Viruses: Structure, Function

Viruses are microscopic parasites, generally much smaller than bacteria. They lack the capacity
to thrive and reproduce outside of a host body. A viral particle or virion contains a single nucleic
acid (RNA or DNA) core surrounded by a protein coat and sometimes enzymes that are required
to initiate viral replication. Viruses can only replicate within the cells of animals, plants, and
bacteria and, as such, are referred to as obligate intracellular parasites.
When researchers first discovered viruses and realized they seemed to behave similarly to
bacteria, they generally became considered as biologically "alive."

However, this changed in the 1930s when it was demonstrated that virions lacked the
mechanisms that are required for metabolic function. Once scientists determined that viruses
simply consist of DNA or RNA contained within a protein shell, they generally became thought
of as biochemical mechanisms rather than living organisms.

A virus is typically made up of a protective protein coat called a capsid. Capsids vary in shape,
from simple helical forms to more complicated structures with tails. The capsid protects the viral
genome from the external environment and plays a role in receptor recognition, enabling the
virus to bind to susceptible hosts and cells.

The name is from a Latin word meaning “slimy liquid” or “poison.” The earliest indications of
the biological nature of viruses came from studies in 1892 by the Russian scientist Dmitry I.
Ivanovsky and in 1898 by the Dutch scientist Martinus W. Beijerinck. Both of these
investigators found that a disease of tobacco plants could be transmitted by an agent, later
called tobacco mosaic virus, passing through a minute filter that would not allow the passage of
bacteria.

Introduction to Fungi

A fungus is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms
such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are
classified as a kingdom, which is separate from the other eukaryotic life kingdoms
of plants and animals. A characteristic that places fungi in a different kingdom from plants,
bacteria, and some protists is chitin in their cell walls. Similar to animals, fungi are heterotrophs;
they acquire their food by absorbing dissolved molecules, typically by secreting digestive
enzymes into their environment. Fungi do not photosynthesize. Growth is their means
of mobility, except for spores (a few of which are flagellated), which may travel through the air
or water. Fungi are the principal decomposers in ecological systems.Being eukaryotes, a typical
fungal cell contains a true nucleus and many membrane-bound organelles. The kingdom Fungi
includes an enormous variety of living organisms collectively referred to as Ascomycota, or true
Fungi. Most fungi produce a large number of spores, which are haploid cells that can undergo
mitosis to form multicellular, haploid individuals. Like bacteria, fungi play an essential role in
ecosystems because they are decomposers and participate in the cycling of nutrients by breaking
down organic and inorganic materials to simple molecules.
Fungi often interact with other organisms, forming beneficial or mutualistic associations. For
example most terrestrial plants form symbiotic relationships with fungi. The roots of the plant
connect with the underground parts of the fungus forming mycorrhizae. Through mycorrhizae,
the fungus and plant exchange nutrients and water, greatly aiding the survival of both species
Alternatively, lichens are an association between a fungus and its photosynthetic partner (usually
an algae). Fungi also cause serious infections in plants and animals.

The main body of most fungi is made up of fine, branching, usually colourless threads
called hyphae. Each fungus will have vast numbers of these hyphae, all intertwining to make up
a tangled web called the mycelium.

Cell structure and function

Fungi are eukaryotes, and as such, have a complex cellular organization. Being eukaryotes, a
typical fungal cell contains a true nucleus, mitochondria, and a complex system of internal
membranes, including the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus.

Unlike plant cells, fungal cells do not have chloroplasts or chlorophyll. Many fungi display
bright colors arising from other cellular pigments, ranging from red to green to black. Pigments
in fungi are associated with the cell wall and play a protective role against ultraviolet radiation or
predators.

Like plant cells, fungal cells have a thick cell wall, but in fungi, it is made of complex
polysaccharides called chitin and glucans. Chitin, also found in the exoskeleton of insects, gives
structural strength to the cell walls of fungi. The wall protects the cell from desiccation (‘drying
out’) and predators.

Fungi Reproduction

Fungi can reproduce asexually by fragmentation, budding, or producing spores, or sexually with
homothallic or heterothallic mycelia.

Fungi reproduce sexually and/or asexually. Perfect fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually,
while imperfect fungi reproduce only asexually (by mitosis).

In both sexual and asexual reproduction, fungi produce spores that disperse from the parent
organism by either floating on the wind or hitching a ride on an animal. Fungal spores are
smaller and lighter than plant seeds.

Asexual Reproduction

Fungi reproduce asexually by fragmentation, budding, or producing spores. Fragments of hyphae

can grow new colonies. Mycelial fragmentation occurs when a fungal mycelium separates into
pieces with each component growing into a separate mycelium. Somatic cells in yeast form buds.
During budding (a type of cytokinesis), a bulge forms on the side of the cell, the nucleus divides
mitotically, and the bud ultimately detaches itself from the mother cell.

The most common mode of asexual reproduction is through the formation of asexual spores,
which are produced by one parent only (through mitosis) and are genetically identical to that
parent. Spores allow fungi to expand their distribution and colonize new environments. They
may be released from the parent thallus, either outside or within a special reproductive sac called
a sporangium.

There are many types of asexual spores. Conidiospores are unicellular or multicellular spores
that are released directly from the tip or side of the hypha. Other asexual spores originate in the
fragmentation of a hypha to form single cells that are released as spores; some of these have a
thick wall surrounding the fragment. Yet others bud off the vegetative parent cell.
Sporangiospores are produced in a sporangium.

Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction introduces genetic variation into a population of fungi. In fungi, sexual
reproduction often occurs in response to adverse environmental conditions. Two mating types
are produced. When both mating types are present in the same mycelium, it is called
homothallic, or self-fertile. Heterothallic mycelia require two different, but compatible, mycelia
to reproduce sexually.

Although there are many variations in fungal sexual reproduction, all include the following three
stages. First, during plasmogamy (literally, “marriage or union of cytoplasm”), two haploid cells
fuse, leading to a dikaryotic stage where two haploid nuclei coexist in a single cell. During
karyogamy (“nuclear marriage”), the haploid nuclei fuse to form a diploid zygote nucleus.
Finally, meiosis takes place in the gametangia (singular, gametangium) organs, in which gametes
of different mating types are generated. At this stage, spores are disseminated into the
environment.

Fungal ecosystem services

With their versatile metabolism, fungi can break down organic matter which would not
otherwise be recycled in the ecosystem. Some elements, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, are
required in large quantities by biological systems, and yet are not abundant in the environment
unless this breakdown takes place. Even trace elements present in low amounts in many habitats
are essential for growth would remain tied up in rotting organic matter if fungi and bacteria did
not return them to the environment via their metabolic activity. Thus, fungi make it possible for
other living things to be supplied with the nutrients they need to live.

Because of their varied metabolic pathways, fungi can fulfill many important roles. Not only do
they help to stabilize ecosystems and supply us with food, but they are also directly used in the
production of beer, cheese, and bread, as well as various medicines.

Nutrition

Fungi get their nutrition by absorbing organic compounds from the environment. Fungi
are heterotrophic: they rely solely on carbon obtained from other organisms for their
metabolism and nutrition. Fungi have evolved in a way that allows many of them to use a large
variety of organic substrates for growth, including simple compounds such as nitrate, ammonia,
acetate, or ethanol. Their mode of nutrition defines the role of fungi in their environment.

Fungi obtain nutrients in three different ways:

1. They decompose dead organic matter. A saprotroph is an organism that obtains its nutrients
from non-living organic matter, usually dead and decaying plant or animal matter, by
 absorbing soluble organic compounds. Saprotrophic fungi play very important roles as
recyclers in ecosystem energy flow and biogeochemical cycles. Saprophytic fungi, such as
shiitake (Lentinula edodes) and oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus), decompose dead
plant and animal tissue by releasing enzymes from hyphal tips. In this way they recycle
organic materials back into the surrounding environment. Because of these abilities, fungi are
the primary decomposers in forests (see Figure below).

2. They feed on living hosts. As parasites, fungi live in or on other organisms and get their
nutrients from their host. Parasitic fungi use enzymes to break down living tissue, which may
causes illness in the host. Disease-causing fungi are parasitic. Recall that parasitism is a type
of symbiotic relationship between organisms of different species in which one, the parasite,
benefits from a close association with the other, the host, which is harmed.

3. They live mutualistically with other organisms. Mutualistic fungi live harmlessly with other
living organisms. Recall that mutualism is an interaction between individuals of two
different species, in which both individuals benefit.

Both parasitism and mutualism are classified as symbiotic relationships, but they are discussed
separately here because of the different effect on the host.

Mycorrhiza

A mycorrhiza (Greek for "fungus roots") is a symbiotic association between a fungus

and the roots of a plant. In a mycorrhizal association, the fungus may colonize the roots
of a host plant by either growing directly into the root cells, or by growing around the
root cells. This association provides the fungus with relatively constant and direct
access to glucose, which the plant produces by photosynthesis. The mycelia of the fungi
increase the surface area of the plant’s root system. The larger surface area
improves water and mineral nutrient absorption from the soil.