Aperture

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A big (1) and a small (2) aperture In optics, an aperture is a hole or an opening through which light is admitted. More specifically, the aperture of an optical system is the opening that determines the cone angle of a bundle of rays that come to a focus in the image plane. The aperture determines how collimated the admitted rays are, which is of great importance for the appearance at the image plane. If the admitted rays also pass through a lens, highly collimated rays (narrow aperture) will result in sharpness at the image plane, while uncollimated rays (wide aperture) will result in sharpness for rays with the right focal length only. This means that a wide aperture results in an image that is sharp around what the lens is focusing on and blurred otherwise. The aperture also determines how many of the incoming rays are actually admitted and thus how much light that reaches the image plane (the narrower the aperture, the darker the image). An optical system typically has many openings, or structures that limit the ray bundles (ray bundles are also known as pencils of light). These structures may be the edge of a lens or mirror, or a ring or other fixture that holds an optical element in place, or may be a special element such as a diaphragm placed in the optical path to limit the light admitted by the system. In general,

these structures are called stops, and the aperture stop is the stop that determines the ray cone angle, or equivalently the brightness, at an image point. In some contexts, especially in photography and astronomy, aperture refers to the diameter of the aperture stop rather than the physical stop or the opening itself. For example, in a telescope the aperture stop is typically the edges of the objective lens or mirror (or of the mount that holds it). One then speaks of a telescope as having, for example, a 100 centimeter aperture. Note that the aperture stop is not necessarily the smallest stop in the system. Magnification and demagnification by lenses and other elements can cause a relatively large stop to be the aperture stop for the system. Sometimes stops and diaphragms are called apertures, even when they are not the aperture stop of the system. The word aperture is also used in other contexts to indicate a system which blocks off light outside a certain region. In astronomy for example, a photometric aperture around a star usually corresponds to a circular window around the image of a star within which the light intensity is summed.[1]

Definitions of Aperture in the 1707 Glossographia Anglicana Nova[2]

[edit] Application
The aperture stop is an important element in most optical designs. Its most obvious feature is that it limits the amount of light that can reach the image/film plane. This can either be undesired, as in a telescope where one wants to collect as much light as possible; or deliberate, to prevent saturation of a detector or overexposure of film. In both cases, the size of the aperture stop is constrained by things other than the amount of light admitted, however:

The size of the stop is one factor that affects depth of field. Smaller stops produce a longer depth of field, allowing objects at a wide range of distances to all be in focus at the same time.

The stop limits the effect of optical aberrations. If the stop is too large, the image will be distorted. More sophisticated optical system designs can mitigate the effect of aberrations, allowing a larger stop and therefore greater light collecting ability. The stop determines whether the image will be vignetted. Larger stops can cause the intensity reaching the film or detector to fall off toward the edges of the picture, especially when for off-axis points a different stop becomes the aperture stop by virtue of cutting off more light than did the stop that was the aperture stop on the optic axis. A larger aperture stop requires larger diameter optics, which are heavier and more expensive.

In addition to an aperture stop, a photographic lens may have one or more field stops, which limit the system's field of view. When the field of view is limited by a field stop in the lens (rather than at the film or sensor) vignetting results; this is only a problem if the resulting field of view is less than was desired. The pupil of the eye is its aperture; the iris is the diaphragm that serves as the aperture stop. Refraction in the cornea causes the effective aperture (the entrance pupil) to differ slightly from the physical pupil diameter. The entrance pupil is typically about 4 mm in diameter, although it can range from 2 mm (f/8.3) in a brightly lit place to 8 mm (f/2.1) in the dark. In astronomy, the diameter of the aperture stop (called the aperture) is a critical parameter in the design of a telescope. Generally, one would want the aperture to be as large as possible, to collect the maximum amount of light from the distant objects being imaged. The size of the aperture is limited, however, in practice by considerations of cost and weight, as well as prevention of aberrations (as mentioned above).

[edit] In photography
The aperture stop of a photographic lens can be adjusted to control the amount of light reaching the film or image sensor. In combination with variation of shutter speed, the aperture size will regulate the film's degree of exposure to light. Typically, a fast shutter speed will require a larger aperture to ensure sufficient light exposure, and a slow shutter speed will require a smaller aperture to avoid excessive exposure.

Diagram of decreasing aperture sizes (increasing f-numbers) for "full stop" increments (factor of two aperture area per stop)

A device called a diaphragm usually serves as the aperture stop, and controls the aperture. The diaphragm functions much like the iris of the eyeit controls the effective diameter of the lens opening. Reducing the aperture size increases the depth of field, which describes the extent to which subject matter lying closer than or farther from the actual plane of focus appears to be in focus. In general, the smaller the aperture (the larger the number), the greater the distance from the plane of focus the subject matter may be while still appearing in focus. The lens aperture is usually specified as an f-number, the ratio of focal length to effective aperture diameter. A lens typically has a set of marked "f-stops" that the f-number can be set to. A lower f-number denotes a greater aperture opening which allows more light to reach the film or image sensor. The photography term "one f-stop" refers to a factor of 2 (approx. 1.41) change in f-number, which in turn corresponds to a factor of 2 change in light intensity. Aperture priority is a semi-automatic shooting mode used in cameras. It allows the photographer to choose an aperture setting and allow the camera to decide the shutter speed and sometimes ISO sensitivity for the correct exposure. This is sometimes referred to as Aperture Priority Auto Exposure, A mode, Av mode, or semi-auto mode.[3]

[edit] Maximum and minimum apertures

The specifications for a given lens typically include the minimum and maximum apertures. These refer to the maximum and minimum f-numbers the lens can be set at to achieve, respectively. A typical lens will have an f-number range from f/16 (small aperture) to f/2 (large aperture) (these values vary). The maximum aperture (minimum f-number) tends to be of most interest (and is always included when describing a lens). This value is also known as the lens speed, because it is proportional to the square of accepted light, and thus inversely proportional to the square of required exposure time (i.e. using a lens with f/2, one can take pictures at one quarter of the exposure time necessary using a f/4 lens). Lenses for 35mm cameras can have f-numbers as low as f/1.0, while professional lenses for some movie cameras can have f-numbers as low as f/0.75 (very large relative aperture). These are known as "fast" lenses because they allow in more light and therefore reduce the exposure time. Stanley Kubrick's film Barry Lyndon has scenes with the largest relative aperture in film history: f/0.7. Prime lenses (non-zoom lenses) have a fixed focal length (FFL) and large aperture and are favored by professionals, especially by photojournalists who often work in dim light, have no opportunity to introduce supplementary lighting, and need to capture fast breaking events. Zoom lenses typically have a maximum aperture (minimum f-number) of f/2.8 to f/6.3 through their range. A very fast zoom lens will be constant f/2.8 or f/2, which means the relative aperture will stay the same throughout the zoom range. A more typical consumer zoom will have a variable relative aperture, since it is harder and more expensive to keep the effective aperture proportional to focal length at long focal lengths; f/3.5 to f/5.6 is an example of a common variable aperture range in a consumer zoom lens.

f/32 - narrow aperture and slow shutter speedf/5.6 - wide aperture and fast shutter speed

[edit] Aperture area

The amount of light captured by a lens is proportional to the area of the aperture, equal to:

Where f is focal length and N is the f-number. The focal length value is not required when comparing two lenses of the same focal length; a value of 1 can be used instead, and the other factors can be dropped as well, leaving area proportion to the reciprocal square of the f-number N.. If two cameras of different format sizes and focal lengths have the same angle of view, and the same aperture area, they gather the same amount of light from the scene. The relative focal-plane illuminance, however, depends only on the f-number N, independent of the focal length, so is less in the camera with the larger format, longer focal length, and higher f-number.

[edit] In scanning or sampling

The terms scanning aperture and sampling aperture are often used to refer to the opening through which an image is sampled, or scanned, for example in a Drum scanner, an image sensor, or a television pickup apparatus. The sampling aperture can be a literal optical aperture, that is, a small opening in space, or it can be a time-domain aperture for sampling a signal waveform. For example, film grain is quantified as graininess via a measurement of film density fluctuations as seen through a 0.048 mm sampling aperture.1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aperture

What Is... Aperture?

When you look at the technical specifications of a digital camera, one of the very first specification mentioned is its maximum aperture and/or its aperture range. What is 'aperture,' what is a good aperture range, and how is aperture relevant when it comes to choosing a digital camera? What Is Aperture? The main function of a camera lens is to collect light. The aperture of a lens is the diameter of the lens opening and is usually controlled by an iris.The larger the diameter of the aperture, the more light reaches the film / image sensor. Aperture is expressed as F-stop, e.g. F2.8 or f/2.8. The smaller the F-stop number (or f/value), the larger the lens opening (aperture). [Note: Many camera user manuals today will refer to the aperture in terms of "aperture value" instead of f/value. I'm not sure when this trend started but don't get confused between "aperture" and "aperture value." Aperture value" is simply another way of saying f/value.] In practice, unless you are dealing with a fixed-aperture lens (many simple point-and-shoot cameras have only one fixed aperture), the aperture of a lens is usually expressed as a range of fstops. When you read the specifications of a camera, the aperture may be expressed in a number of different ways, the following three being the most common:

Maximum Aperture:

Max. Aperture

F2.8

This simply states that the maximum aperture for the lens is F2.8.

Aperture Range:

Aperture Range

F2.8-F8.0

This states the max. and min. aperture, the assumption being that there are standard increments between them.

Maximum Wide-Angle and Telephoto Apertures:

Aperture

F2.8-3.5 or F2.8(W)-F3.5(T)

This gives the max. aperture for the wide-angle (F2.8) and telephoto (F3.5) focal lengths of a zoom lens. It is usually not too difficult to figure out that a stated range deals with maximum apertures and not max and min apertures: the mimimum aperture should be quite small at F8, F11, F16 or F22. A "fast" lens is one that has a large maximum aperture (F2.4, F2.0 for current digital cameras; F1.4, F1.2 for 35mm film cameras). Quick Quiz: which lens has a larger opening (aperture): one with an aperture of F1.8 or one with an aperture of F2.8?
Answer: F1.8 (remember, the smaller the F-stop, the larger the aperture)

A Good Aperture Range My personal preference for a 'good' aperture range is: F1.8 - F16

F1.8

F2.8

F4

F5.6

F8

F11

F16

This tells us that the camera has an aperture range of F1.8 to F16; the maximum aperture is F1.8, and the minimum aperture is F16. There are 5 f-stops between the max and min aperture. If your camera's lens is currently set at an aperture of F5.6, closing it by 1 f-stop would mean selecting F8; opening it up by 1 f-stop would mean selecting F4.

F1.8

F2.8

F4

F5.6

F8

F11

F16

How Is A Large Maximum Aperture Relevant? A large maximum aperture is preferable to a smaller one since it gives the photographer more latitude in the kind of pictures that can be taken. For example, it is pretty obvious that the larger the aperture, the better your digital camera will perform in low-light situations, since a larger lens opening is able to admit more light than a smaller lens opening. A larger max. aperture also allows you to use a faster shutter speed to freeze action. So, let's say the light meter in your digital camera calculates that for proper exposure in that indoor arena, you need an aperture of F4 and a shutter speed of 1/60 sec.

F4 1/60

To use a faster shutter speed (say, 1/250 sec.) to freeze action, you have to open up the aperture to allow more light in for that shorter amount of time. For every shutter speed increment we go up, we need to open up a f-stop of aperture. From 1/60 sec. to 1/250 sec. there are 2 increments, so we open up the aperture by 2 f-stops, going from F4 to F1.8. Note that the camera would give proper exposure at 1/60 sec. at F4, 1/125 sec. at F2.8, and 1/250 sec. at F1.8, since all three aperture/shutter speed combinations allow the same amount of light into the camera. [Some digital cameras provide a 'Program Shift' function to allow that very shifting of aperture/shutter speed combinations in tandem.]

F1.8 1/250

F2.8 1/125

F4 1/60

F5.6 1/30

F8 1/15

F11 1/8

F16 1/4

Of course, in a digital camera set on Auto mode, you can select Sports scene mode, and the camera will automotically select a fast shutter speed and the appropriate aperture. Likewise, in ShutterPriority mode, you can choose which shutter speed you want (fast or slow), and the camera will select the appropriate aperture for proper exposure. In our example above, let's say the lens on your digital camera only opens up to a max. aperture of F2.8. If you now select 1/250 sec. (in Shutter-Priority mode), the camera will not be able to select an aperture larger than F2.8 (in our example, it really needs F1.8). It would then give you an "underexposure" warning. If you go ahead and take the picture anyway, your picture would be 1 fstop underexposed (i.e. you really needed to open up the aperture by 1 more f-stop for correct exposure). Similarly, if you select a shutter speed of 1/4 sec. and the lens only closes down to a min. aperture of F8 (in our example, it really needs F16), the camera would give you an "overexposure" warning. If you go ahead and take a picture anyway, your picture would be 2 f-stops overexposed (i.e. you really needed to close down the aperture by 2 more f-stops for correct exposure). [Editor's note: There is a third variable in the above example which we have purposefully not introduced. This is the sensitivity of the image sensor -- the ISO. We'll cover this in a later tutorial.] How Is A Small Minimum Aperture Relevant? A small minimum aperture is preferable to a larger one since it also gives the photographer more latitude in the kind of pictures that can be taken. Suppose we want to take a picture of flowing water. As mentioned above, to depict flowing water, we usually want to use a slow shutter speed so that the water blurs. It is this blurring that makes the picture so effective in depicting water motion.

So, let's say the light meter in your digital camera calculates that for proper exposure on a bright sunny day, you need an aperture of F8 and a shutter speed of 1/125 sec.

F8 1/125

Well, if you decide to use a slower shutter speed (say, 1/30 sec.), this means that you have to compensate by closing down the aperture to allow less light in. It makes sense really. Since you have increased the time the shutter remains open to allow light in, you must compensate by allowing less light in to expose the image sensor in that longer amount of time, if you still want a properly exposed picture. But, what if the lens on your digital camera closes to a minimum of F8? You're stuck at the shutter speed of 1/125 sec. If you use 1/30 sec. at F8, your picture will be overexposed, i.e. burnt out. At 1/125 sec. and F8, your picture will be properly exposed but the fast shutter speed will freeze the water motion and you won't obtain the blurring effect you desire. If the lens in your digital camera closed down to F16, presto, your problem is solved! 1/125 sec. at F8 is equivalent to 1/30 sec. at F16, which means that you would have a perfectly exposed purposefullyblurred-for-effect flowing water shot. [If your lens does not close down to F16, you could use a Neutral Density (ND) filter to reduce the amount of light coming into the lens, and thus allowing you to use a slower shutter speed.]

F1.8 1/2,000

F2.8 1/1,000

F4 1/500

F5.6 1/250

F8 1/125

F11 1/60

F16 1/30

[Editor's note: There is a third variable in the above example which we have purposefully not introduced. This is the sensitivity of the image sensor -- the ISO. We'll cover this in a later tutorial.] Aperture and Depth of Field (DOF) We mentioned this above but feel it is important enough to repeat in its own paragraph. The Depth of Field is the distance wherein objects are in focus. There are times when you desire a great depth of field, i.e. where objects both close to you and far from you are in focus. This is especially true when you are taking a landscape picture and want as much as possible to be in crisp focus. Then there are times when you want to isolate your subject, as when you are taking a portrait and want your subject to be in sharp focus but the background to be out of focus. In this case, you desire a shallow depth of field.

One way to influence DOF is by selecting the appropriate aperture. The rule of thumb is this:

Select a large aperture (or small f/value or small aperture value), e.g. f/2.8, to obtain a shallow DOF Select a small aperture (or large f/value or large aperture value), e.g. f/8.0, to achieve great DOF

Here are some real images that demonstrate the use of aperture to influence DOF:
Aperture and Depth of Field (DOF) AF area is on yellow pistils of flower in front Shallow DOF Great DOF

Note how the use of a large aperture (small aperture value) throws the flowers in the background out of focus. Focus has to be precise. 49.8 mm, Av, Spot, 1/30 sec., f/3.5, +0.7EV, Macro, Tripod used

Using a small aperture (large aperture value) extends the DOF from the foreground all the way to the background. 49.6mm, Av, Spot, 1/5 sec., f/11, +0.7EV, Macro, Tripod used

Note: Since we are on the subject of DOF, DOF also changes with focal length. Use a small focal length to increase DOF, a longer focal length obtain a shallower DOF. I.E. if you zoom, the DOF decreases. [OK, to be technically correct, focal length does not really affect DOF, but gives the effect that it does. And, that's good enough for us since that's what we're after. We'll cover DOF in a later tutorial.]

Due to the small image sensors used, digital cameras use such small focal lengths that it is very difficult to obtain shallow depth of field even when using a large aperture. In the example above, we used a large aperture AND a long focal length (telephoto macro) to achieve a shallow DOF. Recap A large maximum aperture is a good thing. It allows more light to reach the image sensor, and so allows you to use a faster shutter speed. A faster shutter speed freezes action and negates the effect of camera shake, resulting in pictures that are not blurred. Another advantage of a large maximum aperture is to provide a shallow depth of field. This allows the background to blur nicely thus isolating your subject (especially effective when taking portraits). A small minimum aperture is also a good thing. It allows you to use a slow shutter speed on a bright sunny day. A slow shutter speed allows you to depict motion. Another advantage of a small minimum aperture is to increase the depth-of-field. An increased depthof-field allows you to take landscape pictures where as much of the picture in the foreground and reaching all the way to the background (usually, 'infinity') is in sharp focus. We hope you have enjoyed this tutorial. If you have any questions, spot any errors, or have an article idea, please give us your feedback on this article. We will publish as many comments here as we can. [ email article to a friend ]

Our Readers Write Back

We don't pretend to be experts in all aspects of digital photography and therefore are very happy to learn together with our readers. Their feedback to this article are published below. From: Robert Counts The only unanswered question in my mind is about the recipes given for aperture and shutter spead at the bottom section of the "Good ApetureRange" section. My question along the line of: Are these aperture recipes set? I noticed that in the set of photos below where depth of field is being illustrated, the aperture/shutter specifications are different from the ones in the diagrams above, but the photos still look good. I know that this is an answer that will come with shooting experience, which is what I need to do on my own, on top of reading tutorials like this, but that further explanation would be really helpful for us beginners. Thanks so much for making this great tutorial available! Editor: Notice that the article talks about Good Aperture Range. We are suggesting what a good range is. There is no such thing as a 'good aperture' -- an aperture is basically just a hole that allows light in. As far as the aperture range is concerned, a large aperture allows more light in and therefore allows us to take natural light picture (i.e. without flash) when there's not much light to go around. That's good. A large aperture also allows us to shorten the depth of field, important for occasions when we

want to blur the background and have our subject stand out in sharp contrast to the background. That is very good! A small aperture allows us to limit the amount of light that comes into the camera and this allows us to use a slower shutter speed in bright lights for occasions when we want to depict motion, e.g. flowing water. [When it's still too bright, photographers use Neutral Density filter(s) to reduce the amount of light coming into the camera.] More importantly, a small aperture also increases depth of field and ensures that objects from near to far are all in sharp focus, as we like to have in landscapes. That is very good! The sample images show that we can take good photos at all apertures. But a good range of apertures allow us to take more good photos, especially those that depend on depth of field.2

http://www.photoxels.com/tutorial_aperture.html