The Papua New Guinea University of Technology

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Engineering Materials and Properties
Assignment No. Selection of Materials

Name: Jared Karai

ID NO: 24304167
Course Code: BEME/1
Semester 1 2024
Lecturer: Dr. Steve Ales
 a) Evaluate the compatibility of selected materials with other components or
systems within the application, including considerations such as thermal
expansion, coefficient of friction, and chemical interactions. [10 Marks]
Choosing the right material is essential in engineering. Aluminum is a popular choice due to
its lightweight nature, heat conductivity, and resistance to rust. When it comes to choosing
the best material for a job, we need to think about how it performs, how long it lasts, and how
much it costs. However, its selection warrants careful evaluation, especially concerning
factors like thermal expansion, coefficient of friction, and chemical interactions when
compared to other materials within the application.
Thermal Expansion: Aluminum has a relatively large thermal expansion coefficient compared
to other metals (LINEAR THERMAL EXPANSION COEFFICIENT OF ALUMINUM
ALLOYS, n.d.). The linear thermal expansion coefficient of aluminum is approximately 23.1
µm/(m·K) (Aluminium – Thermal Expansion Coefficient, 2020). This means that aluminum
expands significantly with temperature changes, which could be a consideration if the
application involves significant temperature variations.
Coefficient of Friction: The coefficient of friction for aluminum on aluminum varies
depending on the surface conditions and lubrication, but it typically ranges from 0.2 to 0.5
(Cody87, 2013). This is relatively high, which means that aluminum parts sliding against
each other would experience significant resistance. Lubrication can help reduce this friction.
Chemical Interactions: Aluminum is generally resistant to corrosion due to the formation of a
protective oxide layer when exposed to air (Aluminium, n.d.). However, it can react with
certain substances. For example, it does not react with hydrogen under normal conditions,
with concentrated sulfuric acid, or with concentrated nitric acid due to passivation
(ALUMINIUM INFORMATION PORTAL, n.d.). It can also react with halogens to form
aluminum iodide, chloride, or bromide (Aluminium and its reaction with water, n.d.)
In conclusion, aluminum is a versatile material with many beneficial properties. However, its
relatively large thermal expansion coefficient and high coefficient of friction may be
considerations depending on the specific application. Its chemical interactions are also
important to consider, particularly in environments where it may be exposed to specific
substances. As with any material selection, it’s important to consider the specific
requirements of the application to determine the most suitable material.

References
Aluminium. (n.d.). Retrieved from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium

Aluminium – Thermal Expansion Coefficient. (2020, November 15). Retrieved from periodic-table:
https://www.periodic-table.org/aluminium-thermal-expansion/

Aluminium and its reaction with water. (n.d.). Retrieved from MEL Science :
https://melscience.com/US-en/articles/aluminum-and-its-reaction-water/

ALUMINIUM INFORMATION PORTAL. (n.d.). Retrieved from Aluminium Guide : https://aluminium-

guide.com/en/chemical-reactions-aluminium/

Cody87. (2013, March 2). Coefficient of friction aluminium on aluminium. Retrieved from Physics
Forums : https://www.physicsforums.com/threads/coefficient-of-friction-aluminium-on-
 aluminium.675735/

LINEAR THERMAL EXPANSION COEFFICIENT OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS. (n.d.). Retrieved from

AmesWeb:
https://amesweb.info/Materials/Thermal_Expansion_Coefficient_of_Aluminum.aspx

b) Design a materials selection process for developing a lightweight, yet durable bicycle
frame. Consider factors such as material properties, manufacturing processes, and
cost-effectiveness. [10 Marks]
Developing a bicycle frame that combines lightweight design with durability is essential
for achieving high performance and rider satisfaction. One of the major requirements
related to the design of any product is choosing the proper material that withstands all
loads and stress, either permanent or accidental.
The functional requirements of a bicycle frame are largely determined by the material’s
strength, toughness, and density. Strength, measured by compressive and yield strength, is
crucial for the frame’s performance. Materials like AISI 1020 steel and titanium, which
have high strength levels, are potential candidates for frame construction.
Toughness, or the material’s ability to stretch before failing, is another important factor.
While titanium and aluminium exhibit good toughness, carbon fiber composites, despite
being used in bicycle frames, can be compromised if an indentation occurs.
Density, or the weight of a material for a given volume, is a critical consideration for
bicycle applications. Lower density results in a lighter weight, which is desirable for
performance. Carbon Fiber composite has a lower density (1.8 g/cm3) compared to
aluminium (2.71 g/cm3) and titanium (4.43 g/cm3), making it a favourable material for
lightweight bicycle frames. However, each material’s properties must be balanced against
factors such as manufacturing processes and cost-effectiveness. Several materials can be
considered for use in a lightweight bicycle frame construction, each with its unique
properties and characteristics.
1. Aluminum Alloys:
 Aluminum alloys are widely utilized in bicycle frame construction due to their
excellent strength-to-weight ratio, making them a preferred choice for lightweight
designs.
 Materials like 6061 and 7005 aluminum offer high strength levels, suitable for
withstanding the loads and stresses encountered during cycling.
 However, aluminum alloys may exhibit lower toughness compared to other materials,
making them susceptible to deformation or failure under certain conditions.
2. Titanium Alloys:
 Titanium alloys are renowned for their exceptional strength, toughness, and corrosion
resistance, making them highly desirable for bicycle frame applications.
 Materials like Ti-6Al-4V and Ti-3Al-2.5V offer superior strength-to-weight ratios and
excellent fatigue resistance, ensuring durability and reliability.
 Although titanium alloys are relatively expensive compared to other materials, their
unparalleled performance characteristics make them a popular choice among high-end
bicycle manufacturers and enthusiasts.
3. Carbon Fiber Composites:
 Carbon fiber composites are prized for their unmatched strength-to-weight ratio,
providing superior stiffness and vibration-damping properties.
 Carbon fiber frames offer exceptional performance and responsiveness, making them
ideal for competitive cycling disciplines.
 However, carbon fiber composites may be susceptible to impact damage or
delamination, requiring careful handling and maintenance.
4. Steel Alloys:
 Steel alloys have long been used in bicycle frame construction for their durability,
toughness, and affordability.
 Materials like AISI 4130 chromoly steel offer excellent strength and toughness,
making them well-suited for rugged riding conditions.
 While steel frames may be slightly heavier compared to aluminum or titanium, they
provide a smooth and comfortable ride quality appreciated by many cyclists.
5. Advanced Polymer Composites and Hybrid Materials:
 Emerging materials such as advanced polymer composites and hybrid materials offer
innovative solutions for bicycle frame construction.
 These materials combine the desirable properties of traditional materials with unique
characteristics such as enhanced impact resistance or improved damping capabilities.
 While still relatively new to the market, advanced polymer composites and hybrid
materials hold promise for future advancements in lightweight and durable bicycle
frame design.
By analyzing each of the given materials Carbon fiber composite stands out as an ideal
candidate material for designing a lightweight, yet durable bicycle frame due to its high
strength-to-weight ratio, meaning it provides exceptional structural integrity while
keeping the overall weight of the frame low, enhancing maneuverability and
performance. Additionally, carbon fiber composites offer excellent stiffness, ensuring
responsive handling and efficient power transfer during cycling, while their superior
fatigue resistance enables the frame to withstand repeated loading cycles encountered
during riding without compromising durability. Furthermore, carbon fiber composites
possess vibration-damping properties, which help absorb road vibrations, resulting in a
smoother and more comfortable ride experience for cyclists. Moreover, their inherent
corrosion resistance makes them suitable for use in various environmental conditions,
ensuring long-term durability. Carbon fiber is a polymer that is known for its strength and
lightweight properties, making it an ideal material for a bicycle frame. It has several
advantages including high stiffness, high tensile strength, low weight, high chemical
resistance, high temperature tolerance, and low thermal expansion. These properties make
carbon fiber a popular choice in aerospace, civil engineering, military, motorsports, and
other competition sports. The density of carbon fiber is 2000 kg/m3, which contributes to
its lightweight properties. It has an ultimate tensile strength of 4000 MPa and a yield
strength of 2500 MPa, which means it can withstand high loads without failure or plastic
deformation. Young’s Modulus of Elasticity is 500 GPa, indicating that it is highly stiff1.
It also has a high melting point of 3657 °C, which means it can tolerate high
temperatures. When designing a bicycle frame, the primary focus is to select a material of
high strength, high stiffness, and as low mass as possible. Carbon fiber fits these criteria
well. However, it’s important to note that carbon fiber is usually combined with other
materials to form a composite. For example, when permeated with a plastic resin and
baked, it forms a carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer (often referred to as carbon fiber),
which has a very high strength-to-weight ratio and is extremely rigid although somewhat
brittle.
The manufacturing process of a carbon fiber bicycle frame starts with the production of
carbon fibers through a process called carbonization. This involves subjecting precursor
materials like polyacrylonitrile (PAN) fibers or pitch to high temperatures in an oxygen-
free environment. The resulting carbon fibers are then bundled into yarns or woven into
fabrics, forming the basis of the composite material used in the frame construction.
Next, the layup process arranges layers of carbon fiber fabric in specific orientations and
patterns to achieve the desired strength, stiffness, and durability characteristics of the
frame. This process allows for customization of the frame’s properties based on design
requirements and performance goals.
Following the layup, the carbon fiber layers are impregnated with epoxy resin, which
serves as a binding agent to hold the fibers together and provide additional strength and
stiffness to the composite material. This resin infusion process is crucial for ensuring
proper adhesion between the carbon fibers and forming a solid, homogenous structure.
Once the resin is applied, the composite material undergoes a curing process, where it is
heated to a specific temperature and pressure to harden the resin and bond the carbon
fibers together permanently. This process is critical for achieving the desired mechanical
properties of the frame and ensuring uniformity and consistency throughout the structure.
After curing, the composite material undergoes additional machining and finishing
processes to shape it into the final form of the bicycle frame. This may involve trimming
excess material, drilling holes for components, and applying surface treatments or
coatings for aesthetic and protective purposes.
Throughout the manufacturing process, quality control measures are implemented to
ensure the integrity and performance of the carbon fiber bicycle frame. These measures
include inspection of raw materials, monitoring of process parameters, and testing of
finished products for strength, stiffness, and durability.
One of the key factors to consider when designing a material selection process is to
perform a cost analysis for the material used. Carbon fiber is a high-end material, with
significantly higher costs compared to alternatives like aluminum or steel. The raw
material itself, carbon fiber, is expensive. The manufacturing process for carbon frames is
labor-intensive and requires specialized equipment. The commonly used process involves
using 'prepreg' carbon fiber sheets, which are already impregnated with resin, adding to
the production costs. Estimates for this process range from $60k to $100k, depending on
factors like the type of carbon fiber used and the number of layers. Maintenance costs for
carbon fiber frames include upkeep to prevent damage and repair costs in case of impact
damage, which can be difficult and costly. While carbon fiber frames offer performance
benefits and durability, the initial investment can be significant, with high-end frames
costing thousands of dollars. However, accessibility may be limited for cyclists on a
budget, making the decision to use carbon fiber dependent on performance requirements
and budget constraints.
One way to lower the cost of carbon fiber for designing a lightweight and durable bicycle
frame is to optimize the layup schedules. By designing molds and layup schedules that
ensure a more consistent surface finish of the frame, you can reduce post-mold labor time,
which can account for a significant portion of total costs.
Another strategy is to use lower-end carbon fiber that uses fillers and more resin. While
this approach can lower costs, it may increase the weight of the frame. Therefore, it’s
important to balance cost-saving measures with the performance requirements of the
bicycle frame.
Investing in upfront engineering to create efficient designs that require less material
without compromising strength and durability can also help reduce costs. This involves a
careful analysis of the frame design to identify areas where material usage can be
minimized.
Purchasing carbon fiber materials in bulk can also help lower costs due to economies of
scale. This means that buying larger quantities of the material at once can reduce the cost
per unit.
Exploring innovative manufacturing processes that reduce labor costs or increase
production efficiency is another way to lower costs. This could involve researching and
implementing new technologies or methods in the manufacturing process.
Finally, considering the use of hybrid materials that blend carbon fiber with less
expensive materials can achieve desired properties at a lower cost. This involves
researching and testing various material combinations to find a blend that meets the
performance requirements of the bicycle frame while being more cost-effective.
Prototype testing is a crucial stage in the design process of a lightweight, yet durable
bicycle frame. After the material selection and manufacturing process, a prototype of the
bicycle frame is built. This prototype is then subjected to a series of tests to evaluate its
performance under various conditions.
Static load testing is one of the first tests conducted. This test assesses the stiffness and
strength of the frame by applying a static load or force. The frame should not deform or
break under the load, and it should return to its original shape after the load is removed.
Fatigue testing is another important test. It evaluates the durability of the frame under
repeated stress cycles. In this test, a cyclic load is applied to the frame for a large number
of cycles, and the frame should not show any signs of fatigue failure.
Impact testing simulates real-world conditions where the bicycle might hit a pothole or an
obstacle. The frame should be able to withstand such impacts without any significant
deformation or damage.
Non-destructive testing (NDT) is also performed for quality assurance. NDT methods like
ultrasonic testing or X-ray testing are used to check for any internal defects or damage in
the frame that are not visible to the naked eye.
The results from these tests are analyzed to assess whether the prototype meets the
performance requirements. If the prototype fails any of the tests, the design is iterated and
optimized, and a new prototype is built and tested. This cycle continues until a prototype
that meets all the performance requirements is obtained.
Through prototype testing, the design of the bicycle frame can be validated and refined
before moving on to mass production. This ensures that the final product is both
lightweight and durable, providing an optimal cycling experience for the user.
After prototype testing, the test results are analyzed to identify areas for improvement.
This could include areas where the frame did not meet the performance requirements,
such as not being stiff enough or not having sufficient fatigue resistance. It could also
include areas where the frame’s performance could be improved without increasing the
weight or cost.
Once these areas for improvement have been identified, changes are made to the design.
This could involve changing the frame’s geometry, adjusting the thickness of the frame
tubes, or even changing the material or manufacturing process. The goal is to enhance the
frame’s performance while minimizing its weight and cost.
After the design has been modified, a new prototype is built and the testing process is
repeated. The performance of the new prototype is compared with the original design to
assess whether the changes have led to improvements.
This process of design, testing, analysis, and modification is repeated until a design that
meets all the performance requirements is obtained. Through iterative design and
optimization, a bicycle frame that is both lightweight and durable can be developed.
Once the prototype has met all the performance requirements and passed all the tests, the
design is finalized. This involves preparing detailed design drawings and specifications
that can be used for mass production. The finalized design includes all the details of the
frame’s geometry, the material, and the manufacturing process.
The next step is to set up the production process. This involves procuring the necessary
materials, setting up the manufacturing equipment, and training the production staff.
Quality control measures are implemented to ensure consistency and reliability in
manufacturing. This could involve regular testing of the frames produced and checking
for any deviations from the design specifications.
During production, it’s important to continuously monitor the production costs. This
includes the cost of materials, labor, and overheads. By keeping a close eye on these
costs, you can ensure that the production process remains cost-effective.
Once production is underway, the frames are inspected and tested to ensure they meet the
quality standards. Any frames that do not meet the standards are rejected. The accepted
frames are then assembled into complete bicycles, ready for sale.