UNIT 13 PLANNING AND DEVELOPING

EXTENSION PROGRAMME

Structure
13.0 Introduction
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Planning and Development of Extension Programme: Essential Aspects
and Issues
'3.2.1 Some Important ConceptsiTerms Used
,3.2.2 Nature and Object~vesof Programme Plannlng
L3.2.3 Assumpt~onsin Programme Development
(3.2.4 Programme Development and Planned Change
13.2.5 Pr~nciplesof Extension Programme Plann~ngand Development
13.2.6 Steps in Programme Planning and Development Process
.- 13.3 Creating Extension Programmes with the People's Participation: A
r i Rationale
4 13.3.1 Five Essential Elements to Promote Participation of People in Extension
Programmes
13.4 Let Us Sum Up
13.5 Answers to 'Check Your Progress' Questions
13.6 References

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13.0 INTRODUCTION
The continuing challenge of extension planners has been to be creative or
innovitive in their programme development efforts and responsive to the changing
needs of farmers and their communities in rural, tribal and other remote areas. In
today's world, people's involvement or participation is the cornerstone of change
process and its acceleration. People are to be continually involved in it, either as
passive or active elements/citizens, but more often as targets of project or as
recipients of its benefits. Development projects are delineated to help people
adjust to change, for example to new agricultural policies or market demands.
Also, at times, these projects are directed to help grass-roots groups and rural
communities in building change projects that are relevant to their own needs and
aspirations. Both the situations require planning and preparation of different types
of extension programmes. In this Unit, we attempt to deal with the concept,
scope, principles, process and elements of planning and developing extension
programmes.

13.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, it is expected that you will be able to:
Identify the basic concepts and terms used in planning and development of
an extension programme;
Elxplain the concept, nature and scope of extension programme planning;
State the objectives of extension programme (planning); and
Extension and ,Describethe principles and process of planning and developing an extension
Development: Planning,
Management and
programme.
Evaluation
13.2 PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT OF
EXTENSION PROGRAMME: ESSENTIAL
ASPECTS AND ISSLTES
For planning and developing an extension programme, it is necessary to know
the essential aspects involved in extension programme development. These
aspects are briefly discussed below.

13.2.1 Some Important Concepts/Terms Used

In this section, we present to you some important concepts/terms that we will be
using during the course of our discussion in this Unit.

Extension programme: According to Kelsey and Hearne (1967), an

extension programme is a statement of situation, objectives, problems, and
solutions. It is relatively permanent but requires constant revision. It forms
the basis for extension plans.

Leagans (1961) says an extension programme is a set of clearly defined,

consciously conceived educational objectives derived from an adequate
analysis of the situation, which are to be achieved through extension.

The term 'programme' thus indicates focus, priority and design. A well
developed programme to extension workers is like what a compass is to a
seaman. The function of extension programme is to provide a clear guide, a
.blueprint, or a plan useful to extension worker in conducting ongoing
extension programmes. Entire programme should be based up on the needs
of people and their involvement in it all through. .

Situation: Situation is a statement of affairs that includes the cultural, social,

economic and physical conditions in which a particular group of people find
themselves at a given period of time. The situation, which constitutes the
environment for planning, is quite dynamic. The aspects of changing
environment are:
i) Changes in technology,
ii) Changes in ~ o v ~ r n m epolicy,
nt
iii) Changes in overall economic activity including prices, labour, raw
materials, etc.,
iv) Changes in the nature of competition, and
v) Changes in social norms and attitudes.
Objectives: Objectives are expression of the ends of the projectJprogramme
towards which our efforts are directed. In other words, an objective is a
statement of change in knowledge, feeling or action we want to bring about
in people.
Calendar of work: A calendar of work is a plan of work arranged
chronologically.
 Plan of work: A plan of work is an outline of activities so arranged as to Planning and Developing
Extension Programme
enable efficient execution of the entire programme.
Project: Aproject is an outline of procedure and pertains only to some phases
of extension work.
Planning: Planning is a process, which involves studying the past and the
present in order to forecast the future and determining the goals to be achieved
and what is to be done to achieve them. Planning is designing a course of
action to achieve the ends.
Programme Planning: It is a process of working with people in an effort to
recognize the unsatisfactory situation and determine possible solutions or
objectives or goals. It is a decision making process, involving critical analysis
of the existing situation and the problems, evaluation of the various
alternatives to solve these problems and the selection of the relevant ones,
giving necessary priorities, based upon local needs and resources, by the
cooperative efforts of the people both official and non-official with a view
to facilitate the individuals' growth and development. It is a process of
bringing planned change.
Problem: Problem is a condition that, the people after study, with or without
help, have decided that it needs a change.
Solution: It is a course of proposed action to change an unsatisfactory
condition to one that is more satisfying.
Programme development process: Programme development process is
defined as a continuous and cooperative activity involving lay people and
the extension staff in which problems are identified, objective are set forth
and action is taken to reach the objectives (Sanders, 1968).

Extension programme projection: According to National Task Force, USA,

"Extension programme projection can be defined as an administratively realistic
form of long-range development involving the scientific approach in assembling
facts as the basis for intelligent decision-making by a broadly representative
group of local people" (Adivi Reddy, 1997, p. 128).

In this sub-section, we will focus our discussion on the nature andpbjectives of

extension programme planning.

13.2.2 Nature and Objectives of Programme Planning

Extension programme planning has some characteristics which give us
an idea of its nature. These are as follows.
1 ) Programme planning is an educational process: It involves both teaching
and learning. It teaches skills to the people in finding, analyzing, deliberating
and focusing on the solutions to the problems. It gives more knowledge of
the facts to the people. It changes the attitude of the people towards the
planning process.
2) Programme planning is an unrfiing and integrating process: Through the
process of identifying problems, fixing priorities, setting objectives and goals,
and providing continuity and monitoring people get a total picture of where
they are, what they shall do and where they are likely to reach.
Extension and 3 ) Programme planning is a coordinatingprocess: It requires coordination of
Development: Planning,
Management and
the efforts and activities between officials and non-officials, between
Evaluation institutions and organizations, between people and materials, and the like.

4 ) Programmeplanning is an evaluatingprocess: Evaluation of accomplishment

is not the only criterion. It also provides for evaluation of the planning process
and the organization.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Space given below the question is for writing your answer.
b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this unit under
"Answers to 'Check Your Progress' Questions."
1) Define programme planning.
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2) What are the characteristics of programme planning?
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Objectives of programme planning: The general objective of having an
extension programme is to influence people to make changes in their way of life
and in making a better living. The assumption is that there is need for change
and if people are not aware of it, it is necessary to make them aware of it and to
enable them to dkvelop and meet their needs. Following Kelsey and Hearne
(1967), the objectives of programme planning may be stated as follows.
To ensure carefil consideration of what is to be done and why.
To furnish a guide or straight edge against which to judge all new proposals.
 To establish objectives towards which progress can be measured and Planning and Developing
Extension Programme
evaluated.
To give continuity, particularly during changes in personnel.
To aid in the development of leadership.
To have a means of choosing: a) the important from the incidental problems,
and b) the permanent from the temporary changes.
To prevent mistaking the means for the end, and to develop both felt and
unfelt needs.
To avoid wastage of time and money, and promote general eficiency.
To coordinate the efforts of the different people working for rural
development.
To encourage the local people to give the extension workers more support,
thus ensuring cooperation and financial support.
To have available in written form a statement for general public use.

The basic objective of extension system is to develop in village people, the ability
to make a better living and to live a more satisfying life as individuals, as family
members as well as citizens of their community, state and the nation. To attain
this objective, the first step in any systematic attempt to promote rural
development is to prepare a useful programme. As we know, the term programme
indicates focus, priority and design. Programme has to arise from the felt needs
of the people, if it is really to be meaningful to them. One of the important jobs
of the extension worker is to convert unfelt needs of the people into felt needs. It
should be recognized that those felt needs are the motivating forces for their
participation and involvement in extension programmes. It assumes the ability
among the planners to distinguish important needs from unimportant ones. Such
a programme must be based on people's needs to make it significant and on their
interests to make it effective. "If we could know where we are now and where
we ought to go, we could better judge what to do and how to do it". This statement
by Abraham Lincoln liesat the heart of the nature and scope of planning for rural
development. Effective programmes for rural improvement do not just happen:
they have to be built. (Adopted from Leagans, 1961). Hence, programme planning
is basically a process of making decisions that will carry into the future. Decisions
have to be made about what the present situation is, how it could and ought to be
changed and what means can be used to accomplish the new and more desirable
situation.

13.2.3 Assumptions in Programme Development

The world has a complex and uncertain nature. Changes and unexpected failures
are important ingredients in the history of both humankind and the local society.
Planning, then, is a risk-taking exercise, subject to the unexpected changes and
failures. However, without planning life is even more uncertain and the task of
reaching a balanced and sustainable development becomes more difficult. So,
when talking about extension programme development, we assume the following:
Planned change may be an important factor for the social and economic
progress of rural communities and families;
Extension and Extension service providerslagents must not act mechanically and without a
Development: Planning,
Management and vision;
Evaluation
Extension programmes can contribute significantly to learning, educational
improvement and development;
It is possible to select, organize and manage programmes that contribute to
change and development;
Extension educators, as change facilitators, can help individuals, families
and communities to reflect upon their realities and build relevant programmes,
thus improve the quality of their life.

All these assumptions are for developing a programme for planned change.
In this section, we provide you an overview of the programme development
process with an emphasis on grass roots level extension work. First, it (we) will
look at basic concepts; discuss different ways of approaching the programme
development process, and review current ideas. It is important to emphasize
that, although in the text we usually use the word "planning," our discussion is
centered on programme development globally, which we see as a set of dynamic
cycles necessarily implying planning, implementation, and evaluation stages and
activities, interacting and often overlapping, evolving along the programme
process and according to the changing circumstances of the physical,
socioeconomic, and political-institutional environment. A good extension
programme meets the needs and interests of the majority of the people and
motivates them to make necessary changes. To be effective every programme
must start with people and the situations as they are, and then build towards the
ultimate goal of better family living.

13.2.4 Programme Development and Planned Change

When we talk of programme development, we aim at planned change, that is,
deliberate efforts to change a given state of affairs. Social, economic, cultural or
technological changes are commonly assumed to be the purposes of planned and
systematic extension actions. As change facilitators, extensionists should be
concerned with the preparation of programmes and projects that are responsive
to the needs and interests of rural communities and farm families.

Some argue that planning is a difficult mission, especially in the developing

world, where the level of political and economic uncertainty is high. This leads
to on-the-spot decisions or very short-term and incipient planning work. However,
we strongly argue that the lack of adequate planning and continual evaluation is
a major reason for the frequent failure of development projects and extension
activities (Koehnen, Portela and Cristovao, 1993, p.207). Other reasons are that:
planners do not look at the diversity embedded in most situations; different
clientele groups are not systematically involved, and some (surprisingly, major
ones) are neglected; alternative solutions are not carefully compared; objectives
are too rigid, not clearly defined or not linked to activities; results are not duly
studied; and the distribution of benefits is overlooked. So in many situations the
challenge seems obvious: to allocate more time for planning and evaluation and
to stop acting hastily and mechanically, without direction and purpose, like a
clock lacking hands.
 Extension authors and professionals strongly support planning. Forest and Baker Planning and Dleveloping
Extension Programme
(1994, p.87), for instance, underline that "program planning helps justify budget
appropriations and brings understanding among the public," and "the planning
process offers opportunity to people who participate in it to learn, thus building
leadership skills in the community that will likely contribute to self-help,
I independence, and positive end-results." In general, adequate planning and
evaluation do the following (Maalouf, in Rivera, 1987, p. 116).
I Involve an integrated analysis of needs and interests, opening up new horizons
for action.
Promote a concentration of efforts, channeling energies and resources in
appropriate directions, and helping accomplish complementarities and
synergies.
Strengthen programme resources and attract funds, thus allowing the
sustainability or expansion of activities.
Improve team and community capacities, motivations, performance, and
autonomy.
Show commitment to address and solve problems.
Strengthen the quality of projects and staff performance.
Serve as a means to open dialogue with other organizations involved in
development.

" In view of these, planning extension programmes has become an increasingly

accepted practice among national authorities.

Check Your Progress ~--..-

Notes: a) Space given below the question is for writing your answer.
b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this unit under
"Answers to 'Check Your Progress' Questions."
3) What are the objectives of an extension programme planning?
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4) What are the assumptions in programme planning and development?
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I+ \?irlsioq : ~ n d
I?cl clctprne~~t: Plunnine,
13.2.5 Princlplt.a ul J L ~ L C I I ~ I UrI Ir ugr ~ I I I I I Irrarnrlrmg
~ anu
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Mi-ni~ge~nent and Development
Principles of extension programme planning and development are discussed
below.

Extension programmes should be based on an analysis of the past experiences,

present situation and future needs. For programme determination adequate
infom~ationabout the people and their situation have to be collected. The present
situa.tion is to be analyzed and interpreted on the basis of past experiences, and
future needs are arrived at by taking local people into confidence. Extension
programmes thus have the definite purpose of improving rural life through
individual, group and community actions. Extension programme planning has
certain principles which hold good irrespective of the nature of the clientele and
the enterprises involved in it, and are discussed below.
1 ) Extension programmes should have clear and signzjicant objectives which
could satisfy important needs of the people. The ultimate objective of
programme building is to satisfy the needs of the people. For this purpose,
significant objectives pertaining to important needs of the people should be
selected and clearly stated. The emphasis shall be on what is attainable rather
than on what is ideal; although one should not lose sight of the ideal.
2 ) Extension programmes should jix up priority on the basis of available
rdesourcesand time. The rural people, particularly in the developing countries,
have a multitude of problems. All problems cannot be taken up at a time for
solution, because of the limitations of trained personnel; availability of fimds,
facilities and other resources. Time is also a limiting factor as both the people
and the funding agencies cannot wait for an indefinite period of time to get
the results. considering all these parameters it is essential to fix up priorities
in the programme.
3 ) Extension programmes should clearly indicate the availability and utilization
of resources. An extension programme should clearly state wherefrom the
funds, facilities, supplies and the needed personnel shall be available and
how these shall be utilized. This shall make the programme practical and
workable.
4 ) Extension programmes shozkld have a general agreement at various levels.
Programmes prepared at the various levels such as village, district, State
and national levels should conform to each other and shall not work at cross
purposes. Similarly, the extension programme of a particular department
should not be in conflict or contradiction with the extension pragramme of
other departments.
5 ) Extension programmes should involve people at the local level. Extension
programmes are implemented at the local level. Local people should,
therefore, be involved all through, from programme formulation to
programme implementation.
6) Extension programmes should involve relevant institutions and organizations.
Extension programmes cannot be implemented-in isolation. It requires the
support of many institutions and organizations. The programme should
broadly indicate the institutions and organizations to be involved and how
they shall contribute in attaining the programme objectives.
 7 ) Extension programme should have definite plan of work. The plan of work -
Planning . -Developing
and
Lxtenslon Yrogramme
may be separately drawn up or incorporated in the programme. The
programme should at least broadly indicate how it will be executed. Unless
the plan of work is drawn up, the programme remains a theoretical exercise.

8 ) Extension programmes should provide for evaluation of results and

reconsideration of the programme. Extension programme is not a static
outline of activities. The programme should make provision for periodical
monitoring and evaluation of results to judge its progress. On the basis of
the findings of evaluation, the programme should be suitably modified to
facilitate its reaching the objective within the stipulated period of time.
b 9) Extension programmes shouldprovidefor equitable distribution of benefits
amongst the members of the community. It has been found that, in a
community generally the resource- rich persons benefit more in comparison
to the resource-poor, from the implementation of extension programmes. As
this may generate social disparity and social tensions, the planning of
extension programmes should give adequate emphasis on the weaker sections
of the community.

13.2.6 Steps in Programme Planning and Development Process

According to Leagans (1961) there are five phases in the concept of extension
education process, which can be broken up into the following nine specific steps
in programme planning process as shown in Figure 13.1.
I
I 1. Collection and analysis of
data.
2. Determination of needs
and objectives.
3. Definition (identification of
1
...- -,..-,,-,-,,
Programme Plan of Work 4. Finding solutions. J
(Determine the (Carry out the 7 5. Selecting problems and
Programme Programme) determining priorities.
Plan the lAl--ls
vvur n
,L-
LI la
c/ 6. Preparing a plan of
action.

I
7. Carrying out the plan
. 8. Checking and evaluating
- results.
9. Review of progress and
-9 projection of plans.
Evaluation
a>
means Decision
Planning
Action
I
Fig. 13.1: Programme Development Process

In the diagrammatic representation of the programme-building process given in

Figure 13.1 the first 4 steps constitute the Extension Programme, and the next 5
steps the Annual plan of work. These nine steps in the process are briefly described
below.

1) Collection, analysis and evaluation of data: Good planning depends on

the collection of adequate and reliable data and a scientific elaboration and
interpretation of the same. Extension workers must have adequate knowledge 13
Extension and of what farmers produce, how and under what conditions they produce it,
Development: Planning,
Management and
and how the production can be stepped up to the maximum for the purpose
Evaluation of formulating plans at the village and Block level. An intimate knowledge
of the cropping patterns, procedures of farm management and the factors of
production is essential for purposeful programme planning in agriculture in
any area. Therefore, it is of great importance that all extension workers possess
factual and basic farm and family information required for preparing a sound
family, village and Block plans. It is not possible to draw up a comprehensive
list of items suitable for all situations or all parts of the country, on which
extension workers could collect information. But, in general, information
on the following items should be collected.

A) Basic information about the village: This covers the following.

i) Population. v

ii) Total number of families.

iii) Number of farm families.
iv) Other main occupations of the villagers.
v) Transport facilities.
vi) Schooling facilities.
vii) Facilities of medical aid.
viii) Drinking water facilities, etc.
ix) Attitudes and beliefs of the rural population (social classes, formal
and informal groups, etc).
x) Nutrition situation (food habits, level of nutrition, etc).
B) Information aboutfarm management andproductionprogrammes: This
includes the following.

i) Total area under cultivation in the village.

ii) Size of an average agricultural holding.
iii) Types and quality of crops grown and types and quality of live-
stock.
iv) Soil types and problems connected with soil fertility, soil erosion,
drainage ,etc.
v) Cattle feed (feed rations and crops grown as cattle feeds, etc.)
vi) Utilization of grass land (arrangement for cattle grazing and grass
land improvement).
vii) Disease and pest control (important diseases and pests, and their
control measures).
viii) Agricultural machinery (types of traditional and improved
agricultural implements used, etc.).
ix) Irrigation resources (types of irrigation sources and problems) and
drainage.
x) Financial position of the farmers (long and short-term debts,
, A borrowed capital, etc.).
 xi) Credit facilities (sources and facilities of securing credit). Planning and Developing
Extension Programme
xii) Position of labour (problems of farm labour, landless labour in
the village).
xiii) Marketing facilities.
The data can be collected by the village level extension workers from the
villagers themselves, from the local institutions and from the revenue records.
Reliance and adequacy of the data about factual situations are very important
considerations in building sound programmes at the family, village and block
levels.

It is very important that persons such as the Village level Workers, Extension
Officers and Block Development Officers engaged in developing the
extension programme strengthen the local institutions like the panchayat,
the co-operative society, the school and the rural youth club by collecting
the factual data through them and using them for building the programme at
the family, village and Block levels. The workers should develop local
leadership in such a way that the villagers and the local institution are able
to recognize and select problems for action on a priority basis. Thus, it is
desirable that the essential factual data collected by these workers is passed
on to the village panchayat or Block panchayat samithi for review and action
in deciding which problems of the village or Block should be tackled first.
Facts and outlook (trends) at the national and state levels should also be
considered in this context, in addition to those pertaining to the local level.

2) Determination of needs and objectives: It is essential in the programme

planning process that before deciding on the projects to be undertaken, the
basic objectives of the programme are determined by the villagers in
consultation with the extension staff. This means that the villagers must
have a very clear understanding of their needs and problems and of the project
as well so that they are able to set up appropriate objectives for village
programmes. Objectives of the programme can be decided upon by the head
or active member of the participating family for family plans, and by the
village panchayat in the case of activities to be undertaken on a community
or village basis. Service co-operatives operating in villages should also take
upon themselves the responsibility for deciding the objectives of the
programme which promote welfare of rural children, youth and women. In
arriving at the objectives for village programmes, the villagers and leaders
of the local institutions should take the advice of the extension workers. In
many cases, the objectives of the programme may not be clear to the villagers.
In such situations the extension staff may give a lead to the villagers in
determining the specific objectives. The objectives should specify the
behavioural changes in people, besides the social and economic changes
aimed at and also satisfy the other criteria.

3) Definition of Problems: In the process of programme planning at the family,

village or Block level, it is desirable that village activities are properly
classified. This will give an opportunity to the planner and the participants
to assess their potentialities and capabilities for executing the programme.
Generally in villages, such problems can be classified into the following
Extension and i) Problems which can be solved by the villagers with their own resources, '
.
Development: Planning,
Management and like improving yields by adopting improved methods of agricultural
Evaluation production, improving the manurial potential by preparing compost
manure, organizing Service Co-operatives, Rural Youth Clubs, Mahila
Mandals, etc.

ii) Problems that need community cooperation without involving much

outside assistance, like the construction of a village approach road by i
voluntary effort, improving village drainage, deepening of tanks,
afforestration of common land, etc.
iii) Problems that require assistance from outside sources on account of
high costs involved and the technical knowledge needed such as the
construction of a school building, purchase and use of plant protection
equipment, supply of fertilizers, construction of metal road, installation
of pumping sets, construction of tube wells, etc.
If the villagers and the village institutions are able to classify their problems
under such broad heads, it will be easy to plan a clear-cut programme for
each individual family and the village. Under these conditions, the internal
and external resources can be utilized economically and quicker results can
be obtained. In the programme planning process, it is also desirable to break
up the complex problems step-by-step into simple problems. For example,
in the case of improving village sanitation, the first step can be to organize
cleanliness drives periodically in the villages, then have a programme of
soakage pits followed by a village drainage programme, etc.
4) Finding solutions to problems: The extension worker working at the village
level and the Extension Officer working as a specialist at the Block level are
two very important functionaries who can. advise the village families and
village institutions on their problems. It is of real importance that these
functionaries have a clear understanding of the village problems and keep
themselves equipped for offering solutions to the problems and present to
them. They must consult their superior specialists on problems they are not
able to handle themselves. The solutions offered should be practicable and
economical and should result in satisfaction and learning. The best method
of convincing the villagers is for the specialists to function in the programme
as partners. Specialists at district and state levels who assist the Block level
specialists must also be fully oriented and trained with an overall
understanding of village problems and programmes.

5) Selecting problems to be tackled with priority: All the problems cannot

be tackled simultaneously, even though the solutions for them are known.
Therefore, it is necessary for the extension workers and the village institutions
to select problems and concentrate their efforts on projects in a phased way.
This will result in appreciable achievements and convince the village people
about the utility of the programme. Sporadic efforts sometimes do not end
in lasting and convincing impressions on the minds of rural people. Care,
therefore, must be exercised by programme committees set-up at village
and Block levels to review the situation periodically for determining how
much progress has been made on projects under way, which projects are
complete and which new projects may be initiated. This would provide
opportunities for selecting problems for programme planning in a more
16 methodical and democratic manner.
 Annual plan of work: Preparing annual plan of activities directed towards Planning and
Extension I'rogramme
solving selected problems is an important step. A plan of work is the listing
of activities by which the objectives already decided upon are to be achieved.
It includes the methods of executing the programme such as demonstrations,
discussionmeetings, family contacts by the extension workers, etc. It indicates
the places, timings and persons responsible for carrying out the programme
along with the methods of evaluating the progress. Village panchayats, co-
operatives, schools, rural youth clubs and individual families can prepare
their own annual plans of work in a simple way. The extension agency may
provide suitable proformas and guidance for preparing these. In the early
stages, the initiative has to come fiom the extension agency itself in planning
programmes because, in India, villagers and village institutions are not
habituated to follow a systematic method of preparing annual plans of work.
Based on family and village annual plans, it is easy for the Block Panchayat
Samithi to prepare an annual plan of work for the entire Block on a realistic
basis representing the needs of the villages/villagers.

An adequate training is required for the extension staff to acquire the necessary
skills in developing programmes at family, village and Block levels in co-
operation with people's institutions like the Panchayat Samithi, the village
pimchayat, the co-operative society and the village families. The training of
the members of village Panchayat, service co-operative societies, rural youth
clubs, and Panchayat ami it hi' will also form an essential element in the
process of programme planning.

Each family can keep a simple register for maintaining the annual plan of
work, while the Panchyats and co-operatives at the village level can maintain
the annual plan of work for village development activities. At the Block
level, the Panchayat Samithi can maintain the annual plan of work for the
Block. For successful implementation of any programme it is desirable that
planning is done well in advance.As the first step towards its implementation,
a calendar indicating the activities to be carried out during each month should
be prepared.

7) Carrying out the plan: The success of a programme depends on how well
~tis carried out. Immediate steps should be taken by the Village Development
Officer and local institutions at the village level the Extension Specialist,
the Block Development Officer and the Panchayat Samithi at the Block level,
to phase every activity in a proper perspective, and arrange all things in
time. Proper arrangements for the supply of fertilizers, equipment, credit,
audio-visual aids and literature should be made much in advance. A training
programme for specialized projects should be organized much ahead. Efforts
should be made to select the best type of local leaders who can shoulder the
responsibility and multiply the efforts of the extension agency. All steps in
carrying out a programme shkuld be discussed with the villagers and their
consent obtained at appropriate periods so that a partnership in the programme
is built-up and maintained. Steps for assistance and direction should be clearly
stated so that there may be no confusion anywhere in launching the extension
programmes.

If co-operation and coordination ofthe village and the Block level institutions
with extension workers and the villagers are maintained in the process of,
17
Extension and programme planning, the programme so developed will be more realistic
Development: Planning,
Management and and easier to implement. For imparting proper type of training to local leaders,
Evaluation farm leaders and members of panchayats and the Panchayat Samithi seminars
should be arranged at village and Block levels.
8) Continuous checking and evaluation of results: An effective plan of work
requires the keeping of adequate records of each activity as a basis for future
evaluation. Evaluation of the activities should be undertaken jointly by the
extension staff, the village institutions and the Panchayat Samithi. Each future
programme should be based on the evaluation results of the previous one.
Successful evaluation gives a correct direction to a programme. It should be
remembered that evaluation is not mere recording of activities or
achievements but is a process of comparing these results with the original
objectives.
9) Review of progress and projection of plans: At the end of each cycle of
the programme building process, the situation should be reconsidered in
view of the changes in the social and economic levels of the people so that
the whole process may begin again with new or modified objectives. Village
institutions like the Panchayat, the co-operative and the school and also the
Panchayat Samithi should periodically review the progress of plans in co-
operation with the staff members of the Block. Programmes which have
created an impact on the people and are being accepted by them should be
extended to the neighbouring areas where similar agro-climatic and socio-
economic conditions occur. Research should be conducted on the programmes
which are not being accepted by the people and the reasons for their failure
should be ascertained.
rn
Programmes should never be considered as ends in themselves. They are
merely tools for doing more effective work. A proper adjustment of time
and energy spent in preparing a programme has always to be maintained
with the actual implementation of the programme in the field. It should be
noted that evaluation, decision, planning and action take place continuously
and in varying degrees throughout all steps of the programme-building
process.
Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Space given below the question is for writing your answer.
b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this unit under
"Answers to 'Check Your Progress' Questions."
5) What are the principles of extension programme planning?
 Planning and Developing
6 ) What are the steps involved in programme development process? Extension Programme

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13.3 CREATING EXTENSION PROGRAMMES

WITH THE PEOPLE'S PARTICIPATION:
A RATIONALE
Planning is currently recognized not only as aprocess but also as a social practice.
As a process, it is seen as a dynamic effort evolving around problems and implying
decisions and actions to achieve goals. As a social practice, it implies a negotiation
of interests and the construction of some type of working platform involving
different actors such as researchers, subject-matter specialists, rural leaders,
representatives of farmers' associations and groups, and so on. "Negotiation"
emerges as a key word in current views (Cervero and Wilson, 1994; Sadowske,
1991). That means, more and more programme development is seen as a
democratic exercise, implying a dialogue around issues like the following:
How can a given situation be described and analysed?
What are the major problems, needs, and expectations?
What are the alternatives to solve the problems?

-m
:=
What kinds of resources, information and technologies are required?
What projects and activities should be implemented?
When? How? Where? By whom?
How should evaluation be seen?
Who should do it and when?
How and by whom will'the programme be managed and controlled?
Democratic planning of extension work implies open discussion of these
questions, not necessarily in any exact order, but usually in some kind of iterative
way, going back and forth in successive approximations.

Participation of men and women farmers, rural leaders and networks (both formal
and informal), community groups, and other development institutions becomes
Extension and of farming and rural populations, often representing the largest share of production
Development: Planning,
Management and
and in words considered central to development, are not actively and
Evaluation systematically brought into the process. It is known that extensionwork overlooks
women and is mostly dedicated to a minority of progressive and large farmers
who tend to be relatively well-off. These farmers have more power to influence
the system, serve many times as privileged linking elements between the village
and government agencies, are actively involved in organizations, and are capable
of attracting a good share of project benefits. On the other side, it is also known
that often small and medium farmers lack the time, money and motivation to
participate. They feel powerless, and very often local history is not encouraging
and supports the view that their participation is politically risky.

To summarize, democratic planning of extension work implies:

A broad understanding of participation, implying the involvement of different
groups and organizations in various programme development stages and
activities at the decision-making level.
A different view of rural people and an attitude of respect and humility
regarding their knowledge and experience.
A close attention to the way power is shared and distributed among different
social groups, local and regional networks, segments of the population, and
between the national and regional power holders (political leaders and parties,
for instance).
An understanding of the way decision-making power is distributed in the
official structures or among others dealing with people and development at
different levels.
A recognition of the fact that in any situation, even in small rural communities,
the existing needs, interests and aspirations are not homogeneous.
A clear perspective about the advantages and problems associated with
participation.

This rationale is not only politically and ethically sound, because people should
be respected and participation is today seen as a basic need and a human right,
but it is also economicallyjustified, because experience shows that project success
and long-term sustainable results require people-centered approaches.

13.3.1 Five Essential Elements to Promote Participation of

People in Extension Programmes
Participatoryplanning is not a linear, sequential activity. Globally, this is a dynamic
and continual process evolving in a succession of actions and cycles. In each
step, a number of actors intervene, and planners act as facilitators enabling active
participation and ensuring the quality of the outcomes. The adoption of a strategy
to promote participation is a critical aspect. In this regard, experience shows,
that five major interrelated elements are essential (B,ryant and White, 1982;
Cernea, 1992):
1) Keep extension projects simple and manageable.
2) Differentiate various groups in the project area.
3) Work with different types of organizations.
4) Take advantage of all possible methods and techniques. Planning and Developing
Ext1:nsion Programme
5) Improve people's capacities to participate.
1) Keep Extension Projects Simple and Manageable: It is known that small
projects developed at the local level which imply relatively simple skills,
provide direct benefits to participants and build on self-help arrangements
have better chances of mobilizing people's attention and active involvement
(Bryant and White, 1982, p.218). When projects are larger and more complex,
for instance at the regional or provincial level, the task can be more difficult,
but ways can be found to generate participatory dynamics, including
decentralization mechanisms that allow a greater input to local extension
units and working with rural organizations and groups at different levels.

2) Differentiate Various Groups in the Project Area: How can we assure

that the needs of particular groups such as landless farmers or poor women
are reflected in the extension programming process? The answer to this
question implies a clear identification of groups in the project area. In effect,
"farmers" or "the rural population" are often taken as the "target group"
without any further specification and assume it is a homogeneous group,
which does not exist in reality. So identification of specific groups and
subgroups to reach and work with becomes a critical element in a participatory
planning process. Identification can be accomplished in different ways.
Albrecht, et al. (1989, pp.48-49) suggest three common approaches:

i) Classification of holdings according to size, socio-economic features

(e.g., full-time employment, extra income, a second job), and production
structure (land-use system, management system, etc.). This approach
usually requires extensive surveys, which are costly and time-consuming.

ii) Building on local common distinctions: it is simpler and more practical

to classify groups according to distinctions that already exist in a
particular society. They are less artificial and a more faithful reflection
of the problem situation from the angle of the population. The use of
key-informant interviews or group discussions is usual procedures in
this case.

iii) A third approach, compfementary to the previous ones, can be the

identification of existing community organizations, looking at
membership and leadership, the roles they play, and assessing the kinds
of interests they defend and the extent to which they serve particular
segments of the local society (Verhagen, 1987, p.1079). This leads us
directly to the third element.

3) Work with Different Types of Organizations: It is widely recognized that

sorne form of organization is essential to facilitate participation. For instance,
Oakley and Marsden (1984, p.69) summarized the methodological
approaches to participation in various cases in Brazil, Senegal, Bangladesh
and India, and in all of them the formation and role of groups emerge as a
crucial aspect. In this regard, four specific recommendations seem important:
i) Working with a wide variety of organizations increases the chances of
reaching a wider spectrum of people. The institutional map needs to be
done, because in most situations different s{brtsof organizations exist -
21
Extension and cooperatives, commodity groups, irrigation and credit associations, youth
Development: Planning,
Management and
or women's clubs, village committees, leisure and cultural groups,
Evaluation development associations, and others - with a variety of labels and
structures representing diverse interests and objectives and working at
the local, regional or national levels.
ii) It is important to consider and work with existing organizations.
Indigenous ones in particular, as stressed by Bryant and White (1982,
p. 129), are an important resource because of their cohesiveness and
reliance on mutual trust.
iii) Creating new organizations is important in many circumstances. In this
case, the process should be educational. The concerned people have to
feel the need to be organized and have to devise their own objectives
and forms of action. A process of reflection, discussion, and decision-
making is usually necessary (Korten, 1980). Extension workers and
change agencies should be ready to encourage and help, provide
counseling and training and facilitate contacts and access to similar
experiences.
iv) In any situation, it is important to analyze the interests represented by
existing organizations and their degree of power and influence. In many
cases, they are led by better-off farmers or representatives of elite groups
and are not at all a reliable support to a participatory strategy aimed at
the interests of different groups and attempts to reach the disadvantaged.
Still, in relation to this element of the overall strategy, it must be stressed
that the work with advisory committees or councils of different sorts has
proven to be advantageous (Albrecht, et al., 1999; Boyle, 1981; Hemp,
Kaczor, and Zwilling, 1983). Such organizations involve a .small group of
selected individuals, usually between twelve and fifteen, and help extension
in various ways regarding the development efforts within a given area, being
a specific means to assure formal participation in programme development.

4) Take Advantage of all Possible Methods and Techniques: In any situation,

either with favourable or unfavourable institutional scenes, something can
always be done so that extension programmes are responsive to the local
needs and concerns. Some alternatives are the following:
Conducting community surveys, contacting specific groups, and
administering questionnaires at extension meetings, training courses, or
other types of public events.
Collecting information from key informants and other knowledgeable
individuals as well as from formal and informal group discussions and
meetings at the village or other levels.
Deliberately contacting hard-to-reach groups and others with less power
and visibility that are normally not involved in extension work.
Obtainingpublic input through interactive radio or television programmes.
Communicating with other services in such fields as education and health
and exchanging information, experiences and views.
Keeping a permanent record of needs, concerns, views, values and
customs.
5) Improve People's Capacities to Participate: This implies, among other Planning and Developing
Extension Programme
things, education and training. On the extension service side, agents and
other officers frequently lack the skills to work with rural people in an
interactive manner. Their training is often narrow and stresses the acquisition
of technical knowledge and abilities. In-service training may be required so
that extension people learn how to act as helpers and facilitators of
participation in the different programme phases and moments.

Concerning rural people, and farmers in particular, it is important to act in

such areas as education and leadership development. The acquisition of
literacy skills, communication abilities and organizational and leadership
capacities is vital for establishing strong local institutions and foApromoting
conscientious and self-sustained problem-solving efforts. As Albrecht, et al.
(1989, p. 182) underlined, training can increase the efficiency of local
organizations,make them assume more responsibilities, and acquire political
weight ensuring that their members' interests are taken into account at higher
levels. These and other ideas can form the basis of an action plan to create
extension programmes with the people, including the following dimensions:
Change or adjust extension's organizational structure and management
in order to favour an internal climate of dialogue, cooperation, and
creativity conducive to participatory planning.
Maintain open communication channels within the extension service,
with other related services, and with all involved institutions in order to
facilitate a rapid exchange of ideas and joint decision-making.
Plan for the development of attitudes, knowledge, and capacitiesessential
to promote participation and provide training to extension people and
rural citizens.
Concentrate attention and efforts on small local extension programmes.
Differentiate groups at the programme area, and understand the diversity
of needs, concerns, ideas, potentials and obstacles.
Consider and work with different types of organizations, formal and
informal, to ensure programme quality and responsiveness.
Establish interlocking advisory committees at the necessary levels and
programme areas, and work with them actively throughout the project

Use all possible mechanisms to obtain citizens' input.

Creative programme development practice, thus, requires permanent attention
to the integration ofplanning, implementation and evaluation stages and activities,
demanding an attitude of cooperation from the concerned actors and often the
assumption of interchangeable roles and functions. Otherwise, blueprint or
centralized approaches will determine extension practices.

13.4 LET US SUM LTP

In this unit, we have discussed the concepts used in programme planning and
development as well as the nature, scope, principles and the process of programme
planning and development. We have also discussed the five essential elements
required to promote participation of people in extension programmes.
23
Extension and
Development: Planning, 13.5 A N S W J L ~
Management and
Evaluation QUESTIONS
1) Planning is a process which involves studying the past and the present in
order to forecast the future and determine the goals to be achieved and the
means to achieve them. Planning is designing a course of action to achieve
ends. Programme Planning is a process of working with the people in an
effort to recognize the unsatisfactory situation and determine possible
solutions, objectives or goals. Programme planning is a process of bringing
planned change in a situation.

2) The characteristics of programme planning process in extension are as

follows:
Programme planning is an educational process and involves both
teaching and learning.
Programme planning is an unifying and integrating process.
Programme planning is a coordinating process.
Programme planning is an evaluating process.
3) According to Kelsey and Hearne (1967) the objectives of programme
planning are:
To ensure careful consideration of what is to be done and why;
To furnish a guide or straight edge against which to judge all new
proposals;
To establish objectives towards which progress can be measured and
evaluated;
To give continuity particularly during changes in personnel;
To aid in the develop,ment of leadership;
To have a means of choosing a) the important from the incidental
problems, and b) the permanent from the temporary changes;
To prevent mistaking the means for the end, and to develop both felt
and unfelt needs;
To avoid wastage of time and money, and promote general efficiency;
To coordinate the efforts of differentpeople working for rural development;
To encourage local people to give the extension workers more support
by, thus ensuring cooperation and financial support; and
To have available in written form a statement for general public use.
4) Following are the important assumptions kept in mind while planning and
developing an extension programme:
Planned change may be an important factor for the social and economic
progress of rural communities and families;
Extension service providerslagents must not act mechanically and
without a vision;
24
 Extension programmes can contribute significantly. to learning, Planning and Doveloping
Extension Programme
educational improvement and development;
It is possible to select, organize and manage programmes that contribute
to change and development;
Extension educators, as change facilitators, can help individuals, families
and communities to reflect upon their realities and build relevant
programmes, thus improve the quality of their life.
rn 5) Principles of extension programme planning are as given below.
Extension programmes should be based on an analysis of the past
experiences, present situation and W r e needs.
Extension programmes -- should have clear and significant objectives
which could satisfy important needs of the people.
Extension programmes should fix up priority on the basis of available
resources and time.
Extension and Boyle, P. G. 1981. Planning betterprograms. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Development: Planning,
Management and Bryant, C., and White, L. G. 1982. Managing development in the third world.
Evaluation Boulder, CD: West view Press.
Cernea, M. 1992. "The Building Blocks of Participation: Testing a Social
Methodology" (pp.96-108), in B. Bhatnagar, and A. C. Williams (Eds.).
Participatory Planning and the World Bank: Potential Directionsfor Change,
Washington, DC: world Bank.
Cervero, R. M., and Wilson, A. L. 1994. Planning for Responsible Adult
Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Forest, L. B., and Baker, H. R. 1994. In D. J. Blackbum, (Ed.), Extension
Handbook: Processes and Practices (pp.86-99). Toronto, Canada: Thompson
Educational Publishing.
Hemp, P., Kaczor, C., and Zwilling, A. 1983. Course of Study: Citizen k Advisory
Councils in Education. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois, Department of
Vocational and Technical Education.
Kelsey, L. D., and Heame, C. C. 1967. Co-operative Extension Work. Ithaka,
New York: Comstock Publishing Associates.
Koehnen, T. L., Portela, J., and Cristovao, A. 1993. "Bilateral Curriculum
Development for Assistance in Food Security in Lusophone Africa", in A. Bonano
(Ed.), The agricultural andfoodsector in the new global era (pp. 195-212).New
Delhi: Concept Publishing.
Korten, D. C. 1980. Community organization and rural development: A learning
process approach, Public Administration Review, 40 (Sept.-Oct.), 480-5 12.
Leagans, J, P. 1961.Extension Education in Community Development. New Delhi:
Directorate of Extension, Government of India.
Oakley, P., Marsden, M. 1984.Approaches to Participation in Rural Development.
Geneva: International Labor Off~ce.
Sadowske, P. S. 1991. Towards Futuristic Program Planning in Adult Education.
University of Wisconsin-Madison: Unpublished doctoral dissertation.
Sanders, H. C. 1968. The Cooperative Extension Service. New Jersey, USA:
Prentice Hall Inc.
Verhagen, V. 1987. Self-help Promotion: A Challenge to the NGO Community
Amsterdam: CEBEMOIRoyal Tropical Institute.
Suggested Readings
Dahama, 0. P., and Bhatnagar, 0 . P. 2007. Education and Communicationfor
Development. Mumbai: Oxford and IBH Publishing Co.
Jalihal, K. A., and Veerabhadraiah, V. 2007. Fundamentals ofExtension Education
and Management in Extension. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company.
Ray, G. L. 2007. Extension Communication and Management. Kolkata? Naya
Prakash.
www.fao.org/docrep/w5830eIw5830e09.htm.
www.comp.dit.ie1.../LO5extraSteps%20in%20Program%20Development%20-
%20revision. pptmonarch.tamu.edu/d690/d690pdev.htm
www.uwex.eddces/pdande/.
26