Thread is the unit of execution within a process. A single
process have many threads.
 Thread is the segment of a process means a process can
have multiple threads and these multiple threads are
contained within a process.

Example: Opening a new browser (say

Chrome, etc) is an example of creating a
Process opening multiple tabs in the
browser is an example of creating the
thread.

2
 Process means any program  Thread means segment of a
is in execution. process.
 Process takes more time to  Thread takes less time to
terminate. terminate.
 It takes more time for  It takes less time for
creation. creation.
 Thread switching does not
 Process switching needs
interaction with operating interact with operating
system.
system.

Process Thread

3
 A state of a process is defined in part by the current activity of that
process.
 As the process executes it changes its state.
 A process passes from number of states during its life, states are as
follows-
1) New state
2) Ready state
3) Running state
4) Wait state
5) Termination state

4
 First state is known as new state.
 In New state the process is being created.

5
 After creation process comes under ready state.
 For example: One process is created at the same
time second process is created then both the
process will come under ready state.

6
 When CPU is allotted to process in ready state
that process comes in running state.
 In running state only one process can stay at a
time. Because CPU can be allotted to single
process at a time.

7
 When a process request for input/output than
that process will left the running state, and will
join new state known as wait state.

8
 From ready state the process will go to again running state.
 The process has finished execution is known as termination
state.
 When process is in running state three case will arise:
 1st case: If successfully executed then moves to
terminated.
 2nd case: when interrupt occurs then it moves to ready
state.
 3rd case: when a process requires I/O operation then the
process moves to waiting state.
 Process control block (PCB) is a data structure maintained by
OS for every process.
 This specifies the process state i.e. new, ready, running,
waiting or terminated.

2. Process ID (PID)

 It is unique ID of each process. Every process identified by

unique ID.
 The lines of instruction( code) in a process executed line by
line. What is next line that to be executed that information
given by PC.

4. CPU Registers

 Whenever an interrupt occurs and there is a context switch

between the processes, the temporary information is stored in
the registers
 This component includes a process priority information.
 Many processes are waiting for executing, scheduling
determine which process are executing first.

6. Memory-management information:

 Memory that being used by the particular process. Information

of page table, memory limit.
 It kept the record of all information that being used by
particular process.
 Amount of CPU used, time of execution, time limit, execution
ID etc.

8. I/O status information:

 List of I/O devices that are allocated to the

particular process.
 The OS maintains all Processes in Process Scheduling Queues.
 The Operating System maintains the following important
process scheduling queues −
 Job queue − This queue keeps all the processes in the system.
 Ready queue − This queue keeps a set of all processes
residing in main memory, ready and waiting to execute.
 The scheduling activity is carried out by a process
called scheduler.
 Schedulers are of three types −
1. Long-Term Scheduler
2. Short-Term Scheduler
3. Medium-Term Scheduler
 It is also called a job scheduler.
 It selects processes from the queue and loads them into
memory for execution.

Short Term Scheduler

 It is also called as CPU scheduler.

 CPU scheduler selects a process among the processes that are
ready to execute and allocates CPU to one of them.
 Medium-term scheduling is a part of swapping.
 A running process may become suspended if it makes an I/O
request.
 A suspended processes cannot make any progress towards
completion.
 In this condition, to remove the process from memory and
make space for other processes, the suspended process is
moved to the secondary storage.
 A Thread is the unit of execution within a process. A single process
have many threads.
 The process can be split down into so many threads. For example,
in a browser, many tabs can be viewed as threads.
  Any thread has the following components.
1. Program counter
2. Register set ( A register may hold an instruction, a storage
address, or any kind of data)
3. Stack space (is a block of memory used to store temporary
data needed for proper program execution)
1. Responsiveness: If the process is divided into multiple
threads, if one thread completes its execution, then its output
can be immediately returned.
2. Resource sharing: Resources like code, data, and files can
be shared among all threads within a process.
3. Effective utilization of multiprocessor system: If we have
multiple threads in a single process, then we can schedule
multiple threads on multiple processor. This will make process
execution faster.
 There are two types of threads.
1. User Level Threads − User managed threads.
2. Kernel Level Threads − Operating System managed threads
acting on kernel
 User threads can be easily implemented and it is implemented by
the user.
 Example : Java thread
 In this case, the thread management kernel is not aware of the
existence of threads.
 The thread library contains code for creating and destroying
threads, for passing message and data between threads, for
scheduling thread execution and for saving and restoring
thread contexts.
Advantages
 Thread switching does not require Kernel mode privileges.

 User level thread can run on any operating system.

 User level threads are fast to create and manage.

Disadvantages
 User-level threads lack coordination between the thread and
the kernel.
 If one thread in a process is blocked, then the total process
blocked.
 In this case, thread management is done by the Kernel.
 The kernel-level thread is implemented by the operating
system.
 The Kernel performs thread creation, scheduling and
management in Kernel space. Kernel threads are generally
slower to create and manage than the user threads.
Advantages
 Kernel can simultaneously schedule multiple threads from the
same process.
 The kernel-level thread is fully aware of all threads.

 If one thread in a process is blocked, the Kernel can schedule

another thread of the same process.
Disadvantages
 Kernel threads are generally slower to create and manage than
the user threads.
 Transfer of control from one thread to another within the same
process requires a mode switch to the Kernel.
  There must exist a relationship between User threads &
Kernel threads.
 Some operating system provide a combined user level
thread and Kernel level thread facility.
 Solaris is a good example of this combined approach.
 There are three common ways of establishing this
relationship.
1. Many to one relationship
2. One to one relationship
3. Many to many relationship
 Many-to-one model maps many
user level threads to one Kernel-
level thread.
 Thread management is done by
the thread library in user space,
so it is efficient.
 Only one thread can access the
Kernel at a time.
Disadvantages
 The entire process will block if
thread makes a blocking system
call.
(Blocking means waiting for
some event, such as completion
of an I/O operation)
 There is one-to-one relationship , one user thread exactly
mapped with one kernel thread.
 In this case if one user thread blocks then entire process will
not blocked.
Disadvantages:
 Creating a user thread requires creating the corresponding
kernel thread. windows NT and windows 2000 use one to one
relationship model.
 The many-to-many model
multiplexes any number of
user threads onto an equal or
smaller number of kernel
threads.
 The no. of kernel threads
may be specific to either a
particular application or
particular machine.
 developers can create as
many user threads as
necessary and the
corresponding Kernel
threads can run in parallel on
a multiprocessor machine.
 Context means current state or information about process.
 The Context switching is a technique or method used by the
operating system to switch a process from one state to another
to execute its function using CPUs in the system.
 When switching perform in the system, it stores the old
running process's status in the form of registers and assigns
the CPU to a new process to execute its tasks.
 While a new process is running in the system, the previous
process must wait in a ready queue.
Process Creation:
 A process may create several new processes via a create
process system call.
 The process which creates other process, is termed
the parent of the other process, while the created sub-process
is termed its child.
 Process creation is achieved through the fork() system call.
 On a typical UNIX systems
the process scheduler is
termed as sched, and is given
PID=0. The first thing done by
it at system start-up time is to
launch init, which gives that
process PID=1. Pageout and
fsflush are responsible for
managing memory and file
systems. inted responsible for
networking function. dtlogin
serve as login screen. csh for
shell process. Netscape is a
browser. emac is one of text
editor.
 Interprocess communication is the mechanism provided by the
operating system that allows processes to communicate with
each other.

 A process can be of two types:

1. Independent process.
2. Co-operating process.
 An independent process is not affected by the other processes
executing in the system.
 Any process that shares data with other processes is a co-
operating process.
 Cooperating processes require an Interprocess communication
(IPC) mechanism that will allow them to exchange data &
information.
 There are two fundamental models of Interprocess
communication
1. Shared memory
2. Message passing
 A region of memory that is shared by cooperating processes is
established. Processes can then exchange information
by reading and writing data to the shared region.
 Communication takes place by means of messages exchanged
between the cooperating processes. Process A pass the
message to kernel & kernel will pass message to process B.
 Message passing provides a mechanism to allow processes to
communicate and to synchronize their actions without sharing the
same address space.
 It is useful in distributed environment, where the communication
processes may reside on different computers connected by a
network.
 A message passing facility provides at least two operations
(i) Send message (ii) Receive message

 Message sent by processes may either fixed or variable size.

 To send and receive messages in message passing, a
communication link is required between two processes. There
are various ways to implement a communication link.
1. Direct and indirect communication
2. Synchronous and asynchronous communication
3. Buffering
 In this method each process which wants to communicate
must name explicitly the sender or receiver of the
communication.
 The send() and receive() are defined as:
 send(P, message) – send a message to process P
receive(Q, message) – receive a message from process Q
 In indirect communication, messages are sent and received
from mailboxes or ports.
 The processes can place messages into a mailbox or remove
messages from them. The mailbox has a unique identification.
 A mailbox can be owned by a process or by the operating
system.
 Communication happens using send() and receive().
 Message passing may be blocking or non-blocking also known
as synchronous and asynchronous.
 Blocking send: the sending process is blocked until the message is
received by the receiving process or by the mailbox.
 Non blocking send: the sending process sends the message and
resumes its operation.
 Blocking receive: the receiver blocks until a message is available.
 Non-blocking receive: the receiver retrieves either a valid message
or a null.
 Whether communication is direct or indirect, messages resides in a
temporary queue called buffer.
 Zero capacity: The queue has max length of zero. Thus, the link cannot
have any message waiting in it. In this case, sender must block until the
receiver receives the message.

 Bounded Buffer: the queue has finite length n, thus can keep up to n
messages, hence if the link is full the sender must block until space is
available in the queue.

 Unbounded buffer: the queues length is potentially infinite; thus any

number of messages can wait in it, hence is known as automatic buffering.
 In single processor system, only one process at the time &
others wait until CPU is free.
 In Multiprogramming systems, the Operating system
schedules the processes on the CPU to have the maximum
utilization of it and this procedure is called CPU scheduling.
 There are different processes that are waiting in the memory
that are ready to execute. Dispatcher will control the process
which is selected by scheduler.
 The dispatcher is the module that gives a process control over
the CPU after it has been selected by the scheduler.
 The time taken by the dispatcher to stop one process and start
another process is known as the Dispatch Latency.
 CPU scheduling decisions may take place under the following
four circumstances:
1. When a process switches from the running state to
the waiting state (for I/O request).
2. When a process switches from the running state to
the ready state (for example, when an interrupt occurs).
3. When a process switches from the waiting state to
the ready state(for example, completion of I/O).
4. When a process terminates.
 When Scheduling takes place only under circumstances 1 and
4, we say the scheduling scheme is non-preemptive;
otherwise, the scheduling scheme is preemptive.
 Under non-preemptive scheduling, once the CPU has been
allocated to a process, the process keeps the CPU until it
releases the CPU either by terminating or by switching to the
waiting state.
 Once the processor starts its execution, it must finish it before
executing the other. It can’t be paused in the middle.
 In this type of Scheduling, the tasks are usually assigned with
priorities. At times it is necessary to run a certain task that has
a higher priority before another task although it is running.
Therefore, the running task is interrupted for some time and
resumed later when the priority task has finished its execution.
 Thus this type of scheduling is used mainly when a process
switches either from running state to ready state or from
waiting state to ready state.
 There are many different criteria
1. CPU Utilization
2. Throughput
3. Turnaround Time
4. Waiting Time
5. Response Time
 We want to keep the CPU as busy as possible.
 To make out the best use of the CPU and not to waste any
CPU cycle, the CPU would be working most of the
time(Ideally 100% of the time).
 CPU is busy executing the processes, then work is being done.
 It is the total number of processes completed per unit of time.
(or)
 The total amount of work done in a unit of time.
 It is the amount of time taken to execute a particular process,
i.e. The interval from the time of submission of the process to
the time of completion of the process.

Waiting Time:

 Waiting time is the sum of the periods spent waiting in the

ready queue.
 Amount of time it takes from when a request was submitted
until the first response is produced.
 Response time is the time it takes to start responding.

Burst time

 Burst time is the amount of time required by a process for

executing on CPU.