Congestive heart failure

Last updated: Jun 14, 2020

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Summary
Congestive heart failure (CHF) is a clinical condition in which the heart is unable to pump enough blood to meet the metabolic
needs of the body because of pathological changes in the myocardium. The three main causes of CHF are coronary heart
disease, diabetes mellitus, and hypertension. These conditions cause ventricular dysfunction with low cardiac output, which results
in blood congestion (backward failure) and poor systemic perfusion (forward failure). CHF is classified as either left heart
failure (LHF) or right heart failure (RHF), although biventricular (global) CHF is most commonly seen in clinical practice. LHF leads
to pulmonary edema and resulting dyspnea, while RHF induces systemic venous congestion that causes symptoms such as pitting
edema, jugular venous distension, and hepatomegaly. Biventricular CHF manifests with clinical features of both RHF and LHF, as
well as general symptoms such as tachycardia, fatigue, and nocturia. In rare cases, high-output CHF may occur as a result of
conditions that increase cardiac output and thereby overwhelm the heart. Acute decompensated heart failure (ADHF) may occur as
an exacerbation of CHF or be caused by an acute cardiac condition such as myocardial infarction. CHF is diagnosed based on
clinical presentation and requires an initial workup to assess disease severity and possible causes. Initial workup includes
measurement of brain natriuretic peptide levels, chest x-ray, and an ECG. Management of CHF includes lifestyle modifications and
treatment of associated conditions (e.g., hypertension) and comorbidities (e.g., anemia), along with pharmacologic agents that
reduce the workload of the heart. ADHF requires hospitalization and more intensive measures, such as hemodialysis.

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Definition
 • Congestive heart failure (CHF): a clinical syndrome in which the heart is unable to pump enough blood to
meet the metabolic needs of the body; characterized by ventricular dysfunction that results in low cardiac
output

• Systolic dysfunction: CHF with reduced stroke volume and ejection fraction (EF)
• Diastolic dysfunction: CHF with reduced stroke volume and preserved ejection fraction
• Right heart failure (RHF): CHF due to right ventricular dysfunction; characterized by backward heart failure
• Left heart failure (LHF): CHF due to left ventricular dysfunction; characterized by forward heart failure
• Biventricular (global) CHF: CHF in which both the left and right ventricle are affected, resulting
in simultaneous backward and forward CHF
• Chronic compensated CHF: clinically compensated CHF; the patient has signs of CHF
on echocardiography but is asymptomatic or symptomatic and stable (see “Diagnostics” below)
• Acute decompensated CHF: sudden deterioration of CHF or new onset of severe CHF due to an acute
cardiac condition (e.g., myocardial infarction)
References:[1]
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Epidemiology
• Prevalence
o 1–2% of the population (∼ 5.7 million individuals) in the US has CHF.

§ The incidence is higher among African Americans, Hispanics, and Native Americans.
o Increases with age: ∼ 10% of individuals > 60 years old are affected.

o Systolic heart disease is the most common form of CHF overall.

References:[2][3]
Epidemiological data refers to the US, unless otherwise specified.
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Etiology
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Systolic dysfunction (reduced EF) Diastolic dysfunction (preserved EF)

General causes • Coronary artery disease, myocardial infarction

• Arterial hypertension
• Valvular heart disease
• Diabetes mellitus (diabetic cardiomyopathy)
• Renal disease
• Infiltrative diseases (e.g., hemochromatosis, amyloidosis)

Specific causes • Cardiac arrhythmias • Constrictive pericarditis

• Dilated cardiomyopathy (e.g., Chagas disease, chronic alcohol • Restrictive or hypertrophic
use, idiopathic) cardiomyopathy
• Myocarditis • Pericardial tamponade

Further risk • Obesity

factors
• Smoking
• COPD
• Heavy drug (recreational and prescription) and alcohol abuse

The three major causes of heart failure are coronary artery disease, hypertension, and diabetes mellitus. Patients typically have
multiple risk factors that contribute to the development of CHF.
References:[4][5][2][3][6][7]
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Pathophysiology
Cardiac output, which is stroke volume times heart rate, is determined by three factors: preload, afterload, and ventricular
contractility.
Underlying mechanism of reduced cardiac output
1. Systolic ventricular dysfunction (most common) due to:
o Reduced contractility: Damage and loss of myocytes reduce ventricular contractility and stroke volume.

o Increased afterload: increase in mean aortic pressure, outflow obstruction

o Increased preload: ventricular volume overload

o Cardiac arrhythmias

o High-output conditions (see “High-output heart failure” below)

2. Diastolic ventricular dysfunction due to:

o Decreased ventricular compliance: increased stiffness or impaired relaxation of the ventricle →
reduced ventricular filling and increased diastolic pressure
→ decreased cardiac output
o Increased afterload: increase in pulmonary artery pressure

o Increased preload: ventricular volume overload

Consequences of systolic and diastolic dysfunction

• Forward failure: reduced cardiac output → poor organ perfusion → organ dysfunction (e.g., hypotension,
renal dysfunction)
• Backward failure
o Increased left-ventricular volume and pressure → backup of blood into lungs → increased
pulmonary capillary pressure
→ cardiogenic pulmonary edema
o Reduced cardiac output → systemic venous congestion → edema
 and progressive congestion of internal organs
o Resulting macroscopic findings: nutmeg liver

Compensation mechanisms
• Aim: maintain cardiac output if stroke volume is reduced
o ↑ Adrenergic activity

→ increase in heart rate, blood pressure, and ventricular contractility

o Increase of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system activity (RAAS): activated following decrease in renal

perfusion secondary to reduction of stroke volume and cardiac output
§ ↑ Angiotensin II secretion → vasoconstriction → ↑ systemic blood pressure → ↑ afterload
§ Kidney: vasoconstriction of the efferent arterioles and, to a lesser degree, the afferent arterioles → ↓
net renal blood flow and ↑ intraglomerular pressure to maintain GFR
§ ↑ Aldosterone secretion → ↑ renal Na+ and H2O resorption → ↑ preload
o Brain natriuretic peptide (BNP): ventricular myocyte hormone released in response to increased ventricular
filling and stretching
§ ↑ Intracellular smooth muscle cGMP → vasodilation → hypotension and decreased pulmonary capillary
wedge pressure
CHF is characterized by reduced cardiac output that results in venous congestion and poor systemic perfusion!

References:[4][8]
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Clinical features
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General features of heart failure

• Nocturia
[9]

• Fatigue
• Tachycardia, various arrhythmias
• Heart sounds: S3/S4 gallop
• Pulsus alternans

Clinical features of left-sided heart failure Clinical features of right-sided heart failure

Pulmonary symptoms dominate Symptoms of fluid retention (backward failure) dominate

 General features of heart failure

• Dyspnea • Peripheral pitting edema

, orthopnea
• Pulmonary edema in severe cases or acute • Signs of increased central venous pressure (CVP)
decompensated heart failure (see below) o Jugular venous distention: visible jugular venous congestion
• Bilateral basilar rales may be audible on
, also seen in biventricular heart failure
auscultation.
o Hepatojugular reflux: jugular venous congestion induced by exerting manual
• Paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea: nocturnal pressure over the patient's liver → ↑ volume load on the right side of the heart →
bouts of coughing and acute shortness of breath right heart is unable to pump additional blood volume → visible jugular venous
• Cardiac asthma: increased pressure in distention persists for several seconds
the bronchial arteries results
• Hepatic venous congestion
in airway compression, leading
to bronchospasm o Hepatosplenomegaly
[10]
o Abdominal pain
• Laterally displaced apical heart beat (precordial o Jaundice
palpation beyond the midclavicular line)
o Ascites
• Congestion of other organs, e.g., congestive gastritis or gastropathy (nausea, loss
of appetite), renal congestion

• Forward failure: cool extremities, cerebral and • Forward failure less pronounced
renal dysfunction, sweating (NYHA IV)

In clinical practice, biventricular heart failure with features of left and right heart failure is more likely than isolated failure of one
ventricle!
References:[4][5][11][12][13][14]
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Subtypes and variants

High-output heart failure
• Definition: heart failure secondary to conditions associated with a high-output state, in which cardiac
output is elevated to meet the demands of peripheral tissue oxygenation
• Etiology: conditions that lead to increased cardiac demand (high-output state)
o Anemia

o Systemic arteriovenous fistulas

o Sepsis

o Hyperthyroidism

o Multiple myeloma

o Glomerulonephritis

o Polycythemia vera

o Wet beriberi (vitamin B1 deficiency)

o Physiological causes: pregnancy, fever, exercise

• Clinical features
o Symptoms of low-output CHF; particularly tachycardia, tachypnea, low blood pressure, and jugular
distention with an audible hum over the internal jugular vein
o Pulsatile tinnitus

o Bounding peripheral pulses

o Laterally displaced apical heart beat

o Midsystolic murmur, S3 gallop (indicates rapid ventricular filling)

 • Diagnostics
o Primarily a clinical diagnosis

o X-ray and echocardiography: cardiomegaly

• Therapy
o Manage heart failure: symptom relief, hemodynamic stabilization

o Treat underlying condition

References:[5][15][2][16]
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Stages
NYHA functional classification
The NYHA (New York Heart Association) functional classification system is used to assess the patient's functional capacities (i.e.,
limitations of physical activity and symptoms) and has prognostic value.
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NYHA Characteristics
class

Class I No limitations of physical activity; no symptoms of CHF

Class II Slight limitations of moderate or prolonged physical activity (e.g., symptoms after climbing 2 flights of stairs or
heavy lifting); comfortable at rest

Class III Marked limitations of physical activity (symptoms during daily activities like dressing, walking across rooms);
comfortable only at rest

Class IV Confined to bed, discomfort during any form of physical activity; symptoms present at rest

American Heart Association (AHA) Classification (2013)

The AHA classification system classifies patients according to their stage of disease. It takes objective findings (patient history,
diagnostic findings) as well as symptoms of CHF into account.
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Stages Objective assessment Corresponding NYHA functional

class

Stage High risk of developing heart failure (e.g., pre-existing arterial hypertension, No corresponding NYHA class
A CAD, diabetes mellitus); no structural cardiac changes

Stage Structural damage to the heart (e.g., infarct scars, dilatation, hypertrophy), without signs NYHA I
B or symptoms of heart failure

Stage Structural damage to the heart + signs or symptoms of heart failure NYHA I, II, III, IV
C

Stage Heart failure at its terminal stage NYHA IV

D
References:[11][17][18][19][20][21]
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Diagnostics
Heart failure is primarily a clinical diagnosis. Laboratory tests and imaging tests, including a chest x-ray and echocardiogram, are
useful for evaluating the severity and cause of the condition.
Diagnostic approach [22]
1. Medical history, including pre-existing conditions
and history of alcohol and recreational or prescribed drug use
2. Initial evaluation involves a range of routine laboratory tests
and a test for BNP level, ECG, and chest x-ray.
 3. Echocardiography is the gold standard tool for assessing cardiac morphology and function, as well as
investigating the underlying cause of CHF.

4. Other procedures (exercise testing, angiography) may be required for further investigation.

Initial evaluation [22]

Laboratory analysis
• Elevated BNP and NT-pro BNP
o High levels of BNP in patients with classic symptoms of CHF confirm the diagnosis (high predictive index).

[23]

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CHF unlikely CHF likely

BNP (pg/mL) < 100 > 500

NT-pro BNP (pg/mL) < 300 > 450

• Elevated atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP):

• Complete blood count: may show anemia
• Serum electrolyte levels: hyponatremia → indicates a poor prognosis
• Kidney function tests: ↑ creatinine, ↓ sodium
• Urine analysis: rule out concurrent renal impairment
• Fasting glucose: to screen for diabetes mellitus, which is a common comorbidity
• Fasting lipid profile: to detect dyslipidemia associated with a higher cardiovascular risk
Electrocardiogram (ECG)
• ECG abnormalities in CHF are common, but are mostly nonspecific and nondiagnostic.
• Signs of left ventricular hypertrophy
o ↑ QRS voltage (in the left chest leads and limb leads I and aVL) → positive Sokolow-Lyon index

o ↑ QRS duration (incomplete or complete left bundle branch block)

o Left axis deviation

• Assessment of prior or concurrent heart conditions

o Previous or acute MI: see ECG changes in STEMI

o Arrhythmias (e.g., atrial fibrillation, ventricular arrhythmias, sinus tachycardia or bradycardia, AV block)

• Signs of pericardial effusion and tamponade: low voltage ECG

Chest x-ray
• Useful diagnostic tool to evaluate a patient with dyspnea and differentiate CHF from pulmonary disease
• Signs of cardiomegaly
o Cardiac-to-thoracic width ratio > 0.5

o Boot-shaped heart on PA view (due to left ventricular enlargement)

• Assess pulmonary congestion (see x-ray findings in pulmonary congestion)

Transthoracic echocardiogram
• Gold standard for evaluating patients with heart failure
• Assess ventricular function and hemodynamics
o Atrial and ventricular size

o Interventricular septum thickness: > 11 mm (normal 6–11 mm) indicates cardiac hypertrophy
 o Systolic function: left ventricular ejection fraction

§ Normal EF: > 55%

§ Reduced EF: 30–44%

§ Extremely reduced EF: < 30%
o Diastolic function (diastolic filling, ventricle dilation)

• Investigate etiology
o Valvular heart disease

o Wall motion abnormalities (indicate prior or acute MI)

o Right ventricular strain

o Tissue Doppler: ↑ PCWP in left-sided heart failure

Further tests
• Cardiac stress test (exercise tolerance test): to assess the functional impairment due to CHF or other
conditions (particularly CHD!)
• Radionuclide ventriculography
: indicated to assess left ventricular volume and ejection fraction (LVEF)
• Cardiac MRI: particularly useful for assessing cardiac morphology and function
o Cardiac size and volumes, wall thickness, valvular defects, wall motion abnormalities

• Coronary angiography (left heart catheterization): indicated to detect/confirm CHD and

possible percutaneous coronary intervention
• Right heart catheterization: if pulmonary hypertension is suspected, to assess the severity of systolic
dysfunction, and/or to differentiate between types of shock
o SvO2: will be low in decompensated heart failure
 • Endomyocardial biopsy: may be performed if a specific diagnosis is suspected in patients with rapidly
progressive clinical CHF or in case the results would alter the management of the patient, e.g., in amyloidosis

References:[4][11][2][24][12][25][26][27][28]
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Treatment
General measures [22]
• Lifestyle modifications
o Salt restriction (< 3 g/day)

o Fluid restriction in patients with edema and/or hyponatremia

o Weight loss and exercise

o Cessation of smoking and alcohol consumption

o Immunization: pneumococcal vaccine and seasonal influenza vaccine

• Patient education
o Self-monitoring and symptom recognition

o Daily weight check

§ Weight gain > 2 kg within 3 days: consult the doctor

o Monitoring of potential side effects (e.g., hypotension caused by ACE inhibitors, hyperkalemia caused
by aldosterone-antagonists, sensitivity to sunlight caused by amiodarone)
• Treat any underlying conditions and contributing comorbidities.

Pharmacologic treatment algorithm

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Drug NYHA stages Indications Contraindications and important Benefits
side effects
I II II I
I V

First-line drugs

Diuretics (loop ( ( ✓ ✓ • Begin treatment with loop • Monitor • Improve

diuretics and thiazi ✓ ✓ diuretics (furosemide) for hypokalemia and hyponatremi symptom
de diuretics) ) ) to treat volume overload a, weight gain, and volume status s
• Thiazides may be added
for a synergistic effect

ACE inhibitors ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ • Initiate treatment • Monitor • Improve

with ACE inhibitors to for hyperkalemia, hypotension, ↑ sympto
reduce preload, afterload, creatinine (renal impairment) ms and
and improve cardiac prognosi
output s
• If the patient does not
tolerate drug (e.g.,
dry cough develops) →
substitute with AT1-
receptor blocker

Beta blockers ( ✓ ✓ ✓ • Add a beta blocker once • Contraindicated in acute

✓ the patient decompensated heart failure!
) is stable on ACE
inhibitor
• Particularly beneficial for
patients
with hypertension and pos
t-myocardial infarction
Drug NYHA stages Indications Contraindications and important Benefits
side effects
I II II I
I V

Aldosterone ( ✓ ✓ • In select patients, • Monitor for hyperkalemia

antagonists ✓ an aldosterone
) antagonist may be
beneficial.
• If EF < 35%, and
after myocardial
infarction
• Spironolactone; eplerenon
e as an alternative

Second-line drugs

Ivabradine ( ( ( • If the highest tolerable • Contraindicated in: • Improves

✓ ✓ ✓ dose of beta blocker is
o Severe bradycardia
symptom
) ) ) reached and the patient is s
still symptomatic or if the o Acute decompensated heart
• Reduces
patient has failure
hospitali
a contraindication to beta- o Severe hepatic dysfunction zation
blocker use rate
• If EF < 35% and the
patient has a sinus
rhythm with
a resting heart rate >
70/min

Hydralazine plus ni ( ( • If EF < 40%; particularly • Monitor for volume • Improves

trate ✓ ✓ beneficial for African- depletion and hypotension symptom
) ) American patients s; may
improve
Drug NYHA stages Indications Contraindications and important Benefits
side effects
I II II I
I V

• Alternative if ACE prognosi

inhibitors and AT1 s
blockers are not tolerated

Digoxin ( ( ( • In heart failure with • Contraindicated in severe AV • Improves

✓ ✓ ✓ reduced ejection fraction block symptom
) ) ) • If symptoms persist s
despite treatment • Reduces
with beta blocker, ACE hospitali
inhibitor, diuretics, zation
and aldosterone rate
antagonists
• May be given to control
ventricular rate in atrial
fibrillation (if beta
blockers are
contraindicated)
Drug NYHA stages Indications Contraindications and important Benefits
side effects
I II II I
I V

ARNI (angiotensin ( ( ( ( • Persistent or worsening • ARNIs should not be used in • Improves

receptor- ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ symptoms despite combination with ACEIs because prognosi
neprilysin inhibitor, ) ) ) ) adequate treatment of the elevated risk s
e.g., sacubitril) regimen with first- of angioedema. • Reduces
line drugs in patients hospitali
• Cough, dizziness
with HFrEF zation
• Hyperkalemia, hypotension, and
• Administered progression of chronic renal rate
as valsartan-
disease (↑ creatinine)
sacubitril combination
• Impaired breakdown
of angiotensin
II, substance P,
and natriuretic peptides su
ch
as BNP → ↑ natriuresis, ↑
diuresis, and ↑
vasodilation → ↓ ECF

Nesiritide (BNP der • Acute decompensated • Contraindicated in patients •

ivative) heart failure with hypotension and/or cardioge
• Rarely used today due to nic shock
side effects and • Adverse effects
longer half-life compared include hypotension and decrease
to in pulmonary capillary wedge
other vasodilators (e.g., ni pressure
troglycerin)

(✓): see “Indications” column for detailed information

Drugs that improve prognosis: beta blockers, ACE inhibitors, and aldosterone antagonists!
Drugs that improve symptoms: diuretics and digoxin (significantly reduce the number of hospitalizations)!
Conducting regular blood tests to assess electrolyte levels (potassium and sodium) is mandatory if the patient is on diuretics!

Contraindicated drugs
• NSAIDs
o Worsen renal perfusion

(see “Side effects” of NSAIDs)

o Reduce the effect of diuretics

o May trigger acute cardiac decompensation

• Calcium channel blockers (verapamil and diltiazem): negative inotropic effect; worsen symptoms and
prognosis
• Thiazolidinediones: promote the progression of CHF (↑ fluid retention and edema) and increase the
hospitalization rate
• Moxonidine: increases mortality in CHF with reduced ejection fraction (systolic dysfunction)

Invasive procedures
• Implantable cardiac defibrillator (ICD): prevents sudden cardiac death
o Primary prophylaxis indications

§ CHF with EF < 35% and prior myocardial infarction/CHD

§ Increased risk of life-threatening cardiac arrhythmias
 o Secondary prophylaxis indications: history of sudden cardiac arrest, ventricular flutter, or ventricular
fibrillation

• Cardiac resynchronization therapy (biventricular pacemaker): improves cardiac function

o Indications: CHF with EF < 35%, dilated cardiomyopathy, and left bundle branch block

o Can be combined with an ICD

• Coronary revascularization with PCTA or bypass surgery may be indicated if CAD is present.
• Valvular surgery if valvular heart defects are present
• Ventricular assist devices: may be implanted to support ventricular function; may be indicated for temporary
or long-term support (e.g., to bridge time until transplantation) of decompensated CHF
• Cardiac transplantation: for patients with end-stage CHF (NYHA class IV), ejection fraction < 20%, and no
other viable treatment options
References:[2][29][17][30][31][32][33][34][35]
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Complications
• Acute decompensated heart failure (see section below)
• Cardiorenal syndrome
• Cardiac arrhythmias
• Central sleep apnea syndrome
• Cardiogenic shock
• Stroke; increased risk of arterial thromboembolisms (especially with concurrent atrial fibrillation)

• Chronic kidney disease

• Cardiac cirrhosis (congestive hepatopathy): Cirrhosis due to chronic hepatic vein congestion in patients with
right-sided heart failure.
 • Venous stasis, leg ulcers
We list the most important complications. The selection is not exhaustive.
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FEEDBACK

Acute decompensated heart failure

Cardiac decompensation is the most common reason for hospital admissions and is the most important complication of
congestive heart failure.
Etiology
ADHF typically occurs in patients who have a history of CHF or other cardiac conditions in which an acute cause precipitates the
deterioration of cardiac function.
• Exacerbation of congestive heart failure (e.g., through pneumonia, anemia, volume overload, medication
noncompliance)
• Acute myocardial infarction
• Atrial fibrillation, severe bradycardia, and other arrhythmias
• Myocarditis
• Hypertensive crisis
• Pulmonary embolism
• Pericardial tamponade
• Aortic dissection
• Cardiotoxic substances
• Renal failure
• Cardiodepressant medication (e.g., beta blockers, CCBs)

Clinical features
• Rapid exacerbation of symptoms of CHF (see symptoms of left heart failure and symptoms of right heart
failure)
 • Pulmonary congestion
with:

o Acute, severe dyspnea and orthopnea; worse when supine

o Cough (occasionally with frothing, blood-tinged sputum)

o Cyanosis

o Auscultation of the lungs: rales accompanied by wheezing

o Flash pulmonary edema: rapid, life-threatening accumulation of fluid associated with the risk of acute
respiratory distress
• Weakness, fatigue, and cold, clammy skin

Diagnostics
• X-ray findings in pulmonary congestion
o Cardiomegaly

o Prominent pulmonary vessels and perihilar alveolar edema (butterfly or “bat's wings” appearance of the
hilar shadow)
o Kerley B lines: visible horizontal interlobular septa caused by pulmonary edema

o Basilar edema

o Bilateral pleural effusions

• Sputum analysis: heart failure cells (hemosiderin-containing cells)

• Thoracentesis
o Indicated if the etiology of the pleural effusion is unclear

o Pleural fluid analysis: Transudate effusions are typical of cardiogenic causes

The radiologic signs of pulmonary congestion can be remembered with “ABCDE”: A = Alveolar edema (bat's wings), B =
Kerley B lines (interstitial edema), C = Cardiomegaly, D = Dilated prominent pulmonary vessels, and E= Effusions!
 Differential diagnosis of pulmonary edema and respiratory distress
• Noncardiogenic pulmonary edema due to ARDS, pulmonary embolism, transfusion-related acute lung injury,
high altitude

• Asthma
• Pneumonia

Treatment
• Sufficient oxygenation and ventilation
; assisted ventilation as needed (e.g., CPAP).
• Fluid management:
o Aggressive diuresis (e.g., IV furosemide) to reduce volume overload

o Vasodilators: (e.g., IV nitroglycerine) can be considered as adjunct treatment in patients

without hypotension.
• Hemodynamic stabilization: inotropes (e.g., dobutamine) in case of systolic dysfunction
• Treat the cause of decompensation.
• Hemodialysis if volume overload is symptomatic (pulmonary edema, pleural effusion, ascites) and resistant to
treatment
• ECLS may temporarily substitute pulmonary function.
• Ventricular assist devices (see “Treatment of heart failure” above)
Beta blockers must be used cautiously in decompensated heart failure!
Management of ADHF can be remembered with “LMNOP”: L = Lasix (furosemide), M = Morphine, N = Nitrates, O= Oxygen, P
= Position (with elevated upper body).
References:[4][5][5][11][42][2][43][44][45][46]
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Cardiorenal syndrome
Cardiorenal syndrome is a complication of acute heart failure and CHF.
• Definition: a complex syndrome in which renal function progressively declines as a result of severe cardiac
dysfunction; occurs in ∼ 20–30% of cases of ADHF
• Pathophysiology
o Cardiac forward failure → renal hypoperfusion → prerenal kidney failure

o Cardiac backward failure → systemic venous congestion → renal venous congestion → decreased
transglomerular pressure gradient → ↓ GFR → worsening kidney function
o RAAS activation → salt and fluid retention, hypertension → hypertensive nephropathy

• Diagnosis: ↓ GFR, ↑ creatinine that cannot be explained by underlying kidney disease

• Treatment: treat heart failure; manage renal failure (see treatment of acute renal injury)
• Prognosis: CHF with reduced GFR is associated with a poor prognosis.
References:[47][48][49]
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FEEDBACK

Prognosis
• The prognosis depends on the patient, type and severity of heart disease, medication regimens, and lifestyle
changes.
• The prognosis for patients with preserved EF is similar to or better than for patients with decreased EF
• Risk stratification scales may be used to evaluate the prognosis (e.g., CHARM and CORONA risk scores).
 • Factors associated with worse prognosis
o Elevated BNP

o Hyponatremia

o Systolic BP < 120 mm Hg

o Diabetes

o Anemia

o Weight loss or underweight

o S3 heart sound

o Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator use

o Frequent hospitalizations due to CHF

• 1-year survival according to NYHA stage

o Stage I: ∼ 95%

o Stage II: ∼ 85%

o Stage III: ∼ 85%

o Stage IV: ∼ 35%

References:[20]