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Chapter 2

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NE- 4101: Chapter 2

Introduction to Nuclear Disasters

Dr. Afroza Shelley


Professor & Chairman
Department of Nuclear Engineering 1
Content of Chapter-2
Total Lectures: 4

• Definition and types of nuclear disasters,


• Historical case studies of nuclear disasters,
• Three Mile Island, Chernobyl and Fukushima
Daiichi Nuclear disaster.
• International legal frameworks and regulations for
nuclear safety.
Disasters
The term “DISASTER” owes its origin to French word
“Disastre”, a combination of two words “Des” meaning “Bad”
and “Aster” meaning “Star” thus the term Disaster refers to
“Bad or Evil Star”.

According to World Health Organization (W.H.O.): “Any


occurrence that cause damage, ecological disruption, loss of
human life, deterioration of health and health services on a
scale, sufficient to warrant an extraordinary response from
outside the affected community or area”.

According to American Red Cross (ARC): “A disaster can


be defined as an occurrence either nature or manmade that
causes human suffering and creates human needs that
victims cannot alleviate without assistance”. Prof Dr. Afroza Shelley 3
Disasters
Types of Man-made Disasters
Types of Natural Disasters
The followings are types of natural disasters,

• Avalanches • Sinkholes
• Cold Waves • Subsidence
• Droughts • Thunderstorms
• Earthquakes • Heat waves
• Flood • Tornadoes
• Hailstorms • Tsunamis
• Ice Storms • Tropical cyclone
• Landslides • Volcanic Eruptions
• Mudslides • Wildfires
Definition of Disasters

“A serious disruption of the functioning of a


community or a society causing widespread
human, material, economic or environmental
losses that exceed the ability of the affected
community or society to cope using its own
resources”

Prof Dr. Afroza Shelley 7


Nuclear Accident
A nuclear and radiation accident is defined by the
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) as

"an event that has led to significant consequences to


people, the environment or the facility. Examples include
lethal effects to individuals, large radioactivity release to
the environment, or reactor core melt.”

The prime example of a "major nuclear accident" is one in


which a reactor core is damaged and significant amounts
of radiation are released, such as in the Chernobyl Disaster
in 1986.
Definition of Nuclear Disaster

An event occurring in a nuclear power plant or anywhere


that radioactive materials are used, stored, or transported
and involving the release of potentially dangerous levels of
radioactive materials into the environment.

Nuclear disasters are the high-risk but low probability


disasters attendant with the advancement in nuclear science
and technology.

The nuclear accidents can affect large areas often


crossing international boundaries.
International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale (INES)
International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale (INES)
The International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale
(INES) is a tool for communicating the safety significance of
nuclear and radiological events to the public.

INES was developed in 1990 by the IAEA and the Nuclear


Energy Agency of the Organization for Economic Co-
operation and Development (OECD/NEA).

Initially the scale was applied to classify events at nuclear


power plants, then extended and adapted to enable it to be
applied to all installations associated with the civil nuclear
industry.

It has subsequently been extended to all events associated


with the use, storage and transport of radioactive material
and radiation sources.
Types of Nuclear Disaster

Nuclear and Radiological Emergency/Disaster Scenarios:


 An accident taking place in any nuclear facility of the
nuclear fuel cycle including the nuclear reactor, or in a facility
using radioactive sources, leading to a large-scale release
of radioactivity in the environment.
 A „criticality‟ accident in a nuclear fuel cycle facility where
an uncontrolled nuclear chain reaction takes place
inadvertently leading to bursts of neutrons and gamma
radiation (as had happened at Tokaimura, Japan).
 An accident during the transportation of radioactive
material.
Types of Nuclear Disaster cont…
 The malevolent use of radioactive material as
Radiological Dispersal Device (RDD) by terrorists for
dispersing radioactive material in the environment.
 A large-scale nuclear disaster resulting from a nuclear
weapon attack (as had happened at Hiroshima and
Nagasaki in Japan) which would lead to mass casualties
and destruction of large areas and properties.

Nuclear meltdown Criticality accidents.


Decay heat Transport
Equipment failure Human error
Lost source
Historical case studies of nuclear disasters
 Worldwide there have been 99 accidents at nuclear
power plants.
 Fifty-seven accidents have occurred since the Chernobyl
disaster, and
 57% (56 out of 99) of all nuclear-related accidents have
occurred in the USA.

 Serious nuclear power plant accidents include the


• Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster (2011),
• Chernobyl disaster (1986),
• Three Mile Island accident (1979), and
• the SL-1 accident (1961).
SL-1 accident (1961)
The Army's SL-1 (Stationary, Low-power 1) in Idaho was part
of the Army Package Power Program, previously called the
Argonne Low Power Reactor, ALPR.

It was designed to be built on the tundra above the DEW line


to power radar stations.

It suffered an explosion on January 3, 1961 that resulted in 3


gruesome casualties.
SL-1 accident (1961)
On January 3, 1961, an operator fully pulled out the reactor's
central control rod, causing the reactor to go prompt critical.

The intense heat generated an extreme water hammer which


propelled the reactor vessel to the roof of the reactor building.
Historical case studies of nuclear disasters
 “Apart from Chernobyl, no nuclear workers or members of
the public have ever died as a result of exposure to radiation
due to a commercial nuclear reactor incident.”

 Nuclear-powered submarine mishaps include the K-19


reactor accident (1961), the K-27 reactor accident
(1968),and the K-431 reactor accident (1985).

 Serious radiation accidents include the Kyshtym disaster,


Windscale fire, radiotherapy accident in Costa Rica,
radiotherapy accident in Zaragoza, radiation accident in
Morocco, Goiania accident, radiation accident in Mexico
City, radiotherapy unit accident in Thailand, and the
Mayapuri radiological accident in India.
Three Mile Island Disaster
Three Mile Island Accident
 The most serious accident in U.S. commercial nuclear
power plant operating history occurred at the Three Mile
Island Unit 2 reactor, near Middletown, Pennsylvania, on
March 28, 1979.
 A combination of
• equipment malfunctions,
• design-related problems and
• worker errors
led to TMI-2’s partial meltdown and very small off-site
releases of radioactivity but no detectable health effects on
plant workers or the public.
Three Mile Island Disaster
Five Facts of Three Mile Island
Five facts you should know about the accident at Three Mile
Island:
1. No injuries, deaths or direct health effects were caused by
the accident
2. Unit 2 experienced equipment and instrumentation
malfunctions
3. No adverse effects to the surrounding environment
4. NRC Implemented Enhanced Safety & Training
5. Three Mile Island’s Unit 1 continued operation until 2019
Three Mile Island Reactor
Key Sequence of Events of TMI Accident
Key Sequence of Events of TMI Accident
Health Effects of Three Mile Island
• Experts determined that the approximately 2 million people
in the nearby area during the accident were exposed to
small amounts of radiation.
• The estimated average radiation dose was about 1
millirem above the area‟s natural background of about
100-125 millirem per year.
• To put this into further context, exposure from a chest X-
ray is about 6 millirem.
• The accident’s maximum dose to a person at the site
boundary would have been less than 100 millirem above
background.
• The accident’s exposure had no detectable health effects
on the plant workers or surrounding public.
Date Event

July Approximately 43,000 curies of krypton were vented from the


1980 reactor building.

July
The first manned entry into the reactor building took place.
1980

An Advisory Panel for the Decontamination of TMI-2,


Nov.
composed of citizens, scientists, and State and local officials,
1980
held its first meeting in Harrisburg, Pa.

July
The reactor vessel head (top) was removed.
1984

Oct.
Fuel removal began.
1985
Date Event

July
The off-site shipment of reactor core debris began.
1986

GPU submitted a request for a proposal to amend the TMI-2


Aug.
license to a “possession-only” license and to allow the facility
1988
to enter long-term monitoring storage.

Jan.
Fuel removal was completed.
1990

July GPU submitted its funding plan for placing $229 million in
1990 escrow for radiological decommissioning of the plant.

Jan.
The evaporation of accident-generated water began.
1991
Date Event

April NRC published a notice of opportunity for a hearing on GPU's


1991 request for a license amendment.

Feb. NRC issued a safety evaluation report and granted the


1992 license amendment.

Aug. The processing of accident-generated water was completed


1993 involving 2.23 million gallons.

Sept.
NRC issued a possession-only license.
1993

Sept. The Advisory Panel for Decontamination of TMI-2 held its last
1993 meeting.
Dec.
Monitored storage began.
1993
Current Status of TMI
• Today, the TMI 2 reactor is permanently shut down and 99
percent of its fuel has been removed.
• The reactor coolant system is fully drained and the radioactive
water decontaminated and evaporated.
• The accident’s radioactive waste was shipped off site to an
appropriate disposal area, and the reactor fuel and core debris
was shipped to the Department of Energy’s Idaho National
Laboratory.
• The company TMI-2 Solutions acquired the license for Unit 2 in
2020 and is responsible for remaining decommissioning activities
there.
• Unit 1 permanently ceased operation in September 2019, and
Constellation Energy Company (formerly Exelon Generation) is
responsible for decommissioning activities there.
Chernobyl Accident
Chernobyl accident

• The Chernobyl accident in 1986 was the result of a flawed


reactor design that was operated with inadequately
trained personnel.
• The resulting steam explosion and fires released at least
5% of the radioactive reactor core into the environment, with
the deposition of radioactive materials in many parts of
Europe.
• Two Chernobyl plant workers died due to the explosion
on the night of the accident, and a further 28 people died
within a few weeks as a result of acute radiation
syndrome.
Chernobyl accident
• The United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of
Atomic Radiation has concluded that, apart from some 5000
thyroid cancers (resulting in 15 fatalities), "there is no
evidence of a major public health impact attributable to
radiation exposure 20 years after the accident.“
• Some 350,000 people were evacuated as a result of the
accident, but resettlement of areas from which people were
relocated is ongoing.
• On 24 February Ukraine informed the International Atomic
Energy Agency that Russian forces had taken control of all
facilities at Chernobyl.
• On 9 March the Chernobyl nuclear plant was disconnected
from the electricity grid. The IAEA stated that it did not see a
critical impact on safety as a result.
What caused the Chernobyl accident?

• On April 26, 1986, the Number Four RBMK reactor at the


nuclear power plant at Chernobyl, Ukraine, went out of
control during a test at low-power, leading to an explosion
and fire that demolished the reactor building and released
large amounts of radiation into the atmosphere.
• Safety measures were ignored, the uranium fuel in the
reactor overheated and melted through the protective
barriers. RBMK reactors do not have what is known as a
containment structure, a concrete and steel dome over the
reactor itself designed to keep radiation inside the plant in
the event of such an accident.
What caused the Chernobyl accident?
• Consequently, radioactive elements including plutonium,
iodine, strontium and caesium were scattered over a wide
area. In addition, the graphite blocks used as a moderating
material in the RBMK caught fire at high temperature as air
entered the reactor core, which contributed to emission of
radioactive materials into the environment.
What radioactive elements were emitted
into the environment?
• There were over 100 radioactive elements released into
the atmosphere when Chernobyl’s fourth reactor exploded.
• Most of these were short lived and decayed (reduced in
radioactivity) very quickly.
• Iodine, strontium and caesium were the most dangerous
of the elements released, and have half-lives of 8 days, 29
years, and 30 years respectively.
• The isotopes Strontium-90 and Caesium-137 are therefore
still present in the area to this day.
• While iodine is linked to thyroid cancer, Strontium can
lead to leukaemia.
• Caesium is the element that travelled the farthest and
lasts the longest.
How large an area was affected by the
radioactive fallout?
• Caesium affects the entire body and especially can harm
the liver and spleen.
• Some 150,000 square kilometres in Belarus, Russia and
Ukraine are contaminated and stretch northward of the
plant site as far as 500 kilometres.
• An area spanning 30 kilometres around the plant is
considered the “exclusion zone” and is essentially
uninhabited.
• Radioactive fallout scattered over much of the northern
hemisphere via wind and storm patterns, but the
amounts dispersed were in many instances insignificant.
What are the major health effects for
exposed populations?

• There have been at least 1800 documented cases of


thyroid cancer children who were between 0 and 14
years of age when the accident occurred, which is far
higher than normal.
• The thyroid gland of young children is particularly
susceptible to the uptake of radioactive iodine, which can
trigger cancers, treatable both by surgery and medication.
• The psychological affects of Chernobyl were and remain
widespread and profound, and have resulted for instance in
suicides, drinking problems and apathy
How many people were evacuated?

• The entire town of Pripyat (population 49,360), which lay


only three kilometres from the plant was completely
evacuated 36 hours after the accident.
• During the subsequent weeks and months an additional
67,000 people were evacuated from their homes in
contaminated areas and relocated on government order.
• In total some 200,0000 people are believed to have been
relocated as a result of the accident.
Chernobyl Chronology cont…

1. The reactor was powered down for a test sequence to


determine if one of the turbo-generators could supply power to
feedwater pumps until standby diesel generators came on line
in the case of a local power failure. The test sequence involved
the following dangerous steps

a. Instead of the design based 22-32% full power, the power


was inadvertantly lowered to 1% of full power, an extremely
unstable situation because of the positive void coefficient.
Edwards reports that the operator failed to reprogram the
computer to maintain power at 700-1000 MW(t).
Chernobyl Chronology cont…
b. Essentially all the control rods were pulled out of the core, to
the point where they could not shut down the reactor rapidly if
needed. This step was taken to get the power back up, but it
only reached 7%, still well below the design parameters for the
test.
The reason the power could not be brought back up was the
"xenon trapping" or "xenon poisoning" effect. Xenon is a decay
product of I-135 and is a strong neutron absorber which
"poisons" the fission reaction.
It reaches an equilibrium at normal operating power levels by
being "burned away" by neutron absorption and further decay.
When the power level was decreased from the 1600 MW level,
you had lots of I-135 to decay into xenon, but a small neutron
flux with which to burn it away, so it built up rapidly.
Chernobyl Chronology cont…
c. In order to keep the reactor from automatically shutting
down under these conditions, they had to disconnect the
emergency core cooling system and several of the automatic
scram circuits.
d. All eight cooling water pumps were running at the low
power, compared to a normal six even at full power, so there
was nearly solid water with almost no void fraction, which
increased the vulnerability to any power excursion which
produced boiling.
2. The turbogenerator was tripped to initiate the test, which
caused the switching off of four of the eight recirculation
pumps.
3. Reduced coolant flow caused voids to form rapidly in the
pressure tubes, increasing reactivity because of the positive
void coefficient.
Chernobyl Chronology cont…
4. Within seconds, with rapidly rising power, an emergency
manual scram was ordered, but the almost fully withdrawn
rods could not insert negative reactivity fast enough because
of their slow speed. Also, an unexpected displacement of
water from the control rod tubes occurred, further adding to
the positive reactivity.
5. The core went to prompt criticality, overheating and
shattering fuel rods and flashing the coolant into steam. Fuel
channels were ruptured.
6. Steam pressure blew the 1000-ton steel- and cement-
filled biologic shield off the top of the reactor, severing all
pressure tubes(some 1600 of them) and exposing the hot
core to the atmosphere. Edwards says power reached 100
times operating maximum and the explosive force was about
1 ton of TNT.
Fukushima Accident
International legal frameworks
and
Regulations for nuclear safety
Safety, Security and Safeguards
 Safety is aimed at preventing accidents;

 Security is aimed at preventing intentional acts that


might harm the nuclear power plant or result in the theft of
nuclear materials; and

 Safeguards are aimed at preventing the diversion of


nuclear materials for nuclear weapons purposes.

Nuclear safety and nuclear security have a common purpose — the


protection of people, society and the environment. In both cases,
such protection is achieved by preventing a large release of
radioactive material.
Nuclear Safety
• Nuclear safety ensures the safe operation of nuclear
facilities. It is complemented by radiation protection and
radioactive waste management.
• Nuclear safety covers the whole life cycle of a nuclear
installation, including
 nuclear reactor safety;
 fuel safety;
 waste management;
 plant decommissioning; and
 emergency preparedness.
Nuclear Safety cont…

• Failure in managing any nuclear safety requirements can


lead to the contamination of extensive areas of land and
bodies of water with consequences on the health of entire
populations not limited to the country of origin of the
contamination.
The Safety Guide provides a roadmap for the systematic and
progressive implementation of relevant IAEA safety standards.

It is organized around 20 essential safety elements:

1. National policy and strategy


2. Global nuclear safety regime
3. Legal framework
4. Regulatory framework
5. Transparency and openness
6. Funding and financing
7. External support organizations and contractors
8. Leadership and management for safety
9. Human resources development
10. Research for safety and regulatory purposes
11. Radiation protection
The Safety Guide provides a roadmap for the systematic and
progressive implementation of relevant IAEA safety standards.

12. Safety assessment


13. Safety of radioactive waste, spent fuel management and
decommissioning
14. Emergency preparedness and response
15. Operating organization
16. Site survey, site selection and evaluation
17. Design safety
18. Preparation for commissioning
19. Transport safety
20. Interfaces with nuclear security

The Safety Guide targets individuals and organizations involved in


the preparation and implementation of a national nuclear power
programme. Published in 2011, it will be updated as necessary.
What are the 3 C's of nuclear safety?

As Nuclear Professionals, everyone shall demonstrate


respect for nuclear safety and security by knowing how your
work impacts on
• Control the power,
• Cool the fuel and
• Contain radioactivity.
The IAEA Legal Framework for Nuclear
Safety:

The international legal framework for nuclear security


is constituted by a number of instruments, both legally binding
and legally non-binding.

The IAEA assists Member States in adhering to and


implementing relevant international legal instruments,
including in the area of nuclear security.
IAEA SAFETY STANDARDS
• Under the terms of Article III of its Statute, the IAEA is
authorized to establish or adopt standards of safety for
protection of health and minimization of danger to life and
property, and to provide for the application of these
standards.
• The publications by means of which the IAEA establishes
standards are issued in the IAEA Safety Standards
Series.
• This series covers nuclear safety, radiation safety,
transport safety and waste safety.
• The publication categories in the series are Safety
Fundamentals, Safety Requirements and Safety Guides.
Convention on nuclear safety (CNS)

The CNS applies to:

•The safety of nuclear installations:

“Nuclear installation" defined as any land-based civil nuclear


power plant including such storage, handling and treatment
facilities for radioactive materials as are on the same site and
are directly related to the operation of the nuclear power plant.
International Legal Framework for
Nuclear Safety
• The fundamental safety objective is to protect people and
the environment from the harmful effects of ionizing
radiation.
• Nuclear safety aims to achieve proper operating conditions,
to prevent accidents and to mitigate consequences if an
accident occurs.
• The international legal framework for nuclear safety was put
into place following the Chernobyl accident and consists of
both legally and nonlegally binding instruments.
International Legal Framework for
Nuclear Safety cont…
• The framework was further strengthened after the
Fukushima-Daiichi accident through, inter alia enhancing
the peer review process in the safety related conventions,
including the practical arrangements underpinning the
emergency conventions.
• The IAEA assists Member States in adhering to and
implementing the relevant international legal instruments,
including in the area of nuclear safety.
Emergency Planning Zone (EPZ)

Area covering 16 Km radius around the plant is called the


Emergency Planning Zone (EPZ) for preparation of
emergency procedures and action plans.

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