Review Not peer-reviewed version

Greenhouse Towards Near Zero

Energy Consumption: Challenges,

Opportunities, and Future

Directions

*
Abdellatif Soussi , Enrico Zero , Ahmed Ouammi , Driss Zejli , Said Zahmoun , Roberto Sacile

Posted Date: 4 August 2023

doi: 10.20944/preprints202308.0451.v1

Keywords: Smart Greenhouse; Optimization; Control; Zero energy

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Review
Greenhouse Towards Near Zero Energy
Consumption: Challenges, Opportunities, and Future
Directions
Abdellatif Soussi 1, Enrico Zero 1, Ahmed Ouammi 2, Driss Zejli 3, Said Zahmoun 1
and Roberto Sacile 1*
1 DIBRIS – Department of Informatics, Bioengineering, Robotics and Systems Engineering,
University of Genoa, 16145 Genova, Italy; abdellatifsoussi90@gmail.com, enrico.zero@dibris.unige.it,
zahmounsaid1994@gmail.com, roberto.sacile@unige.it
2 Department of Electrical Engineering, ETS Montreal, Canada; ahmed.ouammi@etsmtl.ca

3 National School of Applied Sciences - Kenitra (ENSA-Kénitra), Ibn Tofail University, Morocco;

driss.zejli@uit.ac.ma
* Correspondence: roberto.sacile@unige.it

Abstract: The global agricultural sector is increasingly pressured to adopt sustainable practices and reduce its
environmental impact. In this context, greenhouses play a crucial role in enabling year-round crop production,
ensuring food security, and minimizing reliance on traditional open-field farming. However, the energy
consumption associated with greenhouse operations poses a significant challenge to achieving sustainability
goals. As a result, there is a growing emphasis on transitioning greenhouses towards near-zero energy
consumption. Near-zero energy consumption in greenhouses refers to the ambitious objective of minimizing
energy usage to the greatest extent possible while maintaining optimal growing conditions for crops. This goal
encompasses reducing energy consumption for heating, cooling, lighting, and other operational needs, as well
as exploring renewable energy sources to power greenhouse operations. This review article offers a
comprehensive overview of greenhouse energy consumption, with the main goal of analyzing the present
situation, identifying key challenges, exploring potential opportunities, and proposing future perspectives for
decreasing energy usage in greenhouse environments. As the focus on sustainable agricultural practices grows,
the need to reduce energy consumption in greenhouses becomes increasingly important. The review critically
examines current technological models and strategies applied in smart greenhouse applications, as well as the
monitoring of microclimatic conditions inside the greenhouse, encompassing factors such as temperature,
humidity, CO2 levels, soil quality, and crop cultivation. Moreover, it aims to present existing literature that
investigates the advancement of greenhouses toward achieving significant reductions in energy consumption.

Keywords: smart greenhouse; optimization; control; zero energy

1. Introduction
Smart greenhouses have emerged as a promising solution to address the challenges of
agricultural production by ensuring optimal plant growth while minimizing energy consumption [1].
Energy optimization in these greenhouses is crucial for reducing production costs, limiting
environmental impact, and ensuring optimal growth conditions [2,3]. To achieve these goals, a range
of tools and techniques are employed to maximize energy efficiency and promote sustainability in
smart greenhouse systems [4].
Greenhouse design is a key element in optimizing energy usage [5]. Studies have emphasized
the importance of adequate greenhouse design, considering factors such as shape, size, orientation,
and innovative materials [6–8]. Covering materials like polyethylene or glass are used to protect
plants from weather fluctuations while allowing optimal transmission of photosynthetically active
light [9–12]. Smart glazing technologies, both active and passive, can modify the optical properties of
greenhouse covers, thereby improving light transmission [13,14]. Additionally, shading techniques
can be employed to reduce solar energy input during summer months, thereby decreasing water

© 2023 by the author(s). Distributed under a Creative Commons CC BY license.

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consumption for crop irrigation [15]. Insect screens can also be used to prevent pests while enabling
the transmission of photosynthetically active light [16].
Moreover, other technical aspects are also crucial for energy management in modern
greenhouses. Artificial lighting plays a crucial role in extending the crop growth cycle and providing
the necessary light intensity [17]. High-efficiency LED lighting systems are widely used to deliver
tailored lighting for plant needs, adjusting quantity, intensity, and light spectrum [18]. These systems
reduce energy consumption by providing only the required amount of light for photosynthesis while
minimizing energy losses as heat [18]. LED lamps offer significant advantages in energy savings
compared to traditional technologies such as high-pressure sodium lamps due to their high luminous
efficiency and adjustable wavelength [19].
In this context, several studies focused on energy optimization and lighting systems in
greenhouse agriculture. The study proposed by [20] investigates the energy savings achieved by
transitioning from High-Pressure Sodium (HPS) to LED lighting in greenhouses. LED lighting proves
to be beneficial by reducing energy consumption for lighting; however, it increases the demand for
heating, resulting in overall energy savings of 10-25%. Another work by [21] introduces an expert
system technology database combined with a parallel particle swarm optimization algorithm to
optimize plant light intensity. The algorithm enables faster and more accurate identification of
optimal positions for LED lights and drive circuit lit LED arrays, with significant energy savings
compared to fluorescent and incandescent lamps. The study by [22] presents a hybrid sunlight-LED
system based on the Internet of Things (IoT) for greenhouse plants. This system combines sunlight
lighting through fiber optics with precise sun-tracking and LED lighting for uniform coverage. By
automatically switching between sunlight and LED based on weather conditions, the system
promotes accelerated plant growth and increased fruit and vegetable production. It employs wireless
technologies such as Wi-Fi, mobile, and Bluetooth for intelligent lighting control, overcoming the
limitations of traditional photovoltaic lighting systems. The review highlights the energy-saving
potential, optimization capabilities, and adaptability of these advanced lighting systems for
sustainable greenhouse agriculture.
Effective management of temperature, humidity, and ventilation is another key aspect of energy
optimization in smart greenhouses [23]. Smart heating and cooling systems are employed to maintain
optimal thermal conditions throughout the year, utilizing renewable energy sources such as solar
energy or geothermal heat pumps, along with evaporative cooling systems, to reduce energy
consumption while maintaining optimal growth conditions [24]. Adequate ventilation systems
ensure proper air circulation, facilitating better temperature and humidity regulation [25]. These
systems are controlled based on plant needs and climatic conditions, minimizing energy
consumption while preserving crop thermal comfort [26].
Furthermore, precise irrigation management is a crucial aspect of energy optimization in smart
greenhouses [27]. Advanced irrigation systems like drip irrigation are used to provide water to plants
efficiently and precisely [28]. Soil moisture sensors and control algorithms enable real-time
monitoring of plant water requirements, avoiding unnecessary water losses and reducing energy
consumption associated with water pumping [29].
In addition, emerging technological advancements are taking place in the field of modern
greenhouses [30]. For example, automated monitoring and control systems can be used to monitor
and adjust greenhouse environmental conditions in real-time, enabling more efficient energy use [31].
Environmental sensors monitor parameters such as temperature, humidity, light intensity, and air
quality, while adaptive control systems adjust greenhouse parameters based on the collected data
[32]. The use of heat recovery systems can contribute to reducing energy losses by capturing and
reutilizing the heat generated within the greenhouse [33]. New cultivation methods like hydroponics
and aeroponics, which involve growing plants without soil in nutrient solutions or in the air, also
allow for more efficient use of water and nutrients, thereby reducing the environmental footprint
[34]. These approaches maintain optimal conditions for plant growth while minimizing energy losses
[35].
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In this context, the utilization of advanced controllers such as PID (Proportional, Integral,
Derivative), fuzzy logic, Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) and MPC (Model Predictive Control)
proves to be a promising approach to maximize energy efficiency in smart greenhouses [36].
The use of these advanced controllers in smart greenhouses offers several advantages. Firstly,
they enable more precise and responsive regulation of environmental conditions, thereby
maximizing energy efficiency and enhancing crop growth [37]. Moreover, these controllers can
account for seasonal variations, weather conditions, and specific crop needs to adapt control
strategies accordingly [38]. Finally, they provide increased flexibility and adaptability, allowing
smart greenhouse operators to effectively manage variations and changes in the production
environment [39].
These technological advances aim to promote smart greenhouses that are energy-neutral,
consume no water, and emit no CO2, offering a sustainable solution for agriculture and the
environment. This study presents a systematic literature review carried out using three major
databases: Google Scholar, IEEE Xplore, and Scopus, covering the period from 2018 to 2023 (until
May). Our approach regarding the selection of research papers is based on the main important
parameters that are monitored and controlled in the specific context of greenhouse cultivation,
namely energy conservation. The search criteria were based on the TAK approach [40] presented in
Figure 1, using keywords such as [“smart greenhouse” & “optimization” & “zero energy”]. The
results show that the number of articles retrieved from Google Scholar during this period (2018-2023)
amounted to 11,260, while the corresponding figure for the period from 2010 to 2023 was 15,200, with
a percentage increase of 75% (Figure 2). In contrast, Scopus produced 43 articles from 2018 to 2023,
compared with 55 articles from 2010 to 2023.

Figure 1. Procedure for the literature study based on the TAK approach followed for this article.
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Figure 2. Published paper in the context of “Optimization energy for greenhouse” during the period
2018 -2023.

This article focuses primarily on studies related to zero energy consumption and zero
environmental impact. Therefore, an additional set of articles was examined using keywords such as
[(agricultural greenhouse” OR “greenhouse” OR “smart greenhouse”) AND (“control” OR
“optimization”) AND (“zero energy” OR “zero water” OR “zero CO2 emissions”)]. Google Scholar
results revealed around 45 relevant articles, in Scopus a total of 120 articles were identified, while
IEEE Xplore produced 3 articles with most including other fields not related to agriculture such as
smart buildings with zero energy.
Furthermore, in terms of literature, this review not only lists the studies on zero energy
consumption for smart greenhouses available, but it also presents articles that highlight the
approaches in terms of technologies adopted. In this context, the various methodologies, control
techniques and optimization models that have been applied to improve the quality of monitoring
and control of smart greenhouses are reviewed and compared in terms of performance.
This article aims to present the current literature on methodological models and methods for
smart greenhouse applications, monitoring and controlling microclimatic conditions inside the
greenhouse, such as indoor temperature, CO2, humidity, soil quality, and crop. It also aims to present
the state-of-the-art greenhouse literature towards near-zero energy consumption. This article is
organized as follows: the first part focuses on control and monitoring techniques in the smart
greenhouse, including classical and advanced approaches, as well as intelligent approaches,
discussing the advantages and limitations of these approaches. In the second part of the article, the
state of the art on greenhouses towards near-zero energy consumption is presented in terms of zero
water consumption, zero environmental impact, and zero CO2 emissions.

2. Methods for Improving Monitoring and Control in Smart Greenhouses

Monitoring and control are critical aspects of managing smart greenhouses, aiming to optimize
growing conditions and enhance crop production [41]. Various methods have been developed to
improve monitoring and control in smart greenhouses, encompassing classical or conventional
control techniques, such as ON/OFF control and PID control, which rely on feedback mechanisms to
regulate environmental factors. Advanced control approaches, such as Model Predictive Control
(MPC), adaptive control, and robust control, offer more sophisticated strategies for optimizing
greenhouse conditions. Additionally, intelligent control methods, including fuzzy logic, artificial
neural networks, particle swarm optimization, and genetic algorithms, leverage artificial intelligence
techniques to enhance precision and efficiency in greenhouse management. By integrating these
diverse methods, smart greenhouses can achieve higher levels of control, productivity, and
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sustainability. Figure 3 presents a suggested categorization that classifies the tasks involved in
controlling greenhouse climate into three primary groups.

Figure 3. Classification of greenhouse control approaches.

2.1. Classical control approaches

- ON/OFF control
The ON/OFF control model is a fundamental feedback mechanism used in control loops,
particularly in systems where precise control is not required [42]. This control device operates with a
binary output, where the system’s operation is either turned on or off, without any intermediate
states [43]. The ON/OFF controller responds by switching the output when the controlled variable
crosses the set-point threshold [44]. The following figure presents a descriptive diagram of an
ON/OFF control system.

Figure 4. ON/OFF control system.

One of the significant advantages of the ON/OFF control model is its simplicity and ease of
implementation, particularly in cases where the mathematical model of the system is unknown or
complex, making controller tuning challenging [45]. This model is commonly used in greenhouse
environments to regulate various environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, CO2
concentration, light, moisture, ventilation, irrigation, and heating [46,47].
The ON/OFF control model is suitable for systems that cannot handle frequent on/off switching
of energy or have a large mass resulting in slow changes in process variables [48]. It has demonstrated
good performance and energy conservation capabilities in numerous studies [49]. For instance, it has
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been successfully applied to achieve energy-efficient climate control in greenhouses, leading to

optimized crop growth and reduced energy consumption.
The energy-saving feature of the ON/OFF controller allows for a versatile strategy that can be
easily adjusted to meet specific performance requirements [50]. This adaptability enables efficient
and cost-effective control of greenhouse environmental factors, contributing to sustainable
agriculture practices.
In recent years, many studies have focused on the application of ON/OFF control in
greenhouses, the study proposed by [51] examined the performance of a greenhouse climate control
strategy that incorporated on/off control using Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) controllers. The
strategy considered plant transpiration, heating, variable vent configurations, and a fogging system.
Computer simulations were conducted in two locations with different climates. The results
demonstrated that the set points for cooling demands were effectively maintained, with the crop’s
transpiration playing a crucial role in adding water vapor to the atmosphere. However, in high
humidity outside air conditions, achieving set points was challenging without the addition of
dehumidification action to the strategy. This study highlights the importance of on/off control and
flexible climate control systems, such as VFD controllers, in extreme greenhouse environments.
Temperature and humidity management in greenhouses significantly impact crop growth. The
study presented by [52] evaluated the performance of a small-scale suspension-type dehumidifier
with a heating module in terms of temperature and humidity changes over time. A remote
monitoring and control system utilizing 27 sensor nodes and an on/off controller was implemented.
The results demonstrated satisfactory performance of the on/off control strategy, with successful
remote operation of the dehumidifier and heating module. The temperature and humidity exhibited
spatial and vertical variability, with greater changes observed in the middle section of the
greenhouse. The study provides insights into the utilization of on/off control for temperature and
humidity management in greenhouses during different seasons.
Energy consumption is a significant concern in greenhouse temperature control. This study [53]
proposes a model-based predictive control strategy using switch actuators to regulate greenhouse
temperature. The strategy calculates optimal on/off actuator switch combinations based on control
precision and energy loss, considering a weighting factor for cost performance. Simulation results
demonstrate that the developed control algorithm achieves set point tracking with reduced energy
consumption. Compared to a common model predictive controller, the proposed strategy achieves
an operating consumption of only 61.5%.
In another study presented by [54], The authors explore the application of IoT in remotely
monitoring and controlling greenhouse parameters such as CO2, soil moisture, temperature, and
light. The IoT system enables farmers to gather information through cloud accounts and internet
connections, eliminating the need for physical visits to the field. Additionally, the system facilitates
automated actions such as rolling on/off greenhouse windows/doors based on soil moisture levels.
The results illustrate the effectiveness of the proposed IoT system in maintaining precise greenhouse
parameters, resulting in increased yield.
- Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) control
PID controllers are widely used in smart greenhouses due to their simplicity and proven
effectiveness [55]. The PID controller adjusts environmental parameters such as temperature,
humidity, and lighting in real-time based on specific crop requirements. It consists of three
components: the proportional part, which responds to the current error; the integral part, which
corrects accumulated past errors, and the derivative part, which anticipates future error variations
[56]. This combination enables precise and stable regulation of environmental conditions,
contributing to optimal energy utilization in smart greenhouses.
A Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) controller utilizes feedback to continuously compute
an error value, which represents the difference between a desired reference value (r(t)) and the
measured variable (y(t)). The control function in a continuous-time system is expressed as:
𝑇
𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑝 𝑒(𝑡) + 𝐾𝑖 ∫ 𝑒(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 + 𝐾𝑑
0 𝑑𝑡
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where 𝑒(𝑡) = 𝑦(𝑡) − 𝑟(𝑡), and 𝐾𝑝 , 𝐾𝑖 and 𝐾𝑑 are respectively the proportional, integrative, and
derivative gains. Adjusting these control parameters is necessary to enhance system performance.
While stability is a fundamental requirement, different gain values can lead to variations in settling
times, overshooting, and other characteristics. As a result, tuning a PID controller can be a
challenging process. Figure 5 presents an example of a PID controller.

Figure 5. PID controller design.

In this context, many studies have focused on the application of PID control in greenhouses, the
study proposed by [57] presents an intelligent control system for greenhouse temperature, humidity,
and light, utilizing an internal incremental PID control algorithm. By considering the variation of
output as the transmission signal, the algorithm achieves precise control without the need for
repeated integration operations. Through simulation and analysis, it is observed that the design
scheme based on the internal incremental PID control algorithm outperforms the traditional position
PID control algorithm in terms of response speed and sampling frequency. The study utilizes
MATLAB software to simulate incremental PID control and selects environmental temperature as the
influencing factor for parameter adjustment. Additionally, a multi-factor monitoring system for the
greenhouse environment is developed, demonstrating the effectiveness of the internal incremental
PID control algorithm in achieving precise measurement and control of multiple factors.
In the study conducted by authors [58], a parameter Self-Tuning PID control approach (STPID)
is proposed to address the challenges faced in greenhouse climate control. The primary objective is
to enhance the reliability of controllers while maintaining satisfactory control performance. The
proposed approach involves the transformation of the interconnected greenhouse climate system into
four individual single-input single-output (SISO) subsystems, employing PID controllers for
regulating heating, fogging, CO2 injection, and ventilation. The adaptive parameter tuning is
accomplished using the Levenberg-Marquardt (LM) algorithm, which takes into account real weather
data. The effectiveness of the proposed method is demonstrated through a comparative analysis of
two existing approaches, CAAC (Control Allocation based Adaptive Control) and NNOC (NN-
approximation–based optimal control). It should be noted, however, that in terms of control accuracy,
STPID may not be as optimal as CAAC and NNOC. The limitations of STPID include its reliance on
the LM optimization algorithm and the trade-off between the controlled outputs. Nevertheless, the
method exhibits applicability in complex control systems that are challenging to model, providing
generality and wide-ranging suitability in various domains such as irrigation control and
beneficiation control.
Another study presented by [59] focuses on the cultivation of paprika in a greenhouse system,
which offers controlled environmental conditions conducive to its growth. The hardware setup
includes Nodemcu ESP8266 as the central controller, a 12v DC water pump for temperature cooling,
IBT_2 motor driver for pump speed control, BME280 sensor for temperature and humidity readings,
and a 100W 220V lamp for temperature increase. The system utilizes Arduino IDE, MIT App Inventor
for monitoring, and Firebase as a database. Apart from temperature control, remote monitoring of
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temperature and humidity using a mobile device is also possible. The testing results indicate that
with PID control based on the Nodemcu ESP8266 Microcontroller and the parameter values of Kp =
10, Ki = 0.5, and Kd = 45, the system effectively maintains the desired air temperature in the
greenhouse. The Steady State Error (Ess) values obtained in high-temperature and low-temperature
conditions were 0.41% and 0.17%, respectively, demonstrating high accuracy rates of 99.59% and
99.83%. The system’s performance was monitored by farmers through the MIT App Inventor mobile
application, providing them with real-time data. Additionally, the air humidity levels were
maintained within the range of 70-84%. Overall, the intelligent paprika greenhouse system
successfully controls the air temperature in accordance with the specified set point, offering reliable
and accurate performance under various conditions.
Another study presented by [60] proposes a detailed design of a greenhouse control system
using a PID controller. Unlike previous systems, this new system focuses on minimizing energy costs
for crop growth in a greenhouse. It consists of two important processes: the Greenhouse Control
Process (GCP) and the Crop Growth Process (CGP). Data from these processes, including crop status
information and climate set-point information, are stored in a database. The PID controller operates
within the GCP, while the environment control decision-making takes place in the CGP. By using
different combinations of PID controllers (P, PI, PD, and PID), users can simulate energy costs and
optimize controller design for their greenhouse system. This proposed system offers a feasible
solution for reducing energy costs in greenhouses and promoting the development of various
greenhouse-related applications.
The focus of the study conducted by [61] is on a smart greenhouse implementation using PID
and fuzzy logic controllers. The study introduces a novel observer design for controlling various
parameters in a greenhouse, with the aim of increasing crop yield and facilitating indoor breeding
and planting. Control actions are based on the fusion of different parameters to optimize energy
consumption and water use. MATLAB Simulink models are utilized to design PID controllers for
humidity and temperature, while a fuzzy inference system is developed for carbon dioxide
enrichment. This integrated approach enables efficient control of greenhouse conditions, leading to
improved resource utilization and plant growth.

2.2. Advanced control approaches

- Model Predictive Control (MPC)
On the other hand, MPC controller represents a more advanced and sophisticated approach for
energy optimization in smart greenhouses. It utilizes a mathematical model of the greenhouse and
crops to predict the future behavior of the system. By considering operational constraints,
performance objectives, and weather forecasts, the MPC controller generates optimal control
strategies to minimize energy consumption while maintaining optimal growth conditions [62].
Through its ability to anticipate and adjust environmental parameters in real-time, the MPC
controller allows fine-tuned regulation of energy in smart greenhouses [63]. To control the system,
MPC uses a sliding-horizon approach. For each step, the controller applies only the first value of the
optimal control sequence, as this value is continuously recalculated in response to new measurements
of the system’s output. In Figure 6, an overview of the MPC approach is shown.
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Figure 6. MPC schema.

In recent years, the application of Model Predictive Control (MPC) in greenhouse environments
has gained significant attention. Researchers have conducted several studies to explore the potential
of MPC in optimizing resource consumption, addressing water shortages, and improving crop yield.
In this context, the study by [64] proposed energy-water management systems based on MPC
strategies for addressing water shortages and optimizing resource consumption in rural communities
reliant on crop self-consumption. The control strategy incorporated a fuzzy optimizer to determine
optimal consumption from isolated microgrids, taking local resources into account. The controller
operates on two timescales, with medium-term optimization estimating water demand for
supporting crop growth and short-term optimization managing climate conditions inside the
greenhouse for irrigation, water tank refilling, and ventilation. Experimental tests conducted on an
isolated community case study demonstrated reduced energy consumption and optimized irrigation.
Results indicated that the proposed controller is a viable solution for implementing intelligent
management systems for greenhouses. Simulation results showed successful crop irrigation and
reduced water usage, with a relative yield of over 0.986 achieved despite low precision in medium-
term predictions. However, the system faced challenges in meeting daily irrigation objectives due to
high water demand and limited storage capacity. Addressing these issues will be crucial for
community adoption and system effectiveness.
In a study carried out by [65], the authors introduce an innovative approach to centrally control
a network of greenhouses integrated with a microgrid. The main objective is to optimize the system’s
operation by using a coordinated model predictive control (MPC) strategy that takes into account the
variability of renewable energy sources and weather conditions. A comprehensive optimization
model is developed to schedule and manage the network’s operation based on real-time data
collected from sensors. This approach enables effective control of the indoor climate and enhances
crop production through a supervisory control and energy management system. The coordination
among subsystems is achieved through a bidirectional communication infrastructure, with a master
central controller responsible for coordinating and managing control signals. The MPC-based
algorithm is evaluated through a case study, demonstrating its capability to track desired climate
conditions and meet operational constraints.
Another study conducted by [66] introduces a data driven MPC method for regulating
temperature and reducing energy consumption in semi-closed greenhouses. This approach integrates
a multilayer perceptron model, objective function, and optimization algorithm to accurately predict
temperatures based on historical data that includes parameters like solar radiation, outside
temperature, humidity difference, fan speed, and HVAC (Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning)
control. The performance of the greenhouse model is evaluated through various scenarios, including
adjustments to the prediction time step and the number of samples in the training dataset. The results
highlight the superior temperature control achieved by the MPC approach compared to the
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greenhouse adaptive control system, with Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) values of 0.33 °C and 0.36
°C for winter and summer, respectively. Furthermore, the MPC framework contributes to energy
reductions of 7.70% and 16.57% during the winter and summer seasons, respectively. With its
adaptability to different greenhouse systems by adjusting the model to new datasets, the proposed
MPC framework is a promising solution for improving efficiency and sustainability in greenhouse
agriculture.
This paper [67] presents the implementation of a model predictive control (MPC) system in a
high-efficiency greenhouse to regulate indoor air temperature. The objective is to optimize the control
signals for the water mass flow rate supplied by a heat pump, aiming to track a predefined
temperature profile while saving energy. The MPC model incorporates multi-objective optimization,
considering energy and mass balances to account for the dynamic behavior of the greenhouse. Energy
is supplied by a ground coupled heat pump and solar radiation, while energy losses occur through
heat transfers across the glazed envelope. The proposed MPC method is applied in an innovative
greenhouse in Italy and compared with a traditional reactive control method in terms of indoor
temperature deviation and electric power consumption. Results show that the MPC approach
achieves significant energy savings of approximately 30% compared to the relay control, while
maintaining a consistent and reliable temperature profile aligned with the predefined target over a
20-hour time horizon in a greenhouse with specific dimensions.
In the same context, the study by [68] focuses on optimizing greenhouse system performance to
reduce energy, water, and CO2 consumption. Four strategies are proposed, targeting energy, water,
and CO2 minimization, as well as overall cost reduction. Strategy 1 focuses on minimizing energy
consumption associated with heating, cooling, ventilation, and irrigation processes. Strategy 2 aims
to reduce water usage specifically for irrigation purposes. Strategy 3 centers on minimizing CO2
consumption during the process of greenhouse enrichment. Finally, Strategy 4 aims to achieve the
overall objective of minimizing the total cost incurred through the efficient management of energy,
water, and CO2 consumption. By utilizing a Multi-Input Multi-Output (MIMO) climate model and a
modified evapotranspiration model, the research evaluates the impact of various factors on the
optimization outcomes. Additionally, a model predictive controller (MPC) is developed to address
disturbances and ensure effective control. The results highlight the effectiveness of Strategy 4 in
significantly reducing the total cost of energy, water and CO2 consumed. The study emphasizes the
importance of considering electricity price, system constraints, and temperature and humidity
constraints in achieving optimal outcomes. The proposed MPC controller outperforms the open-loop
controller, demonstrating its potential for practical implementation. Overall, the research provides
valuable insights for improving the efficiency and sustainability of greenhouse systems.
This study [69] presents a data-driven robust model predictive control approach for efficient
greenhouse climate control in harsh environments like Qatar. By integrating dynamic control models
and a data-driven robust optimization framework, the proposed method accurately addresses
uncertainty in weather forecast errors. Historical data is used to construct uncertainty sets, and
optimal control inputs are determined to minimize costs and state violations. The approach is applied
to a greenhouse in Doha, Qatar, demonstrating lower control costs compared to other methods. The
results highlight the effectiveness of the proposed approach in maintaining a suitable greenhouse
climate for crop production in harsh conditions.
Another study by[70], the authors focus on the utilization of Thermal Energy Storage (TES) for
a cooling plant and the need for more advanced control strategies due to the changing energy
landscape. The study presents a model predictive control (MPC) approach for optimal operation of a
chiller plant, TES, and photovoltaics in a district cooling system. The MPC formulation, designed as
a mixed-integer linear program, demonstrates improved performance compared to baseline rule-
based controls. The results highlight reductions in excess PV power, greenhouse gas emissions, and
peak electricity demand, indicating the effectiveness of the MPC approach for enhancing the
efficiency and sustainability of the cooling system.
- Adaptive control
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Adaptive control represents a control approach that constantly modifies its actions according to
system feedback [71]. It uses mathematical models or learning algorithms to estimate system
dynamics and adjust control parameters accordingly [72]. This dynamic adaptation enables the
controller to respond to variations in the controlled system, thus improving performance and
resilience. In the context of greenhouses, adaptive control has been used to regulate several
environmental parameters such as temperature, humidity, CO2 levels, light intensity, and irrigation.
By continuously monitoring the system and adapting control actions to changing conditions, this
strategy can effectively maintain desired setpoints and compensate for uncertainties and
disturbances within the system. Figure 7 shows a representative diagram of an adaptive control
system.

Figure 7. Diagram of an Adaptive Control System.

In this context, the authors in their paper [73] focus on the online estimation of greenhouse
temperature and parameter states through adaptive control. The research employs system
identification techniques to determine a suitable mathematical model based on input-output data
and compares it with the original system model. Through extensive data processing and
identification operations, the transfer function of the greenhouse model is obtained. The study
provides detailed insights into the system structure, benefiting the design of the model’s sub-
modules. The results demonstrate the convergence of errors over time and the gradual approximation
of the controlled object model to the reference model output, indicating the effectiveness of the
adaptive control system. Additionally, stability tests ensure the stability of the designed control
system. Overall, this research contributes to the development of a mathematical model for
greenhouse temperature and parameter estimation, enabling adaptive control of the system.
In another study by [74], the authors highlight the challenges associated with controlling the
complex dynamics of Chinese solar greenhouses (CSGs). A dynamic model based on energy
conservation laws is developed to address the non-linear and uncertain nature of CSGs. The
proposed control strategy combines a nonlinear adaptive controller, using a radial basis function
neural network, with a switching mechanism. Experimental results show that the presented control
scheme outperforms the conventional PID method, with mean errors of 0.8460 and 0.2967, and
standard errors of 1.8480 and 1.3342, respectively. According to the researchers, the use of a
generalized minimum variance method and the use of an RBF (Radial Basis Function) neural network
contribute to the improvement in control performance. Experimental results confirm the adaptability,
robustness, and real-time control performance of the proposed nonlinear adaptive control method.
Overall, this research provides valuable information and a reference for the formulation of climate
control systems for practical application in greenhouse production.
Moreover, the study carried out by [75], focuses on achieving adaptive control in agricultural
greenhouses by utilizing an Intelligent Fuzzy Auxiliary Cognitive System (IFACS). The research uses
IFACS for adaptive control and supply chain management in smart agricultural greenhouses. By
implementing IFACS, the study was successful in maintaining greenhouse temperature within the
desired range, reducing its impact on the development of agricultural greenhouses. In addition, the
application of IFACS in supply chain management results in a significant reduction in greenhouse
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gas emissions, particularly from non-manufacturing suppliers. The results provide valuable
information on the effective adaptive control of intelligent agricultural greenhouses using IFACS,
and on the environmental control achieved through supply chain management.
- Robust control
Robust control techniques have been widely used to ensure the stable and reliable operation of
greenhouses [76]. It focuses on the design of control strategies capable of effectively managing
uncertainties and disturbances [77]. In the context of greenhouse control, robust control algorithms
aim to regulate key environmental variables, such as temperature, humidity, and CO2 concentration,
while taking into account uncertainties in weather forecasts and system dynamics. By offering
adaptability and resilience, robust control strategies can improve the performance of greenhouse
systems, enabling them to withstand difficult and dynamic operating conditions. Figure 8 presents
the robust control system architecture.

Figure 8. Robust control system architecture.

In this context, the authors in their research work [78] present a new framework called a Data-
Driven Robust Predictive Control Model (DDRMPC) for efficient greenhouse climate management.
By integrating dynamic control models for temperature, humidity, and CO2 levels with robust data-
based optimization models, the framework effectively addresses uncertainties in weather forecasts.
By exploiting historical data, data-driven uncertainty sets are constructed for ambient temperature,
solar radiation, and humidity using support vector clustering with a weighted generalized
intersection kernel. In order to refine the uncertainty sets and ensure optimal performance, a training-
calibration procedure is implemented. In addition, an affine perturbation feedback policy is used to
solve the optimization problem in DDRMPC, providing practical approximations to optimal control.
In a case study conducted in a semi-closed greenhouse in New York, DDRMPC shows significant
cost savings compared to rule-based control and robust model predictive control, reducing costs by
14% and 4%, respectively. Moreover, DDRMPC maintains a low probability of constraint violation of
just 0.39%, guaranteeing an ideal greenhouse climate conducive to healthy plant growth. As a result,
the proposed DDRMPC approach improves the performance and cost-effectiveness of greenhouse
climate control, outperforming alternative control strategies.
In the same context, the study conducted by [79] presents an application of data-driven robust
model predictive control (PKDDRMPC) for efficient greenhouse climate control in harsh
environments, specifically focusing on a tomato greenhouse in Qatar. The PKDDRMPC framework
integrates dynamic control models for temperature, CO2 concentration, and humidity with a data-
driven robust optimization approach to capture uncertainties in weather forecasts accurately. By
utilizing Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Kernel Density Estimation (KDE), data-driven
uncertainty sets for temperature, solar radiation, and humidity are constructed from historical data.
The PKDDRMPC strategy minimizes control costs and state violations by solving a data-driven
optimization problem at each time step. Comparative analysis with other control strategies, including
rule-based control, CEMPC, RMPC, and SVC-based RMPC, demonstrates the superiority of
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PKDDRMPC in terms of both constraint violation and total control cost. PKDDRMPC outperforms
rule-based control and RMPC by achieving 14% and 4% lower total control costs, respectively, while
maintaining nearly zero constraint violations. The findings highlight the effectiveness of
PKDDRMPC in ensuring a suitable growing environment for tomatoes under harsh climatic
conditions, demonstrating its potential for efficient greenhouse climate control.

2.3. Intelligent control approaches

Intelligent greenhouse control approaches comprise various techniques that exploit advanced
algorithms and computational methods to optimize and automate the control of greenhouse
environments. These include Fuzzy Logic Control (FLC), Artificial Neural Networks (ANN), Particle
Swarm Optimization (PSO), and Genetic Algorithms (GA).
- Fuzzy Logic Control (FLC)
Fuzzy Logic Control (FLC) is a computational approach that uses linguistic variables and fuzzy
sets to model and control complex systems [80]. In greenhouse control systems based on FLC, fuzzy
rules are used to capture expert knowledge and make decisions based on linguistic descriptions of
input and output variables, enabling flexible and adaptive control strategies [81]. A typical FLC
system is shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9. A typical Fuzzy Logic Control system schema.

In this study [82], an advanced modeling and management system was developed to improve
greenhouse cultivation by maintaining an optimal microclimate for plant growth. The system utilizes
an enhanced intermediate model implemented in MATLAB/Simulink to simulate the energy balance
and a Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC) to regulate greenhouse actuators. Real-time data monitoring and
IoT technology were integrated to enhance system control. Testing in a greenhouse in Tunisia
demonstrated the effectiveness of the FLC in controlling humidity levels by accurately managing
actuators. The implementation of the FLC on a Raspberry Pi 3 using Python and fuzzy modules
reduced overall costs while achieving excellent results. The system enables real-time monitoring,
addresses data recording challenges, and provides opportunities for ongoing analysis and
improvement.
In another study [83], the climate control of a plant factory system is investigated with the aim
of effectively regulating temperature and humidity levels. The research introduces a Fuzzy Logic
Controller (FLC) optimized using Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO), which focuses on controlling
the actuators, air-conditioners, and incoming-outgoing fans. Computer simulations demonstrate that
the proposed FLC with PSO achieves superior temperature and humidity regulation compared to
existing controllers, while also being more energy efficient. The results suggest that this approach
offers an accurate and efficient method for controlling the indoor climate in crop production, making
it a valuable option for plant factory systems.
In addition, in article [84], the authors present an optimized hybrid power system for an
agricultural greenhouse, integrating a wind turbine and a PV generator, with control provided by a
fuzzy logic-based Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) algorithm. This system was simulated
and validated in the MATLAB/Simulink environment. Their results demonstrate the effectiveness of
the proposed system in effectively controlling the greenhouse microclimate throughout the different
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seasons. The hybrid power system, coupled with the greenhouse actuators, improves energy
consumption, and ensures the stable operation of the heating and ventilation system.
- Artificial neural networks (ANN)
Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) provide computer models inspired by the structure and
function of the human neuron [85]. In greenhouse control, ANNs are trained using historical data to
learn relationships between environmental variables and control actions [86]. From this, ANNs can
predict and optimize control actions based on real-time sensor data, facilitating adaptive, data-driven
control strategies [87]. Figure 10 shows a schematic representation of the ANN controller.

Figure 10. A schematic depiction of the ANN controller.

In their article [88], the authors provide a comprehensive review of artificial neural networks
(ANNs) applications in greenhouse technology, highlighting the predominance of feed-forward
architectures in the work analyzed. Furthermore, the review explores different network training
techniques and the feasibility of using optimization models for the learning process. The pros and
cons of ANNs are observed in various greenhouse applications, including microclimate prediction,
energy optimization, and carbon dioxide control. This study analyzes 35 works, revealing that the
majority (74%) focus on microclimate description and prediction, while 9% concentrate on energy
optimization, and 17% cover other greenhouse network applications. Among the investigated NN
(Neural Networks) types, feedforward networks account for 46%, while RNNs (Recurrent Neural
Network) represent 20% and other NN types make up 32%. This analysis provides valuable
information for developers of intelligent protected agricultural systems, particularly those
incorporating 4.0 technologies.
In addition, in a study by [89], the authors present an IoT-based smart greenhouse system that
integrates monitoring, alerting, cloud storage, automation, and disease prediction for improved crop
production. To ensure optimal growing conditions, the system continuously monitors environmental
variables and uses automated irrigation management. In addition, disease detection is achieved
through the use of deep learning models analyzing leaf pictures. The results demonstrate the
effectiveness of deep neural networks in accurately predicting disease and underline the importance
of selecting optimal parameters to achieve high accuracy. The research has important implications
for the future automation of agriculture and offers farmers the possibility of rapidly identifying
diseases using mobile applications.
In the [90] study, an artificial neural network (ANN) model was developed to predict the
temperature and relative humidity inside a greenhouse as a function of various input variables. The
model is intended to support a Decision Support System (DSS) for maintaining optimal greenhouse
conditions with minimal energy consumption. The study uses a multilayer perceptron neural
network (MLP-NN) trained with the Levenberg-Marquardt backpropagation algorithm. The model
demonstrates excellent accuracy with maximum errors of 0.877 K and 2.838% for temperature and
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relative humidity, respectively. The coefficients of determination (R2) are 0.999 for both parameters.
The low prediction errors and high statistical values indicate the model’s ability to contribute
effectively to a DSS for greenhouse management. This study provides valuable insights into the
optimization of greenhouse conditions and energy efficiency through the integration of ANN models
and decision support systems.
In this research paper [91], a robust system for smart irrigation in greenhouses using artificial
neural networks (ANNs) and an Internet of Things (IoT) architecture is presented. This system uses
four soil sensors to predict future moisture levels, demonstrating superior performance compared to
Support Vector Regression (SVR) methods. The proposed system uses transfer learning to address
challenges such as limited training data, the low processing power of state-of-the-art devices, and the
integration of climate sensors. On the other hand, the proposed IoT architecture offers a complete
solution for efficient and accurate greenhouse irrigation. This study concludes by highlighting the
commercialization and actual implementation of the techniques, suggesting potential directions for
improvement and extension of the approach to different environments and adaptive sensor selection
based on soil types and cost considerations.
- Particle swarm optimization (PSO)
Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) is a stochastic population-based optimization algorithm
inspired by the collective behavior of social organisms, such as flocks of birds or schools of fish [92].
In the control of greenhouses, PSO algorithms search for optimal control parameters by iteratively
updating a population of candidate solutions in a big search space [93]. PSO-based approaches can
efficiently optimize control actions to minimize energy consumption, maximize crop yield or
maintain desired environmental conditions [93]. Figure 11 shows a schematic diagram of particle
swarm optimization.

Figure 11. Schematic diagram of particle swarm optimization.

Within this framework, a study by [94] presents a robust model predictive control (MPC)
strategy based on particle swarm optimization (PSO) for greenhouse temperature systems. The
strategy uses a nonlinear affine physical temperature model and solves a minimax online optimal
control problem to achieve a trade-off between setpoint tracking and cost reduction. The
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reformulated optimization problem is solved using PSO, and a constraint fitness priority ranking is
proposed to ensure constraint satisfaction. Simulation results demonstrate the effectiveness of the
proposed control system in achieving set points, offering improved control variables, accuracy, and
robustness over conventional MPC.
In another study by [95], the researchers focus on sustainable agriculture based on adaptive
particle swarm optimization (PSO) and artificial neural networks (ANN). The proposed approach
combines incoming datasets with existing ones without the need for dataset summarization. The PSO
algorithm identifies and retains influential records while deleting less important ones. The adaptive
PSO-ANN architecture incorporates an adaptive input and output layer to continuously update
datasets without restoring the system. Comparative studies demonstrate the effectiveness of the
proposed approach, achieving high accuracy of 94.8%, precision of 91.15%, recall, and F1 score in
classification tasks. A case study on smart olive cultivation using adaptive PSO-ANN and IoT
technologies presents improved agricultural production and water consumption efficiency. The
research highlights the potential of smart agriculture to meet the challenges of climate change and
increase productivity.
In addition, this study [96] addresses the challenges of path loss in Wireless Sensor Networks
(WSNs) deployed in agricultural fields. A new two path loss models using ZigBee WSNs in an
agricultural field are formulated. The models, based on exponential and polynomial functions, are
optimized using the particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm to determine the optimal
coefficients. The hybrid EXP-PSO and POLY-PSO models significantly improve the coefficient of
determination (R2) and achieve a lower Mean Absolute Error (MAE) than previous models. Accurate
path loss models are crucial for the successful deployment of WSN nodes in smart farming
applications, guaranteeing reliable data communication without packet loss between nodes.
- Genetic algorithms (GA)
Genetic algorithms (GAs) are search and optimization algorithms for difficult problems inspired
by the principles of genetic selection breeding [97]. GA-based greenhouse control approaches encode
control strategies in chromosome form and apply genetic operators, such as selection, crossover, and
mutation, to evolve and improve control policies over time [98]. GA algorithms can explore a vast
space of solutions to find optimal or near-optimal control actions [99].

Figure 12. General schematic diagram of Genetic Algorithm.

In their work [100], the authors propose an intelligent agricultural system that uses data mining
technology and the ZigBee wireless sensor network to monitor and control various aspects of
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agricultural production. The system integrates a three-layer structure consisting of a data acquisition
network, a communication layer with gateways and servers, and an application layer with mobile
terminal control. Data mining techniques are used to analyze and process the collected data,
providing reliable information for farm management. To optimize the weights and thresholds of a
BP (Back Propagation) neural network, the paper proposes the use of a single-crossing Multi-
Generation Genetic Algorithm Back Propagation, leading to the establishment of the MGABP model.
The analytical hierarchy process is presented as a guiding mechanism for the neural network.
Experimental analysis confirms the performance of the proposed model, demonstrating practical
effectiveness in the intelligent agricultural system. However, this research contributes to a
comprehensive and integrated approach to agricultural data monitoring and analysis, incorporating
state-of-the-art technologies for better decision-making in sustainable agriculture.
Another study [101] focuses on the design of an intelligent control system for agricultural
greenhouses using an improved adaptive genetic algorithm. An experimental platform is developed
and tested to validate the feasibility of the system. The results demonstrate that intelligent control of
agricultural greenhouses achieves a stable air temperature deviation of less than 0.5°C, an air
humidity deviation of less than 1% RH (Relative Humidity) and small fluctuations in carbon dioxide
concentration. Finally, this article highlights the overall function and structure of the system,
underlining its benefits in improving crop yields and quality. The intelligent control system is
recommended for its reasonable structure, accurate data collection, stable communication, and
comprehensive control capabilities. Although some areas for improvement are recognized, the
paper’s design and method present advanced features and practical functionality in greenhouse
control, contributing to the advancement of intelligent agricultural production.
Furthermore, the paper by [102] proposes an agricultural water-efficient irrigation prediction
algorithm that combines the genetic algorithm (GA) with a BP neural network. The algorithm uses
factors such as humidity and light intensity as inputs to the neural network and optimizes weights
and thresholds using GA’s global search capability. The model is tested using data from an
experimental field base, and an intelligent farm environment acquisition system is implemented
using IoT technology. Results highlight the high accuracy of the GA-BP neural network algorithm in
predicting crop water demand and its effectiveness in achieving water-efficient irrigation. The
algorithm demonstrates high adaptability and contributes to the goal of efficient water use in
agriculture.
The table below shows the main advantages, limitations, and challenges of each of these
approaches.
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Table 1. Advantages and limitations of the methods for monitoring and control in intelligent
greenhouses.

Methods Advantages Limitations and Challenges

Hysteresis: With ON/OFF control, the control
output may oscillate around the setpoint
Simplicity: ON/OFF control is simple to
because of switching thresholds, which might
implement and requires minimal
affect stability and accuracy.
computing resources.
Overshoot and Settling Time: The discrete
Energy savings: ON/OFF control enables
nature of ON/OFF control can lead to
efficient energy saving by activating or
overshooting when switching occurs, resulting
deactivating control devices as required,
ON/OFF control

in a prolonged settling period before the system

thus reducing energy consumption
reaches stability at the desired setpoint.
during periods of stability.
Limited Precision: When compared to more
Cost-efficiency: ON/OFF control is a cost-
advanced control systems, ON/OFF control may
effective solution, which makes it
exhibit greater fluctuations around the setpoint,
accessible to greenhouse operators with
resulting in less precise regulation of
limited resources.
environmental conditions.
Reliability: ON/OFF controllers provide
Handling Nonlinearities: The basic ON/OFF
reliability and have been widely used in
control mechanism may encounter challenges in
various industries, with a proven track
Classical control Methods

effectively managing nonlinear behaviors and

record of performance.
intricate interactions within the greenhouse
system.
Simplicity: The PID controller’s
algorithm is easy to understand and
implement, making it accessible for
greenhouse operators with varying levels Non-linearities: greenhouse environments
of expertise. present non-linear behaviors, such as time-
Robustness: PID control exhibits robust varying dynamics and coupling effects, which
performance, effectively handling can limit PID controller performance.
disturbances and uncertainties Setpoint changes: A PID controller may
commonly encountered in greenhouse experience transient responses and significant
PID control

environments. delays when adapting to sudden setpoint

Reliability: PID controllers have been changes.
extensively used in industrial settings External disturbances: PID control’s ability to
and have a long-standing reputation for maintain desired conditions may be affected by
reliability and stability in controlling environmental disturbances, such as weather
various systems. fluctuations or equipment failure.
Adaptability: PID parameters can be Wind-up effects: PID control’s integral term can
tuned and adjusted to suit different lead to wind-up effects, thus causing overshoot
greenhouse setups, crop types, and and instability in the system.
desired environmental conditions,
allowing for flexibility and
customization.
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Dynamic adaptability: MPC considers

the dynamic behavior of the greenhouse
system involved and adapts control
actions in real-time, which means it is
ideally suited to the management of
Model accuracy: MPC requires precise
complex, time-varying dynamics.
mathematical models of the greenhouse system,
Optimal control: allows MPC to
and any discrepancies between the model and
optimize control actions over a
the real system can affect control performance.
prediction horizon, considering
Computational complexity: MPC requires an
MPC Control

constraints and objectives, resulting in

optimization problem to be solved at each time
improved performance and energy
step, so it can be computationally demanding,
efficiency.
requiring efficient algorithms for real-time
Robustness: for robust and reliable
implementation.
control under variable operating
Model updating: Greenhouse system dynamics
conditions, MPC can handle system
can change over time, making periodic model
uncertainties, disturbances, and model
Advanced control Methods

updates necessary to guarantee accurate

inaccuracies.
predictions and monitor performance.
Flexibility: MPC can solve multivariable
control problems, enabling simultaneous
regulation of several environmental
parameters in order to achieve optimal
growing conditions.
Adaptability: It can adapt to varying
operating conditions, enabling effective
control to be maintained even in the
presence of uncertainties and changes in
Model complexity: It can be difficult to develop
greenhouse dynamics.
accurate mathematical models that capture the
Robustness: it can handle uncertainties
complex dynamics and interactions within the
and model disturbances, guaranteeing
Adaptive control

greenhouse system.
reliable control performance against
Adaptation rate: control algorithm adaptation
unpredictable factors.
rates must be carefully tuned to strike a balance
Energy efficiency: Adaptive control can
between responsiveness and stability.
minimize energy consumption while
Sensor selection and reliability: adaptive control
maintaining desired climatic conditions,
relies on accurate and reliable sensor
by continuously optimizing control
measurements, requiring careful sensor selection
actions based on real-time feedback.
and maintenance.
Fault tolerance: It can detect and
compensate for greenhouse system faults
or deviations, improving system
resilience and reducing crop losses.
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Stability: Reliable control techniques

ensure stability in the presence of
uncertainties and disturbances, avoiding
system instabilities and guaranteeing Modeling uncertainties: It can be difficult to
reliable performance. accurately characterize and model uncertainties
Performance: With robust control, in the greenhouse system, which requires robust
desired control objectives can be control design methods that account for a wide
achieved in the presence of uncertainties, range of uncertainties.
Robust control

providing accurate and robust regulation Controller complexity: robust control designs
of greenhouse climatic variables. may require a lot of computation and detailed
Adaptability: Designed to control a wide system models, which can pose challenges in
range of uncertainties and disturbances, real-time implementation and practical
robust control is suitable for variable application.
greenhouse conditions and dynamic Sensitivity to modeling errors: the performance
operating environments. of robust controls can be affected by modeling
Fault tolerance: Robust control is able errors and mismatches between assumed
both to detect and compensate for faults uncertainties and actual system behavior.
or deviations occurring in the greenhouse
system, providing system resilience, and
minimizing crop losses.
Non-linearity management: fuzzy logic
control can handle non-linearities and
Designing the rule base: building an appropriate
complex relationships involving input
rule base for fuzzy logic control requires
and output variables, thus enabling it to
Intelligent control Methods

specialized knowledge and careful consideration

be adapted to greenhouse systems with
of the system’s behavior and objectives.
Fuzzy logic control

non-linear dynamics.
Membership function design: it can be difficult to
Linguistic representation: fuzzy logic
design membership functions that accurately
control enables the intuitive, human
represent the system’s input and output
representation of control rules, making it
variables and require careful iterative
easier to interpret and understand
refinement.
control strategies.
System complexity: increasing the complexity of
Integration of expert knowledge: fuzzy
the greenhouse system, the design and tuning of
logic control can integrate expert
fuzzy logic control may be more complex and
knowledge and experience into control
more computationally demanding.
design, leveraging domain expertise for
effective control strategies.
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Non-linear modeling: ANNs are able to

capture and model the non-linear
relationships and dynamics inherent in Availability of training data: Adequate and
greenhouse systems, that make them representative training data are essential for
suitable for monitoring and controlling developing accurate and reliable ANN models.
Artificial Neural Networks

complex, non-linear climate variables. It can be difficult to obtain complete and diverse
Adaptive learning: It can adapt and learn data sets in greenhouses.
from environmental feedback, enabling Model complexity and interpretability: complex
them to adjust control strategies in real ANN architectures will be difficult to interpret,
time in response to changing conditions. which makes it hard to understand the
Data-driven approach: they use underlying decision-making process.
historical data to learn patterns and Over-fitting and generalization: precautions
relationships, which enables them to must be taken to avoid over-fitting, where the
generalize control strategies on the basis network becomes too specialized for training
of previous experience. data and performs poorly on new or unseen
Fault tolerance: ANNs can handle sensor data.
failures or noisy data using redundancy
and distributed processing.
Global search capability: its ability to
explore the global search space enables
Parameter tuning: the selection of appropriate
PSO to find optimal or near-optimal
PSO algorithm parameters, such as inertia
solutions, also in highly non-linear and
weight swarm size and acceleration coefficients,
complex greenhouse control problems.
can have a significant impact on both
Adaptive and dynamic optimization: in
optimization performance and convergence
response to changing environmental
Particle Swarm Optimization

speed.
conditions, PSO can dynamically adapt
Premature convergence: premature convergence
its search behavior, adapting it to real-
can occur when the swarm is trapped in local
time control in dynamic greenhouse
optima and fails at exploring the entire search
systems.
space. In order to overcome this challenge,
Fast convergence: In many applications,
careful parameter tuning, and exploration
PSO algorithms converge relatively
strategies are essential.
quickly, enabling efficient optimization
Computational complexity: as the number of
and control adjustments in real-time
control variables and the complexity of the
applications.
optimization problem increase, so do the
Noisy environment robustness: with its
computational requirements of PSO. For
population approach and exploration-
greenhouse control applications on a large scale,
exploitation balance, PSO is robust to the
efficient implementation techniques need to be
noisy and uncertain sensor data
considered.
frequently encountered in greenhouse
environments.
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Global search capability: they can

explore the search space on a global
Parameter tuning: the selection of appropriate
scale, enabling them to find optimal or
GA parameters, such as crossover and mutation
near-optimal solutions, even in complex,
rates, population size, and selection
highly non-linear greenhouse control
mechanisms, can have a significant impact on
problems.
optimization performance and speed of
Adaptive and dynamic optimization:
convergence.
they can adapt their population to
Computational complexity: GAs can be
Genetic Algorithms

changing environmental conditions,

computationally intensive, particularly for
which makes them suitable for real-time
problems involving large-scale greenhouse
control in dynamic greenhouse systems.
control with a high number of control variables
Robustness to local optima: GAs use
and complex fitness functions. Therefore, it is
population-based search, avoiding
important to consider efficient implementation
trapping in local optima and allowing
techniques.
exploration of diverse solutions.
Speed of convergence: Many generations may be
Constraint management: GA systems can
required to converge on an optimal solution, and
incorporate constraints on control
premature convergence may occur. It is essential
variables, such as maximum and
to balance exploration and exploitation through
minimum limits, thus ensuring that the
rigorous selection mechanisms and operator
solutions generated satisfy the
choices.
operational constraints of the greenhouse
system.

3. Greenhouse Towards Near Zero Energy Consumption

Currently, numerous research efforts are focused on achieving zero energy consumption and
minimal environmental impact in smart greenhouses [103]. Within this context, the authors in their
article [104] present a comprehensive review of precision and sustainable agriculture approaches,
with a specific emphasis on integrating technological innovations into modern greenhouse systems.
As the agricultural sector embraces the principles of Industry 4.0, smart agricultural systems have
become increasingly crucial, with the greenhouse industry leading the way in technological
advancements to enhance agricultural production efficiency and quality. To achieve these objectives,
smart greenhouses are equipped with monitoring and control systems based on the Internet of Things
(IoT) and advanced Information and Communication Technologies (ICT). These systems enable real-
time data acquisition on crop health, soil conditions, temperature, humidity, and other critical
parameters within the greenhouse. The central goal is to achieve energy efficiency and sustainability
in production. This article examines the comparison and analysis of traditional control methods
against Model Predictive Control (MPC) strategies to optimize indoor microclimate conditions, with
a specific focus on energy-saving approaches. MPC’s potential lies in its ability to effectively model
the system dynamics, enabling precise and timely optimization. Furthermore, the article highlights
the need to conserve energy and water in the agricultural sector, indicating that MPC holds promise
in achieving near-zero energy consumption and reducing water and pesticide usage in smart
greenhouses. The authors discuss the ongoing digital revolution in agriculture and the role of
advanced control technologies, particularly MPC, in implementing energy-saving initiatives. They
suggest potential areas for future research, including collaborative control schemes among different
greenhouses, utilizing distributed MPC for efficient resource management.
In the same context, another study prepared by [105] examines the integration of renewable
energy technologies, as well as solar photovoltaic (PV), solar thermal, photovoltaic-thermal (PVT),
biomass, and geothermal, with greenhouse growing systems to achieve Net-Zero Energy
Greenhouses (nZEG). The aim is to improve the efficiency of energy and water use in greenhouses
while minimizing their impact on the environment. Several renewable sources, such as solar energy
and geothermal heat, offer the potential to reduce operating costs and sustainably meet greenhouse
energy demand. Sensitive Thermal Energy Storage (STES) is being explored to improve energy
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storage capacities and achieve energy savings of up to 28 kWh/m2 per greenhouse surface. In
addition, Phase Change Materials (PCM) are being widely studied for Thermal Energy Storage (TES)
with high thermal efficiencies and reduced energy consumption. The study reviews different types
of STES systems and their applications, highlighting the benefits of integrating PCMs into greenhouse
roofs as transparent double-layer panels to enhance greenhouse performance. It also provides
valuable information on optimizing energy use and thermal energy storage for the development of
efficient, environmentally friendly greenhouse systems.
In his paper [106], the author presents a Model of predictive control for a connected cluster of
microgrids, integrated with multi-smart greenhouses, to create a smart local power grid in the context
of smart grids. As part of the research, each microgrid is equipped with renewable generators,
advanced communication, pumps, metering infrastructure, energy storage devices, and a set of
greenhouses with HVAC, CO2 injectors, artificial lighting, and sensors. The aim of the study is to
develop a coordinated optimization framework based on the Predictive Control Model (MPC) to
efficiently manage the operation of clustered microgrids and facilitate the exchange of energy flows
while guaranteeing high-quality service. The microgrids are interconnected to enhance the use of
local renewable energy production, and an electrical link connects the cluster to the main grid for the
exchange of excess/shortage electricity. The system is coordinated via a two-way communications
infrastructure, with a centralized controller managing the control signals. A comprehensive planning
optimization algorithm is applied to effectively control the operation of microgrids, aiming to
improve energy efficiency and optimize microclimate variables for optimal crop development in all
greenhouses. The MPC-based energy management framework is demonstrated through a case study
with in-depth numerical simulations, highlighting its performance and efficiency. Results indicate
that the proposed control algorithm responds effectively to variations in electrical load and efficiently
manages HVAC operation for optimal temperature control. Interconnected microgrids successfully
balance renewable energy generation and electrical loads via local electrical links, achieving zero net
energy emissions without relying on main grid support. The approach of cooperative control
demonstrates the potential of highly efficient and sustainable greenhouse energy management within
a smart grid framework.
For the purpose of achieving net-zero energy greenhouse operation in warm and moderate
climates, a study [107] examines the integration of semi-transparent Organic Solar Cells (OSC) into
greenhouses. This study uses a dynamic energy model to evaluate the benefits of integrating OSC on
the net energy demand of greenhouses at different locations in the United States. Their results
indicate the potential for OSC greenhouse systems to achieve a surplus of annual energy in warm
and moderate climates. As well, the integration of OSCs minimizes the reduction in sunlight entering
the greenhouse, partly because OSCs replace the need for shade cloths. The study also highlights the
significant energy savings achieved by OSC integration, mainly attributed to the low-emissivity
nature of the ITO (Indium Tin Oxide) electrodes and optical coating. OSC greenhouses show lower
heating demands in winter, with energy savings ranging from 32% to 54% at different sites. While
energy savings in cooling demands during the summer are not as significant, OSCs act as efficient
blinds while exploiting excess energy. The study highlights the potential of OSC greenhouses for
high-yield, environmentally friendly agriculture, and underscores the importance of further
optimizing solar cell design, orientation, and operating practices to maximize system performance
and achieve net-zero energy operation. This modeling study provides a promising basis for future
research and optimization of OSC-greenhouse systems.
In the present study [108], the viability of a solar greenhouse integrated with a high-efficiency
combined cooling, heating, and power (CCHP) system for growing lettuce and tomato in the arid
climate region of Yazd, Iran, is explored. A dynamic simulation of the greenhouse is carried out using
Engineering Equation Solver (EES), TRNSYS, and Design Builder. Both thermodynamic and
economic aspects of the system are analyzed, and in-depth comparisons are made with a reference
system comprising a pad-fan configuration and a gas heater for heating. The results indicate that the
annual electricity generated by the turbine for tomato and lettuce is 21,392.33 kWh and 30,903.33
kWh, respectively, by using R134a as the working fluid. The proposed system saves 1841.29 m3 and
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266.5 m3 of fuel and 10,675.04 m3 and 141.01 m3 of water for lettuce and tomato, respectively,
compared with the reference system. Furthermore, for lettuce and tomato, the payback period (PBT)
was estimated at 12 and 15 years, respectively. In addition, the annual net profit for the first year of
operation is $3,745.51 for lettuce and $1,651.48 for tomato. The study focuses on the feasibility of
using a high-efficiency solar CCHP system, based on the organic Rankine cycle and the ejector
refrigeration cycle, for greenhouse cultivation in place of conventional electricity-intensive systems.
The results also highlight the significant difference in heating and cooling load requirements between
lettuce and tomato in different seasons, with lettuce having lower heating demands in cold seasons
and higher cooling demands in warm seasons.
With a focus on the development of an urban-centric, climate-resilient food retail facility with
an indoor agricultural center or climate-controlled greenhouse in Calgary, Canada, the study
presented in this article [109] aims to explore optimal design parameters, integrate renewable energy
technologies, and implement energy-sharing strategies in the building complex. The research shows
that with an integrated building design approach, state-of-the-art technologies, and high energy
efficiency measures, a 27% net reduction in energy consumption is achieved compared to the
minimum requirement of applicable energy codes. In addition, the retail greenhouse-sales complex
can meet a further 21% of its energy demand for heating and irrigation water by sharing waste heat
from the retail refrigeration compressor racks. Furthermore, by using on-site renewable energy
generation, a net-zero energy performance for the complex is achievable. This study presents the
potential of combining buildings optimized for on-site operation and energy sharing to reduce
dependence on distribution networks while providing a local and resilient source of food production.
The results also demonstrate that the implementation of energy efficiency measures, waste heat
recovery, and on-site solar photovoltaic systems can deliver significant energy savings, with a 49%
reduction in overall energy consumption compared to similar existing buildings. Their proposed
approach offers a holistic and innovative solution for energy-efficient urban developments,
applicable in a variety of locations, and valuable for architectural and engineering design processes
in new and existing infrastructure in the retail and greenhouse sectors. The energy-sharing schemes
developed in this study can be adapted to different buildings, HVAC systems, renewable energy
systems, and energy-sharing combinations.
To improve crop growth and reduce energy consumption, a study [110] was carried out to
optimize and transform a solar greenhouse in the very cold climate of China into a Net Zero Energy
Solar Greenhouse (NZESG). In the work, passive insulation measures using expanded cement panels
of different thicknesses and positions were investigated, and flexible photovoltaic (PV) panels were
placed on the greenhouse roof in different arrangements. The optimal NZESG case was determined
using a multi-objective entropy weight method, taking into account energy savings, carbon emission
reduction, payback period, and cost. The results revealed that case (a) with 50 mm external insulation
and PV1 in a checkerboard layout achieved the highest overall score, making it the best NZESG
option. PV1 demonstrated high energy production, moderate shading, and the lowest cost among PV
arrangements. In addition, case (a) with external insulation and 200 mm thick insulation showed the
best energy-saving and carbon emission reduction effects but had higher investment costs and
payback periods. However, the investment costs and payback periods were higher. Finally, case (a)
and PV1 were identified as the optimum NZESG, generating 20,479.30 kWh per year and effectively
meeting the greenhouse’s post-retrofit energy consumption.
A systematic analysis approach is presented to optimize indoor agricultural installations [111],
considering energy efficiency and renewable energy systems. The optimization is based on a Life
Cycle Cost (LCC) analysis, considering capital and energy costs throughout the lifetime of the facility.
The study reveals that optimal designs based on LCC significantly reduce annual energy
consumption, by up to 65% compared to reference cases. Key energy efficiency measures include
high-performance heating and cooling systems, as well as optimized operational controls.
Daylighting controls and temperature settings are consistently matched to optimized designs at all
US sites. However, the study reveals that achieving net-zero energy (NZE) designs for indoor
agricultural facilities is generally not cost-effective, except for locations such as Sacramento,
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California. It highlights the need for climate-appropriate control strategies, shading devices, and
high-performance HVAC systems, as well as the implementation of photovoltaic systems,
particularly in areas with high electricity prices.
In this article [112], the authors present their work on the design, modeling and construction of
a high-efficiency photovoltaic mini-greenhouse operating as a near-zero energy building (NZEB).
The greenhouse was equipped with a semi-transparent roof-mounted photovoltaic system (3 kWpv)
coupled to an air-to-water heat pump and battery storage, and its performance was dynamically
simulated using the EnergyPlus model. In addition, energy-saving strategies such as reflective
shading and controlled natural ventilation reduce annual energy requirements by 30%. To achieve
this, the PV electrical model takes into account the effects of temperature, inverter efficiency, and
battery state of charge. As a result of the dynamic analysis, the PV power plant meets 94% of the air-
conditioning requirements and provides a surplus of around 1355 kWhel per year, potentially
feeding into the grid. Operational measurements and monitoring will validate the model, and the
results show that the greenhouse is energy-neutral, with a payback period of 6-7 years and the
capacity to produce surplus energy if connected to the grid.
An innovative management and monitoring approach is proposed for a cooperative cluster of
interconnected smart greenhouses [113], known as microgrids, with the aim of improving energy
efficiency and making efficient use of renewable energy sources. The interconnected microgrids
enable electricity exchanges, optimizing the use of renewable energy production within the cluster.
In addition, a centralized controller-based master algorithm is developed to efficiently manage the
entire cooperative cluster, considering operational constraints, and creating optimal crop
development environments across all networks. The results of a case study with four cooperative
networks show that energy storage systems effectively regulate their operation, improving supply
reliability and balancing power generation and electrical loads. Power exchanges occur mainly at
night, due to high peak loads from artificial lighting. The cluster successfully balances power
generation and local loads through cooperation and coordination between microgrids without
relying on the main power grid, ensuring optimal microclimate environments for crop growth. The
framework developed offers an overview of intelligent monitoring and control methods for
greenhouses powered by networked microgrids, with the potential for further exploration of
distributed control approaches in future studies.
The article [114] presents a state-of-the-art floating ebb and flow system greenhouse with
integrated sensors, cloud connectivity, and artificial intelligence for real-time data processing and
decision-making in plant growth research. The study aims to develop an autonomous, intelligent
greenhouse suitable for future scientific experiments. The proposed greenhouse includes a novel
microclimate pocket sensing solution using an automated guided suspended platform sensor system,
ensuring accurate and comprehensive data collection. In addition, the methodology for replacing
sensor data knowledge with artificial intelligence for plant health estimation is presented, enabling
longer reflux periods and improved nutrient levels in the final product. By using intelligent design
and AI algorithms, greenhouse profitability and research data reliability are improved. The paper
describes the system architecture and the process of synchronizing data with the cloud, facilitating
the analysis of big data. The main objective of the project is to train a deep neural model using RGB
camera images to estimate plant health, reducing dependence on traditional sensor systems and
improving energy efficiency in greenhouse production. The proposed automated hybrid sensor
arrangement based on the suspended platform successfully detects microclimate influences,
eliminating potential problems with fixed arrangements and costly conveyor systems. Experimental
validation demonstrates the precise positioning of the sensor node over the plant growing area. The
results of this study provide a promising approach for advanced plant research and a new starting
point for the Urtica-BioFuture project.
The study [115] focuses on the development of rural energy in China to achieve the goals of
“peak carbon” and “carbon neutrality”. This study introduces the concept of the Rural Energy
Internet (REI), which encompasses the energy sectors of rural living, planting, and animal husbandry.
By integrating cutting-edge energy and IT technologies, the REI aims to promote low-carbon, digital,
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and intelligent rural energy solutions. Three case studies demonstrate the practical benefits of REI in
terms of energy and carbon reduction. Given that rural areas contribute significantly to carbon
emissions in China, REI’s focus on renewable energy sources can effectively reduce rural carbon
emissions and support the “peak carbon” goal. Moreover, considering the carbon sink role of rural
agriculture, REI has the potential to achieve low or zero carbon emissions in rural energy, making it
a crucial tool for advancing China’s “peak carbon” and “carbon neutrality” goals.
The author in [116] proposes an innovative Economic Model Predictive Control (EMPC) strategy
for optimizing greenhouse operations, aimed at achieving cleaner and more sustainable agricultural
production while considering the Energy-Water-Carbon-Food Nexus (EWCF). The proposed
approach incorporates an optimization layer that minimizes greenhouse operating costs by taking
into account heating/cooling, ventilation, CO2 supply and irrigation, as well as CO2 emissions and
crop photosynthesis. In addition, a sensitivity analysis examines the influence of the price of
electricity, the price of CO2 supplied, and the Social Cost of Carbon (SCC) on total costs. The control
layer incorporates a model predictive control (MPC) method to effectively manage system
disturbances and maintain the optimal microclimate for crop growth, thereby improving crop yields.
Simulation results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed MPC method, resulting in reduced
carbon emissions and total costs compared to traditional reference methods. In addition, the MPC
controller shows robust performance under various disturbances. The study provides valuable
information for growers to make informed decisions in pursuit of sustainable development goals in
greenhouse crop production.
In addition, in order to provide a grid-free zero-carbon greenhouse design, the research work
presented in paper [117] focuses on the design, modeling, and optimization of agricultural
greenhouses in the hot, arid climate of Qatar. The aim is to improve energy and water use efficiency
by equipping greenhouses with solar photovoltaic systems while maintaining favorable growing
conditions for crops. The proposed Passive Solar Greenhouse (PSGH) design integrates solar PV on
the roof, ensuring a continuous supply of daylight for plant growth while significantly reducing the
cooling load. The optimized PSGH design was compared with conventional greenhouses through
simulation of different sizes. The results showed a significant reduction in cooling load of around
74% and a reduction in annual energy consumption of over 77% compared with conventional
greenhouse designs.

4. Conclusions
Greenhouses play a crucial role in supporting year-round agricultural production, ensuring food
security, and minimizing dependence on traditional open-field farming. However, the energy
consumption associated with greenhouse operations poses significant challenges to sustainability
objectives. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of greenhouse energy consumption,
aiming to analyze the current state, identify key challenges, explore potential opportunities, and
suggest future perspectives for reducing energy consumption in smart greenhouse environments.
For this purpose, the main objective of this paper is to provide a review of current scientific work
concerning the technological models and strategies used in smart greenhouse applications, as well as
the monitoring and regulation of microclimatic conditions in the greenhouse, encompassing aspects
such as temperature, CO2 levels, humidity, soil quality, and cultivation. In addition, the paper then
examines the specific energy consumption aspects of greenhouse operations, including heating,
cooling, lighting, and other operational needs.
By utilizing a systematic literature review approach, major databases such as Google Scholar,
IEEE Xplore, and Scopus are explored to gather relevant studies published between 2018 and 2023.
The search criteria focus on keywords such as “greenhouse,” “energy,” and “optimization” to ensure
comprehensive coverage of the topic. The analysis provides insights into the volume and trends of
research conducted in this field, highlighting the growing interest and research focus on greenhouse
energy consumption.
Moreover, the overview addresses the challenges faced in reducing greenhouse energy
consumption, such as high energy costs, reliance on non-renewable energy sources, and the need for
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optimal growing conditions. It explores various strategies and technologies aimed at improving
energy efficiency, including advanced insulation materials, optimized ventilation systems, intelligent
control systems, and the integration of renewable energy sources.
Furthermore, the paper discusses potential future directions for greenhouse energy
consumption, such as the utilization of emerging technologies like the Internet of Things (IoT),
machine learning, and predictive analytics for optimizing energy usage and resource management.
It emphasizes the importance of collaboration between researchers, policymakers, and industry
stakeholders to promote the adoption of energy-efficient practices in greenhouse operations.
By providing a comprehensive overview of greenhouse energy consumption, this paper serves
as a valuable resource for researchers, practitioners, and policymakers working towards sustainable
and energy-efficient agricultural practices. It identifies gaps in current knowledge, highlights
potential research directions, and encourages the development and implementation of innovative
solutions to achieve a more sustainable and energy-conscious greenhouse sector.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.S., E.Z., A.O., D.Z., S.Z., and R.S.; methodology, A.S., E.Z., A.O.,
D.Z., S.Z., and R.S.; software, A.S., E.Z., A.O., D.Z., S.Z., and R.S.; validation, A.S., E.Z., A.O., D.Z., S.Z., and R.S.;
formal analysis, A.S., E.Z., A.O., D.Z., S.Z., and R.S.; investigation, A.S., E.Z., A.O., D.Z., S.Z., and R.S.; resources,
A.S., E.Z., A.O., D.Z., S.Z., and R.S.; data curation, A.S., E.Z., A.O., D.Z., S.Z., and R.S.; writing—original draft
preparation, A.S., E.Z., A.O., D.Z., S.Z., and R.S.; writing—review and editing, A.S., E.Z., A.O., D.Z., S.Z., and
R.S.; visualization, A.S., E.Z., A.O., D.Z., S.Z., and R.S.; supervision, A.S., E.Z., A.O., D.Z., S.Z., and R.S.; project
administration, A.S., E.Z., A.O., D.Z., S.Z., and R.S.; funding acquisition, A.S., E.Z., A.O., D.Z., S.Z., and R.S. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding: This study was carried out within the Agritech National Research Center and received funding from
the European Union Next-Generation EU (PIANO NAZIONALE DI RIPRESA E RESILIENZA (PNRR) –
MISSIONE 4 COMPONENTE 2, INVESTIMENTO 1.4 – D.D. 1032 17/06/2022, CN00000022).

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable

Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable

Data Availability Statement: Not applicable

Acknowledgments: Not applicable

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
AI Artificial Intelligence MPC
Model Predictive Control
ANN Artificial Neural Networks MPPT
Maximum Power Point Tracking
ANN Artificial Neural Networks NN
Neural Networks
NN-approximation–based Optimal
BP Back Propagation NNOC
Control
CAAC Control Allocation based Adaptive Control NZE Net Zero Energy
CCHP Combined Cooling, Heating, and Power nZEG net-Zero Energy Greenhouses
CEMPC Certainty Equivalent MPC NZESG Net Zero Energy Solar Greenhouse
CGP Crop Growth Process OSC Organic Solar Cells
CSGs Chinese Solar Greenhouses PBT Profit Before Tax
PKDDRMPC Data-Driven Robust Model Predictive Control PCA Principal Component Analysis
DDRMPC Data-Driven Robust Predictive Control Model PCM Phase Change Materials
DSS Decision Support System PID Proportional, Integral, Derivative
EES Engineering Equation Solver POLY Polynomial
EMPC Economic Model Predictive Control PSGH Passive Solar Greenhouse
Ess Steady State Error PSO Particle Swarm Optimization
EWCF Energy-Water-Carbon-Food Nexus PV Photovoltaic
EXP Exponential PVT Photovoltaic Thermal
FLC Fuzzy Logic Control RBF Radial Basis Function
GA Genetic Algorithms REI Rural Energy Internet
GCP Greenhouse Control Process RH Relative Humidity
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HPS High-Pressure Sodium RMPC Robust MPC

HVAC Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning RMSE Root Mean Square Error
ICT Information and Communication Technologies RNN Recurrent Neural Network
IFACS Intelligent Fuzzy Auxiliary Cognitive System SCC Social Cost of Carbon
IoT Internet of Things SISO Single-Input Single-Output
IT Information Technology STES Sensitive Thermal Energy Storage
ITO Indium Tin Oxide SVC Support Vector Clustering
KDE Kernel Density Estimation SVR Support Vector Regression
LCC Life Cycle Cost TAK Title, Abstract, and Keywords
LED Light Emitting Diode TES Thermal Energy Storage
LM Levenberg-Marquardt TES Thermal Energy Storage
MAE Mean Absolute Error VFD Variable Frequency Drive
Multi-Generation Genetic Algorithm Back
MGABP Wi-Fi Wireless Fidelity
Propagation
MIMO Multi-Input Multi-Output WSNs Wireless Sensor Networks
Zonal Intercommunication Global-
MLP-NN Multilayer Perceptron Neural Network ZigBee
standard

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