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Unit-1
Educational Studies

1.1 CONTRIBUTION OF INDIAN SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY

Vedanta in Education

Vedanta (veda + anta) means the end of the Vedas

Vedanta is one of the six darshanas or philosophies of Hinduism. It is also known as

Purva Mimansa, Brahma Mimansa and Sariraka Mimansa. The first systematic study of
the philosophy seems to have been done by Badarayana in the Vedanta Sutras. However,
scholars believes he was not the first since he himself mentioned several teachers who
lived before him.

The school derives its philosophy mainly from the Vedas in general and the
Upanishads in particular, the Brahma Sutras (also known as Vedanta sutras), and the
Bhagavadgita. Together they are called the triple foundation (prasthana traya) of the school
of Vedanta.

The school recognizes the six evidences or testimonies (pramanas) to ascertain

truth or valid knowledge namely, pratyaksa (perception), anumana (inference), upamana
(comparison and analogy), arthapatti (circumstantial evidence), anupalabdi (absence of
evidence) and sabda (verbal testimony of expert knowledge). The validity of each is further
determined by various other factors.

The Vedanta school is probably as old as the Upanishads themselves. Among its
early proponents were prominent teachers of the Upanishads such as Uddalaka Aruni,
Pippalada, Janaka, Satyakama Jabala, and Svetaketu.

The principal concepts of Vedanta include the nature of reality, the status of
Brahman and Atman and their relationship, the relationship between Brahman and Nature,
the causes of creation, nature of bondage, means of liberation, states of consciousness, self-
purification, transmigration of souls, the practice of yoga and meditation, and so on.

The Vedanta schools do, however, hold in common a number of beliefs : the
transmigration of the self (samsara) and the desirability of release from the cycle of

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rebirths; the authority of the Veda on the means of release; that brahman is both the
material (upadana) and the instrumental (nimitta) cause of the world; and that the self
(atman) is the agent of its own acts (karma) and therefore the recipient of the fruits (phala),
or consequences, of action.

The three fundamental Vedanta texts are :

The Upanishads (the most favoured being the longer and older ones such as the
Brihadaranyaka, the Chandogya, the Taittiriya, and the Katha);

The Brahma-sutras (also called Vedanta-sutras), which are very brief, even
one-word interpretations of the doctrine of the Upanishads; and

The Bhagavadgita ("Song of the Lord"), which, because of its immense

popularity, was drawn upon for support of the doctrines found in the Upanishads.

All the Vedanta schools unanimously reject both the non-Vedic, "nay-saying"
(nastika) philosophies of Buddhism and Jainism and the conclusions of the other Vedic,
"yea-saying" (astika) schools (Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, and, to some extent,
the Purva Mimamsa).

All the Vedantists agree on three points. They believe in God, in the Vedas as revealed,
and in cycles. We have already considered the Vedas. The belief about cycles is as follows
: All matter throughout the universe is the outcome of one primal matter called Âkâsha;
and all force, whether gravitation, attraction or repulsion, or life, is the outcome of one
primal force called Prâna.

Prana acting on Akasha is creating or projecting the universe. At the beginning of a cycle,
Akasha is motionless, unmanifested. Then Prana begins to act, more and more, creating
grosser and grosser forms out of Akasha - plants, animals, men, stars, and so on

The Vedas are divided mainly into two portions : the Karma-kânda and the Jnâna-
kânda – the work-portion and the knowledge-portion.

To the Karma-kanda belong the famous hymns and the rituals of Brâhmanas. Those
books which treat of spiritual matters apart from ceremonials are called Upanishads.

The Upanishads belong to the Jnana-kanda, or knowledge-portion. It is not that

all the Upanishads were composed as a separate portion of the Vedas. Some are
interspersed among the rituals, and at least one is in the Samhita, or hymn-portion.

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Sometimes the term Upanishad is applied to books which are not included in the Vedas -
e.g the Gita, but as a rule it is applied to the philosophical treatises scattered through the
Vedas. These treatises have been collected, and are called the Vedanta.

Note : The Vedanta and the Sankhya philosophy are very little opposed to each other.
The Vedanta God developed out of the Sankhya's Purusha. All the systems take up the
psychology of the Sankhya. Both the Vedanta and the Sankhya believe in the infinite soul,
only the Sankhya believes there are many souls. According to the Sankhya, this universe
does not require any explanation from outside. The Vedanta believes that there is the one
Soul, which appears as many; and we build on the Sankhya's analysis.

Five Schools of Vedanta Philosophy and Metaphysics

The Vedas are the religious scriptures of Hinduism. All schools of Hindu
philosophy are based on the Vedas. There are six schools of Hindu philosophy : Nyaya,
Vaisesika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimamsa and lastly, Vedanta.

The Vedantas or the Upanishads define two main realities – Brahman, the Absolute
reality, and the world, the relative reality. The world encompasses both the matter of the
world, the non-living objects, and the souls, or consciousness.

1. Advaita

Advaita literally means a + dvaita or absence of duality.

. It is translated into English as nondualism or monism. As the name suggests the school
believes in the unity or oneness of existence. This is the oldest school of Vedanta, and it
states that Brahman is the only reality and the world is illusory( Maya).

. Ignorance of the reality is what causes suffering, and liberation can be obtained only by
true knowledge of Brahman.

. It states that both the individual self( Atman) and Brahman are the same, and knowing
this difference causes liberation.

. The Brahman of Advaita is a purely impersonal entity. There can be no talk of creation
or of love with regard to Brahman. Brahman exists of its own accord and does not in any
way affect the world, the world evolves out of its own cycle of Nivritti(expansion) and
Pravritti (involution).

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. The first systematic exponent of the Advaita is Gaudapada, who was the Parama-Gura
(preceptor's preceptor) of Sri Sankara. Govinda was the disciple of Gaudapada. He became
the preceptor of Sankara. Gaudapada has given the central teaching of Advaita Vedanta in
his celebrated Mandukya Karika. But it was Sankara who brought forth the final beautiful
form of Advaita philosophy, and gave perfection and finishing touch to it. The commentary
on the Vedanta Sutras (Brahma-Sutras) by Sankara is known as Sariraka Bhashya.

. The teachings of Sankara can be summed up in half a verse : "Brahma Satyam Jagan
Mithya Jivo Brahmaiva Na Aparah" (Brahman the Absolute alone is real; this world is
unreal; and the Jiva or the individual soul is non-different from Brahman). This is the
quintessence of his philosophy.

Features

. The Advaita taught by Sri Sankara is a rigorous, absolute one. According to Sri Sankara,
whatever is, is Brahman. Brahman Itself is absolutely homogeneous. All difference and
plurality are illusory.

. The Advaita philosophy of Sri Sankaracharya is lofty, sublime and unique. It is a system
of bold philosophy and logical subtlety. It is highly interesting, inspiring and elevating.

. Sankara's philosophy is complete and perfect. Sri Sankara was mighty, marvellous
genius. He was a master of logic. He was a profound thinker of the first rank. He was a
sage of the highest realisation. He was an Avatara of Lord Siva.

. The Western thinkers bow their heads at the lotus-feet of Sri Sankara. His philosophy has
soothed the sorrows and afflictions of the most forlorn persons, and brought hope, joy,
wisdom, perfection, freedom and calmness to many. Sankara's Supreme Brahman is
impersonal,

. Nirguna (without Gunas or attributes), Nirakara (formless), Nirvisesha (without special

characteristics), immutable, eternal and Akarta (non-agent). It is above all needs and
desires.

. Brahman is non-dual, one without a second. It has no other beside it. It is destitute of
difference, either external or internal. Brahman cannot be described because description
implies distinction.

. Sat-Chit-Ananda (absolute Existence, absolute Consciousness, absolute Bliss) constitute

the very essence or Svarupa of Brahman, and not just Its attributes.

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. The Nirguna Brahman of Sankara is impersonal. It becomes a personal God or Saguna

Brahman only through its association with Maya. Saguna (with form or attributes)
Brahman and Nirguna (without form) Brahman are not two Brahmans. Nirguna Brahman
is not the contrast, antithesis or opposite of Saguna Brahman. The same Nirguna Brahman
appears as Saguna Brahman for the pious worship of devotees. It is the same Truth from
two different points of view. Nirguna Brahman is the higher Brahman, the Brahman from
the transcendental viewpoint (Paramarthika); Saguna (with attributes) Brahman is the
lower Brahman, the Brahman from the relative viewpoint (Vyavaharika).

2. Dvaita (Dualism)

This was propounded by Madhvacharya and is also called as Tatvavada-the Philosophy

of Reality. It considers Brahman and Atman as two different entities, and Bhakti as the
route to eternal salvation.

Dvaita means duality : The school holds that the duality we perceive around us real, not
an illusion. Brahman is different from the souls, and souls are different from each other as
well as from Nature. Only Brahman is the infinite, independent reality. Everything else is
a finite, dependent reality. However, Brahman, souls and Nature are eternal. The school
identifies five distinct dualities that characterize existence.

They are the duality between Brahman and souls, between Brahman and Nature,
between souls and Nature, between one soul and another soul, and between one aspect
of Nature and another aspect, The school was founded by Madhavacharya (13th Century
AD), who held that the philosophy of nondualism was unacceptable because of its inherent
inconsistencies and logical absurdities.).

The famous analogy given for this is the sea and wave – Brahman is the sea and the obiects
of the world, both non-living and the living souls, are like waves upon this sea. All waves
are ultimately but as long as we see the wave we think it to be different from the sea. The
wave is of name and form only. Other analogies given for this are gold and gold jewellery
gold jewellery, clay and clay pots, the spider and his web, etc.

3. Vishista Advaita (Qualified Monism)

The most famous exponent of Vishista Advaita is Ramanuja. Vishista Advaita, the
world and Brahman are also considered two equally real entities, as in dualism, but here
the world is not separate from Brahman but is formed out of Brahman.

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Literally speaking, Vishishtadvaita means distinguished nondualism or qualified

nondualism. The medieval saint, Ramanujacharya (the 11th-12th century AD) was its chief
proponent, who believed that Brahman was not only nirguna but also saguna.

The school identifies three ultimate realities, Brahman (Isvara), the soul (cit)
and Nature or matter (acit). It acknowledges Brahman as the supreme, reality, but differs
from Advaita by attributing conditions and qualities to Brahman in his aspect as creator
and the lord of the Universe (Isvara).

The individual souls and Nature are projections of Isvara but they cannot be
considered mere illusions. They are dependent realities, while Isvara is an independent
reality. The souls are dependent realities of Brahman and inseparable from him

It's philosophy is summed as up Asesha Chit-Achit Prakaaram Brahmaikameva

Tatvam meaning Brahman as qualified by sentient modes ( the ability to feel and sense)
and insentient modes( inability to feel or sense) is the only reality. Brahman is an identity
qualified with internal differences.

There are three realities, God (Ishvara), soul (chit) and matter (achit).

The soul and matter are integral part of Brahman, and although they are substances
in themselves, yet in relation to God they are his attributes. Between God and soul and
matter, the relationship is of Aprithakasiddhi (distinct but not separate).

The jiva and Jagat are the real modifications (Parinama) of chit and achit part of
Brahman. The knowledge required for liberation can only be attained when the Jiva
surrenders itself to God (Prapatti and Sharanagati).

Ramanuja, the propounder of Vishistadvaita, rejects Advaitic conception of Maya,

by seven anupapattis (objections). According to him, neither scriptures nor reasoning
supports Advaitic Maya. Maya, in fact, should be identified with Achit of Brahman.

Souls are classified into three by Ramanuja :

(1) Nitya Muktas : Souls which were never bound – they are ever free from karma and
prakrti and live in vaikunta in constant service of the lord. Adisesha, Garuda, Visvaksena
etc are some such souls

(2)Mukta Atmas : Souls who were once bound but who obtained liberation through
action, knowledge and devotion.

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(3)Baddhatmas : Souls who are wandering in samsara on account of ignorance and bad
karmas. Ramanuja's philosophy is a fusion of the vedas and the bhagavad purana. He was
enormously influenced by the Tamil Bhakti Saints called Alvars.

During pralaya, god remains as the cause with subtle matter and unembodied souls
forming his body. The whole universe lies latent in him. During creation, the subtle matter
becomes gross and the unembodied souls become embodied according to their karmas.
Ramanuja distinguishes these two states as "state of cause" (Kaaranavastha) and
"state of effect" (Kaaryavasta) of Brahman. 4. Bhedabheda (Bheda Abheda)

. The greatest exponent of Bhedabheda is Nimbarka. Bheda Abheda school (differencenon-

difference) is also called Dvaita Advaita (dualistic Advaita).

. Bheda Abheda is an interpretation of Vishista Advaita and therefore it is often not

considered separately but as a part of Vishista Advaita.

. Like Vishista Advaita, Bheda Abheda school also believes that the world and Brahman
are both equally real, and that the world is a part of Brahman. The difference is in emphasis,
it emphasizes the difference in Vishista Advaita more and hence tends towards dualism.
That is why it is also called Dvaita Advaita or Dualistic Monism.

. The same analogy of sea and wave, clay and pot, etc. is used here. A particular analogy
of Bhedabheda is the sun and the sun beam. The sun beam cannot be called separate from
the sun, it arises from the sun and is attached to it. Yet it is not the sun either, it is only a
part of the sun, a reflection of the sun, and it gives only a part view of the sun. Hence the
world also is but a manifestation of Brahman, but it is a very puny manifestation and the
difference with Brahman is very large.

. Bhedabheda follows a dualistic pattern of worship. God here is Lord Vishnu, and He is
described in dualistic terms, as the Lord of all and in whom we must seek refuge.

. One aspect of Bhedabheda is Achintya Bhedabheda of Chaitanya Mahapurush. Here also

he emphasized the difference between mortal humans and the Omniscient God, although
he maintained that God and humans had a part-whole relationship. This difference-
nondifference was said to be Achintya or indescribable.

. Here it is important to stress the difference between the terms, 'Achintya' (unthinkable
or unknowable) used in Bhedabheda and 'Anirvacaniya' (indescribable) used in
Advaita. Confusion has sometimes been caused by these terms as to the resemblance
between Bhedabheda and Advaita. The two terms have approximately the same

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connotation, but they are used for two entirely different aspects. Anirvacaniya in Advaita
is used in a much more basic aspect, it relates to the ontological or metaphysical
existence of the world, whereas Achintya in bhedabheda is used for a secondary
aspect, the relation of the world and Brahman.

. The soul is atomic in size and are many in number. A soul is eternal and yet suffers from
births and deaths on account of its embodiment due to karma and avidya. Liberation is due
to knowledge which is brought about by God's grace which itself is due to devotion. Hence
according to this school of thought, bhakti is the only means for liberation.

5. Shudhadvaita

. The primary exponent of Shudhadvaita is Vallabhacharya.

. Shudhadvaita means pure monism (pure=shudh). His philosophy came to be known as

Pushtimarga (the path of grace) and the school was called Rudrąsampradaya.

. Vallabhacharya wrote commentaries on Vedanta Sutra and Bhagavad Gita.

. In Shudhadvaita, as in Vishista Advaita, the world is taken to have a real existence, as

also Brahman. We may consider it like two sides of a coin, with Brahman as one side and
the world as another side.

. There is no change, the world is a part of the coin that is Brahman. Hence this is called
'Shudh Advaita' because it is said that there is only one and there is no change.

. Vallabha declares that it is a purer form of Monism than even the Advaita of
Sankaracharya, because there Brahman is said to manifest the relatively real world through
its power of Maya but here even Maya is denied and there is no change.

6. Acintya Bheda Abheda

. This school forms part of the Gaudiya Vaishnava Sampradaya (tradition) and was
believed to have been taught first by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, a 15th and 16th century
Vaishnava teacher.

. The school derives its inspiration from both the Dvaita and the Vishishtadvaita schools.
and rejects the school of Advaita. Achintya bheda abheda means inconceivable difference
and non-difference.

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. The souls reflect only a part of his glory, but they are part of universal body and
consciousness. If Brahman is like the sun, the souls are like the rays. If he is fire, the souls
are like sparks. They are the same in essence. but different in appearance, size, and
intensity.

. This was enunciated by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, the founder of the Gaudinya

Vaishnavism. It combines both the views points of the Advaita and Dvaita schools. It states
that while the individual self is linked with Brahman, yet it is not the same as him. It states
that the individual self is only a part of the Supreme Lord. In a sense it breaks away from
the rather rigid definitions of Dwaita and Adwaita.

. All Vedantic philosophies rely on Prasthanatrayi- the principle Upanishads, The

Brahama Sutra and Srimad Bhagavad Gita. These scriptures deal with relationship between
the Ultimate Reality (Brahman), individual souls (Atman) and World (Jagat). They also
prescribe paths to attain liberation (moksha) from bondage (samsara Bandhana).

. Because, the Prasthanatrai talk about both the Brahman with attributes (Saguna) and
Brahman without attributes (Nirguna), therefore there are many interpretations of
Vedanta..

These Schools have Certain Basic Concepts

. Brahman is the supreme cause of the entire universe and is eternal and all encompassing.

. All actions are subordinate to knowledge and devotion.

. Bondage is subject to Samsara, the eternal cycle of death and rebirth.

. And deliverance from the cycle of Samsara is true liberation.

Summary : According to Ramanuja, the soul though different from god is essentially
identical with him as forming his body. For Madhwa, the soul, though a dependent part of
god, is essentially different from him. As per Nimbarka. the soul is limited and dependent
and is different from god, though it is identical with him. For Vallabha, the soul is a part
of god and is identical with him and appears as different on account of limited
manifestations.

There are two major divisions in Sanatana Dharma :

There are two divisions in Hinduism

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1. Personalism and

2. Impersonalism.

1. Personalism : Only Vaishnvism belongs to this division. Vedanta Philosophies (Dvaita,

Achintya Bheda Abheda etc.) differ in each subdivision of Vaishnavism like Sri, Madhva,
Gaudiya Vaishnavism etc. God's original or primary form is personal, but he exists in two
more aspects, i.e. Brahman (impersonal aspect) and Super soul (expansion of the Supreme
Person or personal form of God who resides in the heart of every living being). God
according to Vaishnavism is Lord Sri Krishna/Vishnu/Rama.

2. Impersonalism : Shaivism, Shaktaism, Advaitavadism (Followers of Adi

Shankaracharya), Smartism etc. belong to this division. The Vedanta philosophy for each
subdivision is same, i.e. Advaita. God's original form is considered as Impersonal and it
manifests itself in many temporary forms like Shiva, Durga etc.

Education during vedic period was the third eye, the eye of insight and source of
illumination. The system of education generally advocated emanated from the Vedas and
was called vedic system of education, which insisted on code of conduct both for the
student and the teacher and placed the child under the care and direction of the teacher.

Aims of Education during Vedic Age

1. Citta-Vritti-Nirodh : Education must aim at self- fulfillment and provide freedom from
material desires and attachment.

2. Education of Mind : Education must provide knowledge for creativity and pursuit of
culture and civilization.

3. Make living worthy : Education should make life worthwhile, purposeful and relevant.

4. Tamso-ma-Jyotirgamaya : Knowledge should dispel doubts, dogmas and darkness.

MCQ
1. The statement by the then Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi that a new education would
made so as to “Prepare Indians for the 21st century in the year

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(a) 1990

(b) 1985

(c) 1987

(d) 1991

Answer - b

2. Who has observed that the art of education would never attain clearness in itself
without philosophy? He was

(a) M.K Gandhi

(b) Fichte

(c) John dewey

(d) Gautam Buddha

Answer - b

3. The opinion that “Our aim should be to produce men who possess both culture and
expect knowledge” given by

(a) prof. A.H whitehead

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(b) Montessori

(c) Froebel

(d) all of the above

Answer - a

4. How do we get knowledge and how can we sure it is true and not error? This area of
philosophy is called

(a) neurology

(b) epistemology

(c) beyond philosophy

(d) none of the above

Answer - b

5. All levels of education are provided from the nursery to the university stage in

(a) ashram at Pondicherry

(b) brahmo samaj

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(c) shantiniketan

(d) arya samaj

Answer - a

6. In today’s society school should give

(a) ornamental base

(b) vocational base

(c) both a and b

(d) none of the above

Answer - b

7. Following attributes would correctly define learning

(a) understanding imagination and workmanship

(b) change of behaviour, practice and experience

(c) belief, creativity and endurance

(d) intuition, intelligence and memorisation

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Answer - c

8. The 1968 national policy teacher education adopted by the Indian government laid
stress on the following aspects of teacher’s education

(a) adequate emoluments and academic freedom for teachers

(b) travel allowance and family pensions for teachers

(c) in service training and correspondence education for teachers

(d) promotion and retirement facilities for teachers

Answer - a

9. If we believe in the dualistic theory of the mind versus body nature of man, have to
arrive at the econsequence that

(a) education is mechanisation in process and theoretical in development

(b) learning is purely a matter of material changes in the behaviour of man

(c) learning an education should cater to observable behaviour of man

(d) education is purely a matter of mental training and development of the self

Answer - d

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10. Swami vivekanand was famous for speaking on

(a) Vedas

(b) medicians

(c) gita

(d) Vedanta

Answer - c

11. Article 45 under the Directive principles of state policy in the Indian Constitution,
provides for

(a) rights of minorities to establish education institutions

(b) free and compulsory primary education

(c) education for weaker sections of the country

(d) giving financial assistance to less advanced states

Answer - b

12. Vivekanand was a

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(a) religious guru

(b) poet

(c) philosopher

(d) all of the above

Answer - d

13. The national educational policy of 1979, recommended also about the public schools

(a) their uniquencies and traditions have to preserved the interests of the best talents of
the country

(b) they should be bought under laws and regulations of the government public education
system

(c) they must be allowed the autonomy that was bestowed on them by the past system of
education

(d) suitable ratio has to be maintained for admission of middle class and poor student
also

Answer - d

14. Rama Krishna mission was founded by

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(a) swami dayanand

(b) swami vivekanand

(c) raja ram mohan roy

(d) guru nanak dev

Answer - b

15. Annie Besant inspired the opening of schools in many cities in

(a) end of nineteenth century

(b) early nineteenth century

(c) early twentieenth century

(d) end twentieenth century

Answer - a

16. In ancient India religious and moral aims were dominated by

(a) brahmnic system of education

(b) kshatriya system of education

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(c) both a and b

(d) none of the above

Answer - c

17. The concept of totalitarian education in the west was in favour of

(a) treating education as a binding factor of international understanding

(b) the education of the individual for development of his total personality

(c) making the education of the individual as an instrument for realising the ends of the
state

(d) making the state responsible to evolve education as a means of satisfying individual’s
needs and interests.

Answer - c

18. Regarding co-education at the secondary stage, the 1952-53 education commission
has suggested that

(a) to start, resource, in several states could not afford

(b) there should be objection to extend coeducational school

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(c) to maintain separate schools for boys and girls

(d) the situation in our country warrants establishment of more boys schools than
coeducational school

Answer - a

19. Who formed Brahmo samaj

(a) guru nanak

(b) kabir

(c) ramanand

(d) raja ram mohan roy

Answer - d

20. Tagore was a

(a) philosper

(b) poet

(c) musician

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(d) both a and b

Answer - b

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