Routing: Authentication

 Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS) – used in Cisco AnyConnect VPN and
in OpenConnect VPN[9] to solve the issues TLS has with tunneling over TCP (SSL/TLS
are TCP-based, and tunneling TCP over TCP can lead to big delays and connection
aborts[10]).
 Microsoft Point-to-Point Encryption (MPPE) works with the Point-to-Point Tunneling
Protocol and in several compatible implementations on other platforms.
 Microsoft Secure Socket Tunneling Protocol (SSTP) tunnels Point-to-Point
Protocol (PPP) or Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol traffic through an SSL/TLS channel (SSTP
was introduced in Windows Server 2008 and in Windows Vista Service Pack 1).
 Multi Path Virtual Private Network (MPVPN). Ragula Systems Development Company
owns the registered trademark "MPVPN".[relevant?][11]
 Secure Shell (SSH) VPN – OpenSSH offers VPN tunneling (distinct from port
forwarding) to secure[ambiguous] remote connections to a network, inter-network links, and
remote systems. OpenSSH server provides a limited number of concurrent tunnels. The
VPN feature itself does not support personal authentication.[12] SSH is more often used to
remotely connect to machines or networks instead of a site to site VPN connection.
 WireGuard is a protocol. In 2020, WireGuard support was added to both the Linux [13] and
Android[14] kernels, opening it up to adoption by VPN providers. By default, WireGuard
utilizes the Curve25519 protocol for key exchange and ChaCha20-Poly1305 for
encryption and message authentication, but also includes the ability to pre-share a
symmetric key between the client and server.[15]
 Internet Key Exchange version 2 was created by Microsoft and Cisco and is used in
conjunction with IPSec for encryption and authentication. Its primary use is in mobile
devices, whether on 3G or 4G LTE networks, since it automatically reconnects when a
connection is lost.
 OpenVPN is a free and open-source VPN protocol based on the TLS protocol. It
supports perfect forward-secrecy, and most modern secure cipher suites,
like AES, Serpent, TwoFish, etc. It is currently[may be outdated as of March 2023] being developed and
updated by OpenVPN Inc., a non-profit providing secure VPN technologies.
 Crypto IP Encapsulation (CIPE) is a free and open-source VPN implementation for
tunneling IPv4 packets over UDP via encapsulation.[16] CIPE was developed
for Linux operating systems by Olaf Titz, with a Windows port implemented by Damion
K. Wilson.[17] Development for CIPE ended in 2002.[18]
Authentication[edit]
Tunnel endpoints must be authenticated before secure VPN tunnels can be established. [citation
needed]
User-created remote-access VPNs may use passwords, biometrics, two-factor authentication, or
other cryptographic methods. Network-to-network tunnels often use passwords or digital certificates.
Depending on the VPN protocol, they may store the key to allow the VPN tunnel to establish
automatically, without intervention from the administrator. Data packets are secured by tamper
proofing via a message authentication code (MAC), which prevents the message from being altered
or tampered without being rejected due to the MAC not matching with the altered data packet.
Routing[edit]
Tunneling protocols can operate in a point-to-point network topology however, this would
theoretically not be considered a VPN because a VPN by definition is expected to support arbitrary
and changing sets of network nodes. But since most router implementations support a virtual,
software-defined tunnel interface, customer-provisioned VPNs often are simply[ambiguous] defined tunnels
running conventional routing protocols.
Provider-provisioned VPN building blocks[edit]
Site-to-site VPN terminology
Depending on whether a provider-provisioned VPN (PPVPN) operates in Layer 2 (L2) or Layer 3
(L3), the building blocks described below may be L2 only, L3 only, or a combination of
both. Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) functionality blurs the L2–L3 identity.[19][original research?]
RFC 4026 generalized the following terms to cover L2 MPLS VPNs and L3 (BGP) VPNs, but they
were introduced in RFC 2547.[20][21]
Customer (C) devices
A device that is within a customer's network and not directly connected to the service provider's
network. C devices are not aware of the VPN.
Customer edge device (CE)
A device at the edge of the customer's network which provides access to the PPVPN. Sometimes it
is just a demarcation point between provider and customer responsibility. Other providers allow
customers to configure it.
Provider edge device (PE)
A device, or set of devices, at the edge of the provider network that connects to customer networks
through CE devices and presents the provider's view of the customer site. PEs are aware of the
VPNs that connect through them, and maintain VPN state.
Provider device (P)
A device that operates inside the provider's core network and does not directly interface to any
customer endpoint. It might, for example, provide routing for many provider-operated tunnels that
belong to different customers' PPVPNs. While the P device is a key part of implementing PPVPNs, it
is not itself VPN-aware and does not maintain VPN state. Its principal role is allowing the service
provider to scale its PPVPN offerings, for example, by acting as an aggregation point for multiple
PEs. P-to-P connections, in such a role, often are high-capacity optical links between major locations
of providers.
User-visible PPVPN services[edit]

OSI Layer 2 services[edit]
VLAN[edit]
VLAN is a Layer 2 technique that allows for the coexistence of multiple local area network (LAN)
broadcast domains interconnected via trunks using the IEEE 802.1Q trunking protocol. Other
trunking protocols have been used but have become obsolete, including Inter-Switch Link (ISL),
IEEE 802.10 (originally a security protocol but a subset was introduced for trunking), and ATM LAN
Emulation (LANE).
Virtual Private LAN Service (VPLS)[edit]
Developed by Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, VLANs allow multiple tagged LANs to
share common trunking. VLANs frequently comprise only customer-owned facilities. Whereas VPLS
as described in the above section (OSI Layer 1 services) supports emulation of both point-to-point
and point-to-multipoint topologies, the method discussed here extends Layer 2 technologies such
as 802.1d and 802.1q LAN trunking to run over transports such as metro Ethernet.
As used in this context, a VPLS is a Layer 2 PPVPN, emulating the full functionality of a traditional
LAN. From a user standpoint, a VPLS makes it possible to interconnect several LAN segments in a
way that is transparent to the user, making the separate LAN segments behave as one single LAN. [22]
In a VPLS, the provider network emulates a learning bridge, which may include VLAN service
optionally.
Pseudo-wire (PW)[edit]
PW is similar to VPLS but can provide different L2 protocols at both ends. Typically, its interface is a
WAN protocol such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode or Frame Relay. In contrast, when aiming to
provide the appearance of a LAN contiguous between two or more locations, the Virtual Private LAN
service or IPLS would be appropriate.
Ethernet-over-IP tunneling[edit]
EtherIP (RFC 3378)[23] is an Ethernet-over-IP tunneling protocol specification. EtherIP has only a
packet encapsulation mechanism. It has no confidentiality or message integrity protection. EtherIP
was introduced in the FreeBSD network stack[24] and the SoftEther VPN[25] server program.
IP-only LAN-like service (IPLS)[edit]
A subset of VPLS, the CE devices must have Layer 3 capabilities; the IPLS presents packets rather
than frames. It may support IPv4 or IPv6.
Ethernet virtual private network (EVPN)[edit]
Ethernet VPN (EVPN) is an advanced solution for providing Ethernet services over IP-MPLS
networks. In contrast to the VPLS architectures, EVPN enables control-plane-based MAC (and
MAC,IP) learning in the network. PEs participating in the EVPN instances learn the customer's MAC
(MAC,IP) routes in control-plane using MP-BGP protocol. Control-plane MAC learning brings a
number of benefits that allow EVPN to address the VPLS shortcomings, including support for multi-
homing with per-flow load balancing and avoidance of unnecessary flooding over the MPLS core
network to multiple PEs participating in the P2MP/MP2MP L2VPN (in the occurrence, for instance, of
ARP query). It is defined RFC 7432.
OSI Layer 3 PPVPN architectures[edit]
This section discusses the main architectures for PPVPNs, one where the PE disambiguates
duplicate addresses in a single routing instance, and the other, virtual router, in which the PE
contains a virtual router instance per VPN. The former approach, and its variants, have gained the
most attention.
One of the challenges of PPVPNs involves different customers using the same address space,
especially the IPv4 private address space.[26] The provider must be able to disambiguate overlapping
addresses in the multiple customers' PPVPNs.
BGP/MPLS PPVPN
In the method defined by RFC 2547, BGP extensions advertise routes in the IPv4 VPN address
family, which are in the form of 12-byte strings, beginning with an 8-byte route distinguisher (RD)
and ending with a 4-byte IPv4 address. RDs disambiguate otherwise duplicate addresses in the
same PE.[citation needed]
PEs understand the topology of each VPN, which is interconnected with MPLS tunnels directly or via
P routers. In MPLS terminology, the P routers are label switch routers without awareness of VPNs.
[citation needed]
Virtual router PPVPN

The virtual router architecture,[27][28] as opposed to BGP/MPLS techniques, requires no modification to
existing routing protocols such as BGP. By the provisioning of logically independent routing
domains, the customer operating a VPN is completely responsible for the address space. In the
various MPLS tunnels, the different PPVPNs are disambiguated by their label but do not need
routing distinguishers.[citation needed]
Unencrypted tunnels[edit]
Some virtual networks use tunneling protocols without encryption to protect the privacy of data.
While VPNs often provide security, an unencrypted overlay network does not fit within the secure or
trusted categorization.[29] For example, a tunnel set up between two hosts with Generic Routing
Encapsulation (GRE) is a virtual private network but is neither secure nor trusted.[30][31]
Native plaintext tunneling protocols include Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP) when it is set up
without IPsec and Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP) or Microsoft Point-to-Point
Encryption (MPPE).[32]

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 Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS) – used in Cisco AnyConnect VPN and

User-visible PPVPN services[edit]

Virtual router PPVPN

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