International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education

January 2021, Volume 13, Issue 3, 341-363

Developing Social Skills and Social

Competence in Children with Autism
Tracey Silveira-Zaldivara, Gül Özerkb, Kamil Özerk*,c

Received : 18 July 2020 Abstract

Revised : 8 October 2020
Accepted : 8 January 2021
Social development is one of the most critical developmental
DOI : 10.26822/iejee.2021.195
areas for human beings. Deficits in social skills may negatively
a
Tracey Silveira-Zaldivar, impact several essential domains including academic
Orange Unified School District, California, USA. achievement, interpersonal relationships, behavior, mental
E-mail: drimmune@yahoo.com health, and adult life outcome. Individuals with autism
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9521-7207 present with core deficits in social skills. Without supports
b
Gül Özerk,
and effective interventions to enhance social skills, children
Oslo Metropolitan University, Oslo, Norway. with autism often struggle to obtain social competence,
E-mail: Gul.Ozerk@oslomet.no and may experience challenges in the school, home, and
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6205-0300 community settings. With effective interventions, children
c,*
with autism can learn essential social skills that can help to
Correspondance Details: Kamil Özerk,
University of Oslo, Norway. mitigate deficits and strengthen social competence. After
E-mail: Kamil.Ozerk@iped.uio.no a brief review of various theories of social development,
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1770-0153 this article seeks to present the constructs of social
competence, social skills, and adaptive skills in relatable
and clear language for educators. Finally, the article will
review several evidence-based interventions designed to
enhance social skills.

Keywords:
Social Competence, Social Development, Social Skills,
Evidence-Based Practices, Children, Autism

Introduction

I nterest in the role of social interaction for human

development has occupied theoreticians in the last century.
John Dewey (1938) considered all learning as an activity
that is social in nature. Dewey theorized that effective
education is derived from social interaction, cooperation,
and collaboration. Dewey, therefore, progressively argued
for the creation of educational environments that included
developmentally appropriate and engaging social learning
experiences for children. Dewey’s contemporary social
psychologist George Herbert Mead (1934) contended that
one cannot learn to be social in a vacuum and that social
interaction was a prerequisite for learning. Similarly, Jerome
Bruner proposed, “The infant’s principal "tool" for achieving
Copyright © his ends is another familiar human being.” (Bruner 1983,
www.iejee.com p. 26). Bruner interpreted social interaction as both self-
ISSN: 1307-9298
propelling and self-rewarding. The Russian educational
psychologist Lev S. Vygotsky (1978) distinguished between
© 2021 Published by KURA Education & Publishing. ‘inter-psychological processes’ and ‘intra-psychological
This is an open access article under the CC BY-
NC- ND license. (https://creativecommons.org/
processes.’ The former has to do with social interaction,
licenses/by/4.0/) cooperation, and collaboration which takes place between

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 January 2021, Volume 13, Issue 3, 341-363

people, and the latter with cognitive processes within of Diseases 11th edition (ICD-II), a guide developed by
a person. Vygotsky (1978) touted that every function in the World Health Organization in 2018, has described
the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, autism as follows:
on the social level, and later, on the individual level
“Autism spectrum disorder is characterised by
(p. 57). Vygotsky considered play (particularly role- persistent deficits in the ability to initiate and to
play and collaboration with competent peers and/or sustain reciprocal social interaction and social
adults) as critical for social development. In a social communication, and by a range of restricted,
repetitive, and inflexible patterns of behaviour,
role-play scenario, a child simulates an older person in interests or activities that are clearly atypical or
a particular profession or engaging in a particular task excessive for the individual’s age and sociocultural
(such as a pretending to be a doctor or pretending context.” (WHO, Version 9/2020)
to drive a car). In Vygotsky’s social role play, an adult
As Kasari and Patterson (2012) postulated, “Social
would use their language and social skills to stimulate
impairment may be the most complex and
the development of a child. Vygotsky theorized that a
impenetrable core challenge facing children with
child could improve their level of social development
autism” (p. 713). As challenges in social communication,
via assistance from a more competent partner and
social interaction, and the ability to initiate and
through rehearsal of inter-psychological processes.
sustain reciprocal social interaction are primary
Like other social educators of his time, Vygotsky
characteristics of children with autism spectrum
professed that every child’s individual learning has a
disorder (ASD), the need to target the area of social
social basis, “Human learning presupposes a specific
development for children with autism is paramount
social nature and a process by which children grow
to their success.
into the intellectual life of those around them" (p. 88).
Similar to Dewey and Vygotsky, Piaget postulated
The Purpose Of The Article
that one’s social interaction in the early years has
implications for future social development (1977). Two
The purpose of this article is threefold. This article seeks
core principles underlie the theories of progressive
to elaborate upon the impact of social skills deficits for
social educators:
individuals with autism, underlining the importance
1. Providing children with appropriate conditions of social skill development for students with autism.
for social learning is critical for their overall Secondly, the article seeks to present the constructs
development. of social competence, social skills, and adaptive skills,
2. Significant others play a crucial role in the in practical and relatable terms for practitioners and
process of social development. educators. Finally, the article will review evidence-
based practices that are suitable for the development
These core principles will guide our discussion of the of social skills for children and adolescents with ASD
importance of social skills and the need to implement and other conditions.
evidence-based social skills interventions for children
who present with social deficits. The Impact of Social Skills

The psychological and educational ideas that As described in the DSM5 and ICD-II, social interaction
underline the importance of social interaction and and communication deficits are key characteristics
social development by influential scholars is just of autism. There are several connections between
as relevant today as they were at the time they these two types of impairments (APA, 2013; Hansen et
were formulated. During the past two decades, the al., 2014; Tager-Flusberg, 2003). Students with autism
topics of social skills, social development, and social often have difficulties with pragmatics, commonly
competence have received increased attention. Not referred to as social language (Carter, et al., 2005;
surprisingly, the increased focus on the importance of Miller et al., 2015; Staikova et al., 2013). Difficulties in
social development has corresponded with the rising pragmatics can be manifested by any of the following
rate of autism. Currently, nearly 1 in 54 children has behaviors: eye contact, reciprocal conversation,
been identified with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) turn taking, topic maintenance, greetings, speech
according to estimates from the Center for Disease prosody, understanding figurative language, and/
Control’s (CDC) Autism and Developmental Disabilities or understanding emotions and non-verbal body
Monitoring (ADDM) Network (ADDM, 2020) compared cues (Shaked & Yirmiya, 2003; Tager-Flusberg, 2003;
to 1 in 150 in the year 2000. As the prevalence of Tierney et al., 2014). Social communication deficits
autism has surged, public school systems have seen a contribute to the likelihood of social isolation and
similar upwelling in the population of school children reduce prospects for social engagement (Miller et
with autism. Per the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual al., 2015; Wetherby et al., 2007). Challenges in the
of Mental Disorders, 5th edition (DSM-5), a hallmark functional use of communication have been linked
criterion of autism is persistent deficits in social to behavioral difficulties. When students are stymied
communication and social interaction across multiple when attempting to express wants and/or needs
contexts (APA, 2013). The International Classification and/or emotions (Carter et al., 2005; Jones et al.,

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2017) maladaptive behavior may result. Difficulties in social anxiety, more frequent panic attacks, and
joint attention (the involvement of shared attention or an overall lower quality of life (Van Steensel et al.,
shared experiences) may impede the development 2012). In addition to anxiety, many individuals with
of appropriate and reciprocal play (Hwang & Hughes, autism from young children to adults, struggle with
2000; Ingersoll & Schreibman, 2006; Kasari et al., depression (Berney, 2004; Gotham, Brunwasser, & Lord,
2015; Pierce-Jordan & Lifter, 2005; Silveira-Zaldivar, 2015; Hillier et al., 2011). Anxiety and depression may be
2019). Kasari and Patterson (2012) concluded that considered a biproduct of the difficulties that young
the challenges that children with autism encounter individuals with autism experience with emotional
when engaging jointly with others adversely impacts regulation (Santomauro et al., 2016).
the quantity and quality of interaction with others.
Furthermore, many children with ASD exhibit a lack The social skill deficits of a child with autism may not
of awareness of others that further contributes to only negatively impact the child, but parent caregivers,
difficulties in social interaction. According to several educators, community members, peers, and service
studies (Calder et al., 2013; Carter et al., 2014; Kasari et providers, as well. Zablotsky, Bramlett, and Blumberg
al., 2012; Reichow et al., 2012) social demands tend to (2015) found that parent ratings of the severity of their
increase for children with ASD for each passing year child’s autism correlated directly with the impact
and grade, resulting in amplified social challenges. of the child’s condition on the family in terms of the
For young individuals with autism, deficits in social parents’ financial stress and the parents’ ability to
skills and communication underscore a myriad of maintain employment. Caring for a child with ASD can
challenges and lost opportunities across a lifetime significantly increase parental anxiety and depression,
(Cidav et al., 2012; Ingersoll et al., 2001). Social while simultaneously decreasing financial resources
difficulties may negatively impact academic and one’s overall quality of life (Meadan et al., 2010;
achievement and school attendance, mental health, Nik Adib et al., 2019; Taylor & Henninger, 2015). Nealy
and behavior (Lauderdale-Litten et al., 2013; Mazurek et al. (2012) interviewed several mothers of children
et al., 2013; Munkhaugen et al., 2017; Patton et al., 2016; with autism and found the mothers experienced
Rabiner et al., 2016). Furthermore, deficits in social skills commonalities: (a) autism leaves an emotional impact
can dramatically impact future life success across (such as undertones of stress, guilt, and anxiety); (b)
various domains including relationships, employment, autism may leave a social impact (such as reduced
health, and higher education (Denham & Brown, 2010; time for friends, tense spousal relations, and strained
Montroy et al., 2014; Zins, et al., 2004; Silveira-Zaldivar, child-parent bonds with other siblings); and (c) autism
2019). often leaves a negative financial impact. Like many
of their parents, siblings of children with autism report
Deficits in social skills have been demonstrated heightened levels of stress and worry (Petalas et al.,
to negatively impact interpersonal relationships. 2012). Furthermore, teachers and other caregivers,
Children with ASD have fewer friends and report a such as day care providers, have reported increased
lower quality of friendships than typical peers (Calder anxiety levels and stress working with children with
et al., 2013; Cook et al., 2017; Kasari et al., 2011). Children autism (Corona et al., 2017; Witherell, 2013). Inclusion
with ASD tend to experience greater isolation and has been linked to higher rates of teacher burnout,
loneliness than peers (Goldsteinet et al., 1992; Kasari particularly for inclusion regular education teachers
et al., 2011; Locke et al., 2010). On average, students who have not had the benefit of the training that
with autism spend 30% of recess time alone, while their special education teacher counterparts have
typical peers spend 9% of recess alone (Locke et al., experienced (Boujut et al., 2016; Lindsay et al., 2013).
2016). While research shows that many children with
ASD experience social isolation, this is not always due The long-term effect of deficits in social competence
to lack of motivation for contact with others (Rumsey can be profound. Teachers and parents have rated
et al. 1985; Orsmond et al. 2004; Kasari & Patterson, social skills, goal directedness, and emotional stability
2012), but, rather, due to poor social skills (Koegel & as more likely to lead to school and life success than
Koegel, 2006; Kasari & Patterson, 2012; Schreibman variables such as IQ and aptitude (Getzels & Jackson,
et al., 2015). Students with autism also experience 1961, Jones et al., 2015). Jones, Greenberg, and Cowley
greater rejection and bullying from others (Hebron (2015) reviewed teacher assessments of the social
et al., 2015; Schroeder et al., 2014). Furthermore, competence of nearly 1,000 kindergarten students
individuals with autism are less satisfied with their own and followed them from between 13 to 19 years later
social functioning and interpersonal relationships to assess the impact of social competency on multiple
than typical peers (Friend & Bursack, 2009; Magiati measures. The results showed statistically significant
et al., 2013). Children with autism report higher levels associations between kindergarten social skills and
of co-morbid mental health concerns. Compared young adult outcomes in (a) employment, (b) higher
to children diagnosed with just anxiety alone, those education, (c) criminality, (d) chemical dependency,
with comorbid autism and anxiety experience more and (e) mental health. Adults with autism experience
specific phobias, higher levels of total anxiety and greater levels of anxiety and depression (Hillier et

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al., 2011; Van Steensel et al., 2012), and they are more Social Competence – A Broad Construct
dependent upon government assistance than typical
peers (Mordre et al., 2012). An overwhelming 50% of Social competence is broad construct. One of the
young adults with autism (ages 19-23) have not held a earlier studies on the concept of competence as
job or attended postgraduate education after leaving a social-relevant construct was done by Thorndike
high school (Shattuck et al., 2012). Given two individuals (1927). Thorndike (1927) compared social competence
with autism of at least average to above average to “social intelligence.” White (1959) portrayed social
cognition, studies have found that the individual who competence as “an organism’s capacity to interact
is most likely to succeed in life is the individual who is effectively with its environment” (p. 297). O’Malley
more socially competent (Mordre et al., 2012; Szatmari (1977) defined social competence as follows:
et al., 2003). Students with milder social deficits tend
to have smoother transitions to middle school (Makin … productive and mutually satisfying interactions
between a child and peers or adults. Productive
et al., 2017) than those with more severe deficits and interactions attain personal goals of the child, whether
students with milder social deficits are more likely to immediately or in the long run, which are adaptive
be mainstreamed than their peers (Brown & McIntosh, in classroom settings. Interactions will be satisfying to
the child when goals are attained, and to the others
2012; Fulton et al., 2014). if actions in pursuit of the goals are received in either
a benign or positive manner (p. 29).
According to Baron-Cohen (1995; 2001) the primary
social challenges that affect children with ASD is O’Malley (1977) provides three reasons for studying
related to their lack of perspective taking. Baron- social competence:
Cohen (2001) elaborates that challenges in
1. Social or interpersonal competence is a
perspective taking can lead to a lack of empathy or a necessity for participation in society.
state of mind-blindness.
2. Social competence is associated with greater
academic success.
From the social constructionist perspective (Mead,
1934; Vygotsky, 1986), we ascertained that social role- 3. Social competence is comprised of essential
playing (the changing of one's behavior to assume interrelated components.
a role) is an important social skill which contributes
In his studies of social or ecological factors that
to the development of the ability of perspective
have an impact on the socialization of children and
taking and language skills. It is possible to conclude,
adolescents, learning and development, Garbarino
therefore, that difficulties in perspective taking may
(1985) defines socially relevant competence as:
naturally impede an individual’s ability to engage in
social role play, which is considered by many to be a …a set of skills, attitudes, motives, and abilities needed
critical component in the development of social skills. to master the principal setting that individuals
Research has also shown that irregularities in the can reasonably expect to encounter in the social
environment of which they are a part, while at the
brain’s Amygdala and Cerebral cortex may contribute same time maximizing their sense of well-being and
to social-skills-related problems for children with ASD enhancing future development (p. 80)
(Jansen & Holck, 2020, Rutter & Pine, 2015; Tsilioni, 2020).
Whatever the origin of the social challenges, the social Garbarino argues further that competence is “…the
deficits experienced and manifested by individuals ability to succeed in the world” and that it must be
with ASD are undeniable and can profoundly impact “the goal of socialization and development” (p. 81).
the success of the individual with autism. Fortunately, In the following years, Garbarino’s concept of ‘social
studies have shown that by investing in evidence- competence’ garnered critical importance (Ogden &
based practices that enhance social development, Hagen, 2019). In line with Garbarino’s views of social
individuals can effectively teach social skills to children competence, Guralnick (1990) proposed that social
and adolescents with ASD (Leaf et al., 2017; Reichow competence is an important ability “of young children
& Volkmar, 2010). By implementing appropriate to successfully and appropriately select and carry out
interventions targeting social development for children their interpersonal goals” (p. 4). Social competence
with autism, educators, caregivers and professionals, has been described as the knowledge and skills which
can collectively mitigate many of the sobering persons develop in order to deal effectively with life’s
potential negative outcomes associated with social many choices, challenges, and opportunities (Han &
deficits. Our educational-psychological approach to Kemple, 2006; Leffert et al., 1997).
social skills development is based on a ‘continuum’-
perspective. Social and adaptive skills (skills relating Many other researchers proport that satisfying and
to one’s daily functioning in many domains) can be effective social interactions are the core component
learned and improved gradually. By continuously social competence. Katz and McClellan (1997)
refining educational measures and practices, we can describe socially competent young children as “those
strengthen social and adaptive skills of children with who engage in satisfying interactions and activities
ASD. with adults and peers” (p. 1). Similarly, Schneider (1993)
viewed social competence as relational competence:

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“the ability to implement developmentally-appropriate behavior as “the conceptual, social, and practical skills
social behaviors that enhance one’s interpersonal that people have learned to be able to function in their
relationships without causing harm to another” (p. 19). everyday lives.” Adaptive behaviors are dependent on
These types of interpersonal relationships necessitate the necessary skills for independent and responsible
social skills that ensure a person’s appropriate behavior which is appropriate in a given cultural
“emotional responses to others” (Clausen, 1991, p. context. Several researchers relate adaptive behaviors
808). Han and Kemple (2006) emphasized that, to functional living skills. In addition to ‘functional living
“Social competence is indexed by effectiveness skills’ or ‘adaptive skills’, these skills are also known as
and appropriateness in human interaction and ‘skills for self-help’ and ‘practical life skills’ where the
relationships” (p. 241). Gresham and his colleagues main intention of developing these skills is to maximize
(Gresham et al., 2001) defined social competence as, the capacity of an individual for safe independent
“The degree to which students are able to establish living. The possession of rudimentary social skills is
and maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships, crucial for the development of independent safety
gain peer acceptance, establish and maintain skills. For example, if one is lost in an unfamiliar city
friendships, and terminate negative or pernicious without a map or cell phone, one would need to
interpersonal relationships” (p. 331). Orpinas (2010) also know how to appropriately ask another individual for
views social competence as the ability to handle directions. Therefore, safety skills and social skills are
social interactions effectively. According to Orpinas often considered to be entwined. According to Özerk
(2010, p. 1923), social competence refers to “(a) getting and Özerk (2020) the following skills are important in
along well with others, (b) being able to form and daily functioning:
maintain close relationships, and (c) responding in
adaptive ways in social settings.” -Identify the address, phone
number, buses, trains and/or -Follow safety rules
subways for traveling in and -Read and follow safety signs
Orpinas (2010) viewed social competence as a product
out of the community -Use menus to order meals
of cognitive abilities, emotional processing, behavioral -Locate public bathrooms to -Raise and care for
skills, social awareness and family and cultural values use for washing and toileting flowers/houseplants
-Carry identification in the -Raise and care for a pet
regarding interpersonal relationships.
wallet -Attend movies, concerts and
-Follow pedestrian signs and plays
As social competence involves such a broad set of conventions. -Plan and participate in
-Be able to use appropriate picnics, excursions, etc.
skills and knowledge, some researchers describe the
transportation. -Be aware of social distance
concept as ambiguous (Nangle et al., 2010). McFall -Visit relatives, friends and and respect personal space
(1982) elaborated that the term social competence neighbors
has become so ubiquitous that it “strains our credibility
and arouses our suspicions” (p. 2). Despite the various As we expand upon the construct of social skills, the
descriptions of social competence, researchers still interconnectedness of social competence, adaptive
judiciously distinguish social competence from social skills and social skills will become more apparent.
skills (Dodge & Murphy, 1984; McFall, 1982). Social
competence refers to an evaluative judgement by Social Skills
outside observers as to the adequacy of performance
in a social task, whereas “social skills refer to the Gresham and colleagues (2006) asserted, “Social skills
specific abilities or behaviors that allow for effective represent a set of competencies that (1) facilitate
responding in a social task” (Nangle et al., 2010, p. initiating and maintaining positive social relationships,
6). Walker et al. (2004) explained, succinctly, that (2) contribute to peer acceptance and friendship
social skills refer to specific behaviors while social development, (3) result in satisfactory school
competence refers to judgments from others of one’s adjustment, and (4) allow individuals to cope with
social proficiency. Still others describe social skills as and adapt to the demands of the social environment”
the precursor, the necessary prerequisite components, (p. 364). Gresham & Elliot (1990) further proposed that
of social competence (Gresham, 1986). social skills involved five dimensions: Cooperation,
assertion, responsibility, empathy, and self-control.
Adaptive Behavior and Skills These dimensions comprise the well-known social
skills rating scale system Social Skills Rating System
In his early conceptualization of social competence (SSRS) and revised Social Skills Improvement System
Gresham (1986) suggested that social competence was (SSIS), and can be described as follows:
comprised of three subdomains: (a) adaptive behavior,
(b) social skills, and (c) peer acceptance. According Cooperation: An important aspect of cooperation is
to Whitcomb (2018), social skills are necessary for the to follow rules and messages. Collaboration involves
development of adaptive behavior. The American sharing, helping others and being interdependent.
Association on Intellectual and Developmental Cooperation should be practiced in realistic contexts,
Disabilities (AAIDD, 2008, p. 2) considers adaptive and it must be valued and actively pursued.

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Assertion: The ability to assert oneself is often oriented and respond to teasing and comments from
crucial to being able to participate actively in social others without retaliating, getting angry or fighting.
communities. This also includes the ability to say Awareness of one's own feelings and ability to
no to what you, for example, should preferably not understand oneself is essential here.
participate in. Assertion includes asking others for
help, being able to stand for something yourself and Norwegian preschool researcher Kari Lamer (1997),
reacting to the actions of others. inspired by Gresham and Elliot’s (1990) Social Skills
Rating System (SSRS), developed the Lamer Social
Responsibility: Responsibility is about perfor-ming tasks Competence in Preschool Scale (LSCIP). Later in 2006,
and showing respect for one's own and others' assets Lamer (2006) categorized social competence into six
and work. Development of responsibility will be related areas: (1) Assertiveness (2) Self-control, (3) Empathy and
to gaining responsibility through co-determination role-taking, (4) Prosocial behavior, (5) Adjustment, and
and taking the consequences of responsibility. (6) Fairness. The following figure (Figure 1) shows the
Responsibility is also about the ability to communicate socials skills necessary for the development of social
with adults. competence in preschool children.

Empathy: It is important in order to establish friendships A comprehensive evaluation of the Lamer Social
and close relationships with others, and will also act Competence in Preschool Scale (Løkken et al.,
as a counterweight to, for example, bullying and 2018) revealed that LSCIP is a valuable tool to be
violence. Empathy is situational and can therefore be used to monitor children’s development of social
developed and changed. If students are to develop competence. However, the researchers also found
empathy, they should meet empathic friends and that in preschools, the domain of Play, joy and humor
teachers. should not be considered separate dimensions as
play activities require literally all dimensions of social
Self-control: Self-control is about adapting to the competence” (Løkken et al. 2018, p. 13). Løkken et al
community and taking others into account. It means (2018) added Fairness as a separate dimension of
being able to wait your turn, be compromise- social competence and described fairness of being
Figure 1
Lamer Social Competence in Preschool Scale (LSCIP)

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comprised of the following social skills: reacting success:

critically to rules that are perceived as unfair, resisting
group pressure, and speaking out clearly when he/ 1. Listens to others,
she conceives something as unfair. 2. Follows directions,

Several researchers (Caldarella & Merrell, 1997; 3. Follows the rules,

Gresham, Sugai, & Horner, 2001) propose the following 4. Ignores peer distractions,
dimensions of social skills depicted below:
5. Asks for help,
Figure 2. 6. Takes turns in conversations,
Five Dimensions of Social Skills (Based on the works of
Caldarella & Merrell, 1997, p. 264-278; Gresham, Sugai, & 7. Cooperates with others,
Horner, 2001, p. 333-334). 8. Controls temper in conflict situations,

9. Acts responsibly when with others, and

10. Shows kindness to others

Other researchers describe the following skills as the

key components of social skills:

-showing an interest in others,

-participate in group play and organized group

activities,

-initiating social interaction,

-accepting others initiative to social interaction,

-sustaining interactions,

The five dimensions can be described as follows: -responding appropriately to peers’

inappropriate behaviors, and
Peer relations skills include complimenting -be able to contribute to solve social problem
others, offering help, inviting others to interact, (Odom et al., 1999; Jamison et al., 2012).
being sought out by others, turn taking, and
exhibiting leadership ability, empathy, has
many friends, stands up for others, sense of Social skills are critical for the development of positive
humor. relationships with peers, “which satisfy the need to
belong, protect against victimization, and promote
Self-management skills include controlling one’s
temper, following rules, compromising in conflict cognitive and social development” (Szumski et al., 2019
situations, accepting criticism, cooperating p. 2823). Human beings utilize and require social skills to
with others, organizing, and ignoring criticism communicate, interact and socialize with each other.
and distraction.
We humans conduct our social interaction verbally
Assertion skills include initiating conversations, and non-verbally. We use body language, eye contact,
acknowledging compliments, inviting peers facial expressions, words, gestures, and several body
to play, displaying self-confidence and self-
advocacy, making friends, expressing feels and movements to communicate out thoughts, feelings,
joining in ongoing activities with others. desires, and dislikes. Social skills enable us to make
friends, to collaborate, to cooperate and to learn.
Compliant skills include following directions,
following rules, using free time appropriately, Adequate social skills are required to successfully
sharing with others, responding appropriately meet our needs in appropriate ways. Well-developed
to criticism, finishing tasks, keeping things clean, and well-practiced social skills help us to establish
and putting things away.
harmonious relationship with others around us. We
Academic skills include completing work use our social skills to clarify disagreements and
independently, listening to teacher directions, manage relationships. We accomplish tasks, provide
following academic directions, displaying
appropriate work habits, producing acceptable mutual support, and expand our social networks by
work, maintaining time on task, and using free the reliance on social skills.
time advantageously.
Appropriate social and adaptive skills (listening, eye-
Elliott and Gresham (2007) asked teachers
contact, sharing, turn taking, empathy, cooperation,
(kindergarten, preschool, elementary and middle
collaboration, compliance, initiation, following the
school) to rate more than 80 social skills on a 3-point
rules, functional communication, inclusion, helping
scale (0 = not important, 1 = important, 2 = critical).
each other, solving problem together, handling
Teachers identified the following 10 social skills as
conflicts together etc.) can result in the following:
being the most critical social skills for classroom
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interventions for children with high functioning autism,

a) improved social-awareness and healthier focusing on studies that included the parent-report
peer relationships
Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS) as the criterion for
b) improved perspective taking skills and success. The results of the meta-analysis of 10 studies
improved empathy showed improvement in the overall SRS score, as well as
c) increased social acceptance and higher
quality of friendships an increase in the social communication SRS subscale
and reductions in the reduced restricted interests and
d) increased learning opportunities repetitive behaviors subscales (Wolstencroft et al.,
e) increased capability to better personal 2018). The utilization of evidence-based social skills
hygiene programs provides a means to effectively address the
inherent social skills deficits of individuals with autism.
f) heightened self-care and safety skills
White and Keonig (2007) reviewed studies of group
g) reduced stress social skills interventions between 1985 and 2006 and
identified several effective strategies for teaching
h) greater success in school (Silveira-Zaldivar
2019; Silveira-Zaldivar & Cortis, 2019) social skills training for children with ASD. A summary
of White and Koenig’s findings is depicted in Figure 3.
Early, intensive, and continuous interventions by A recent comprehensive study by the National
competent practitioners are important when focusing Clearinghouse on Autism Evidence and Practice
on teaching of children with ASD (Howlin et. al., (Steinbrenner et al., 2020) identified the following 26
2009; Klintwall & Eikeseth, 2014; Rogers & Dawson, social skills evidence-based practices for children,
2010). A study conducted by Jones, Greenberg and youth, and young adults with autism (see Figure 3).
Crowley (2015) revealed that five-year-old children
who displayed positive social skills, such as listening, All of the mentioned 26 methods, practices, and
sharing, cooperation and following of rules, were procedures have demonstrated a positive effect on
more likely to attend higher education and obtain the development of social skills for individuals with ASD.
a full-time job in early adulthood. Hence, targeting The abbreviations DRA, DRI and DRO stand respectively
social skills interventions for children who present with for Differential Reinforcement of Alternative behaviors,
social deficits is critical for their success in many life Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible behaviors
domains. and Differential Reinforcement of Other behaviors.
PRT refers to Pivotal Response Training. As the table
Evidence-Based Practices for the Development of suggests, some EBPs for social skills are more valid
Social Skills for Children with Autism for a particular age group than other EBPs. While
several EBPs exist specifically for students with autism
Social skills deficits are commonly described as to enhance social skills development, the Frank Porter
comprising of two categories: skill acquisition deficits Graham Child Development Institute, at UNC-Chapel
and skill performance deficits. Acquisition deficits Hill (Wong et al., 2015) suggest that some of the
refer to skills that a student has yet to develop most effective and most widely utilized programs to
– skills that are not currently in an individual’s enhance social competence include: peer mediated
repertoire. Performance deficits refer to skills that interventions (PMI), social narratives, social skills
an individual possesses, but that are not consistently training (SST), structured play group (SPG), Pivotal
or appropriately implemented. To be most effective, Response Training (PRT), and video modeling (VM).
social skills interventions for children with autism
should be tailored to the type of deficit (performance Peer Mediation Interventions
or acquisition) that the child is exhibiting. Furthermore,
researchers suggest that interventions for children Since more students with autism now spend more
with autism, should target and develop behaviors time in regular education inclusive settings with
that are socially valid (Elliott et al., 2008). Socially valid their typical peers than ever before, it would be
behaviors can be described as, “…those behaviors beneficial for educators to concentrate on ways to
that society considers important, encourages, and facilitate and enhance social interaction between
reinforces” (Gresham & Elliottt, 2014, p. 159). Fortunately, students with ASD and their typical peers, especially
several evidence-based social skills interventions have since research has demonstrate that interaction
been developed to enhance the development and between these two groups tends to be limited
successful implementation of social skills, bolster social naturally (Chamberlain et al., 2007; Humphrey &
competence, and perpetuate socially valid behaviors Symes, 2013). Peer Mediated Interventions have
(Gresham, 2016; Reichow & Volkmar, 2010; Whalon et al. demonstrated efficacy in enhancing the social
2015). Furthermore, evidence-based programs have skills of students with autism (such as peer initiation,
been designed to specifically target the social skills frequency and length of peer responses, and the
of individuals with autism. Wolstencroft et al. (2018) quality of peer interaction) as well as academic time
conducted a systematic review of group social skills on task, reading comprehension, and communication

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Figure 3
Goals for Promising Social Skills Interventions and Promising Teaching Strategies

(Chang & Locke, 2016; Cole & McCurdy, 2014; Kasari greater understanding of their peers with autism,
et al., 2012; Rodríguez-Medina et al., 2016; Wolfberg and reduced feelings of isolation (Locke et al., 2012).
et al., 2015; Zagona & Mastergeorge, 2016). Many One of the benefits of PMI interventions is that PMI
researchers consider the PMI essential components interventions can be implemented successfully in
of modeling, prompting, and reinforcement to be short periods of time and in a variety of settings,
the most successful procedures for teaching social such as small groups, play periods such as recess, via
skills and enhancing social competence (Cole & whole class intervention, or after school programs
McCurdy, 2014; Kamps et al., 2015). Whalon et al. (Chang & Locke, 2016; Corbett et al., 2015; Zagona
(2015) critically reviewed 37 school based single-case & Mastergeorge, 2016). Kasari et al., 2012) achieved
design studies involving more than 105 children ages positive social outcomes for students with autism in
three to 12 and found that, “peer-mediated, multi- a PMI intervention implemented just twice a week
component, adult-mediated interventions garnered for 20-minute sessions over only six weeks (12 sessions
more evidence for the promotion of peer interactions total). Some research has indicated that recess
in school settings than other interventions” (p. 1528). interventions allow for greater maintenance and
Students with ASD who benefit the most from PMI generalization of skills than interventions implemented
interventions, share certain characteristics, such as in other settings. Peer-Mediated Intervention (PMI) at
average cognition, interest in peer interaction, and recess or lunch has been demonstrated to increase
compliant behavior (Chang & Locke, 2016). In addition social interaction skills as well as reduce negative,
to their peers with autism, typical peers also benefit inappropriate behaviors (Harper, Symon, & Frea, 2008;
from PMI interventions (Kamps et al., 2015; Schlieder Rodríguez-Medina et al., 2016; Zagona & Mastergeorge,
et al., 2014). Typical peers who participate in PMI 2016). Some PMI unstructured activities capitalize on
programs have demonstrated enhanced social skills the student with autism’s interests for success (Koegel
of their own including higher quality friendships, a et al., 2013). Additional optional components to the

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Figure 4
The Age Groups that EBP with Positive Impact on Social Skills

PMI recess/lunch package include direct instruction cues (Koegel & Koegel, 2006; Schriebman et al., 1996).
of social skills, token-economy, priming and/or group The PRT technique is child-centered – yet adult-
contingencies (McFadden et al., 2014). facilitated, and PRT utilizes applied behavior analysis
Pivotal Response Training (ABA) procedures to provide support in naturalistic
settings (Koegel & Koegel, 2006; Platos & Wojaczek,
Pivotal Response Training (PRT) is a comprehensive 2017). PRT has been demonstrated to be effective
intervention package for students with autism targeting in enhancing and augmenting social skills and
“pivotal behaviors” include motivation, initiation, functional communication (Cadogan & McCrimmon,
initiation of social interaction, self-management, and 2015; Koegel et al., 2014). PRT can be utilized in the
understanding and utilizing multiple environmental classroom, home, community, and/or recreational

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settings such as lunch/recess. PRT typically involves Relational Skills (PEERS) is an evidence- based SSGT
an experienced trainer working in a 1:1 capacity with program specifically designed to enhance social
a focus student in the natural setting to promote and interaction skills for individuals with autism (Laugeson,
enhance those pivotal behaviors. Interventionists 2014). The PEERS program expands the foundation of
implementing PRT utilize the student’s natural interests the Children’s Friendship Training (CFT) (Frankel and
and preferences to trigger learning. Myatt, 2003). The primary aim of the PEERS program
is to enhance the friendship making skills of individuals
Social Skills Group Training with autism. Currently, the PEERS program includes
a preschool program, an adolescent program, and
Social skills group training (SSGT) is the most commonly a young adult program. Of seventy-three middle
utilized school intervention for children with autism. school students with ASD along with their parents and
SSGT typically involve several students of similar ages teachers who participated in one of the adolescent
participating in a small group setting with a trained PEER program for 14 weeks, the PEERS treatment
adult facilitator, such as a teacher, counselor, or speech group significantly improved social functioning in
therapist, or behaviorist. An adult facilitator tends to the areas of teacher-reported “social responsiveness,
guide the participants to interact. Social skills groups social communication, social motivation, social
conducted in the school setting can be classified awareness, and decreased autistic mannerisms,
into three types: (a) skills based (didactic instruction with a trend toward improved social cognition on
provided by an adult facilitator); (b) engagement the Social Responsiveness Scale.” (Laugerson, 2014, p.
based (peers engage in one another in play and/or 1). Since its debut, the PEERS program has expanded
constructive projects, such as building Legos); and (c) to over 80 countries worldwide and over a dozen
mixed (a combination of direct didactic instruction foreign languages. Furthermore, the program has
followed by a period of active peer engagement). demonstrated utility in improving the social skills of
Didactic models often involve instruction, modeling, individuals with other conditions, such as ADHD and/
practice, and feedback. Engagement groups (such or anxiety disorders (Laugeson, 2012). PEERS has been
as those employing PMI) tend to capitalize on shared developing an online delivery model in addition to the
interest between children at schools (Koegel et al., 2013; traditional in person delivery. The PEERS program is
Wolfberg et al., 2015). Some SSGT involve homework comprised of the following essential components: a)
with the goal of enhancing skill generalization. SSGT relevant portions of social skills curriculum; (b) the use
topics include such activities as giving a compliment to of parent-assistance (or other designated individual
another, asking for help, greeting others, initiating, and acting as a coach); and (c) structural elements of the
sustaining a conversation. Ongoing collaboration with lesson format (Laugeson et al., 2009, 2010).
a parent and/or teacher and behavior monitoring is
often key to the success of a solid SSGT. Meta-analysis Positive Behavior Reinforcement Interventions
of the use of SSGTs with students with autism have
showed promising positive gains in social skills (Gates, Positive Behavior Reinforcement Interventions are
Kang, & Lerner, 2017). the most-commonly used strategy for reducing
maladaptive behaviors and increasing appropriate
LEGO therapy (LeGoff, 2004) is a research based pro social behaviors (Matson & Boisjoli, 2008).
SSGT for youth that uses Legos to increase social Adding positive behavior interventions to other
competence in a structured environment in which evidence-based social skills interventions (such as
the participants are assigned clearly defined roles peer mediated interventions or video modeling),
and share an interest in Legos. Lego Therapy has has been demonstrated to increase the efficacy
demonstrated efficacy with students with autism of those programs (Camargo et al., 2014; Mason et
as well as student with other conditions, such as al.,2012). Positive reinforcement is the presentation of
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). a stimulus, such as a tangible object, a token, or verbal
LEGO club therapy originated using typical peers as praise, immediately after a behavior, which then
models in the group. Lego Club Therapy is research increases the likelihood that the behavior will recur
demonstrated to enhance friendship making skills, (Cooper et al., 2007). Variations of delivering positive
peer social interaction, peer to peer communication reinforcement include the use of token economies,
and problem-solving skills (Owens et al., 2008). LEGO differential reinforcement of other behaviors (DRO) –
therapy is designed to be administered twice a week reinforcing a child for going periods of time without
for ten weeks for approximately 45 minutes to an hour, engaging in a particular maladaptive behavior
but the program allows for flexibility in both time and target; and differential reinforcement of alternative
settings. While originally designed for students age behaviors (DRA) – reinforcing for alternative behaviors
seven and up, students as young as kindergarten age that are more socially appropriate and meet the
have benefited from the program. same function of the maladaptive behavior (such
as reinforcing a child for asking for a break when he
The Program for the Education and Enrichment of desires to escape an unpleasant situation as opposed

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to engaging in a tantrum when presented with the al., 2011). Video Modeling is particularly effective for
unpleasant stimuli) (Cooper et al., 2007). teaching novel social behavior (Charlop-Christy, Le, &
Freeman, 2000; Plavnick et al., 2015). Video modeling
Social Narratives may be implemented formally via a structured
program or informally by a provider to a targeted
Social narratives are one of the most widely utilized student. Video modeling requires little adult support or
and researched methods for the enhancement of direction (Hume et al., 2009) – making it a convenient
social skills. The concept of social narratives is derived intervention choice for schools. Indirectly, video
from the well-known intervention strategy of Social modeling incorporates elements of peer mediation
Stories™ developed by Carol Gray in 1993. Social and modeling. Social skills trainings are delivered in
Stories™ (Gray et al., 1993) are short, personal stories, a form that is comfortable and attractive to children:
written in the first person to teach children with autism children watch videos of expected and/or desired
how to navigate a challenging social situation. Social behavioral scenarios and then practice the behavior
stories are most beneficial for students with autism themselves.
to reduce a targeted problem behavior or to inform
children of an effective social response (Gray, 2010, While the National Clearinghouse on Autism
2021; Hutchins & Prelock, 2013; Pane et al., 2015). As Evidence and Practice (Steinbrenner, et al.,2020) has
such, social stories are often used as a supplemental been integral in identifying EBPs designed to enhance
program or within a broader social skills intervention the social functioning of students with autism, two
package for enhancing social skills (Kokina & Kern, additional resources are available in the United States
2010). Carol Gray is in the process of releasing Social to help educators find evidence-based social skills
Stories 10.3, the fourth version of the Social Story training suitable to meet the needs of their setting: The
Criteria. Carol Gray defines . Social Stories™ 10.3 as Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional
follows: Learning (CASEL) group and the Positive Environment
Network of Trainers (PENT). (CASEL was formed in
Recognizing that every human experience and
perspective is unique and valid, and that social 2003 to establish evidence-based SEL practices in
impairments and their solutions are shared, a Social the public-school setting (Schonert-Reichl & Hymel,
Story accurately describes a personally relevant 2007). The CASEL guide for evidence-based social
topic (often a context, skill, achievement, or concept)
according to ten defining criteria. These criteria guide emotional practices has been revised several times
Story research, development, and implementation to since 2003, with the most recent revision in 2013. The
ensure an overall patient and supportive quality and a 2013 CASEL Guide provides information on 23 select
format, voice, content, and learning experience that
is descriptive, meaningful, respectful, and physically, social skills programs spanning preschool to high
socially, and emotionally safe for the Story audience school. CASEL researchers (CASEL, 2013) have asserted
(a child, adolescent, or adult). (Gray, 2021, p. 19, power that global social emotional learning enhances
point handout).
academic achievement and behavior, while
Gray (2004) has recommended that all social simultaneously reducing maladaptive behaviors and
stories include a variety of descriptive, perspective, emotional difficulties. The PENT association, with the
affirmative and cooperative sentences, for every support of the Renowned Educational Psychologist
directive or control sentence. While a variety of and Behavior Psychologist Dr. Clayton Cook, (2015)
individuals may author social stories (i.e., parents, distinguishes between interventions for skill deficits
teachers, psychologists, daycare providers, behavior and interventions for performance deficits. Dr. Cook
therapists, etc.), parent involvement is essential for a (2015) has recommended the following evidence-
story to be considered a valid Social Story™ (Gray, 2021). based social skills training program for students who
To develop a successful social story, authors consider present with deficits in social skills (Figure 5).
external and internal contexts and their interaction
(Gray, 2021). Social narratives are primarily designed Next Steps
for those with reading skills, but individuals with limited
decoding skills but strong auditory comprehension Despite the availability of many diverse evidence-
skills may also benefit (Gray, 2010). Social stories may based Social Skills interventions, many are not utilized
incorporate visuals to augment social comprehension. by educators in the public-school settings (Locke et
Social stories are most effective when implemented al., 2016; Owens et al., 2014; Stahmer et al.,2015) and/
appropriately and with fidelity by trained personnel or they are not utilized with efficacy (Deris & Di Carlo,
(Mayton et al., 2013). 2013; Kasari & Smith, 2013). A review from 2007 that
included 14 studies on SSGT highlighted the following
Video Modeling research challenges: small sample size in studies,
inadequate measurement tools for social functioning,
Research suggests that video modeling is as effective and the need for various improvements (Williams et
as peer mediation in enhancing social skills (Wang et al., 2007). Furthermore, the literature gap illuminates

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Figure 5
Training Programs for Students with Deficits in Social Skills (Cook, 2015)

that the generalizability social skills addressed during emotional and behavioral practices in graduate
interventions has been neglected (Jonsson, et al., 2016; school programs for educators and service providers,
such as psychologists, counselors, and speech
Kasari et al, 2014; Williams et al., 2007). In a recent therapist.
study exploring the gap between educators and o Build a district team comprised of various
the successful implementation of evidence-based stakeholders to model and teach school sites how to
implement EBPs for students with autism.
social skills interventions in the school setting, the
researchers identified six key barriers: lack of training, o Increase and enhance training to all staff related
lack of support, lack of time, prioritization conflicts, evidence-based social skills interventions. Include
direct modeling, practical experience, and field
lack of resources, and staff mindset (Silveria-Zaldivar & experience in the training.
Curtis, 2019). To adequately address the critical need
of those with autism to develop enhanced social skills, o Offer parent training of EBPs to enhance the
generalization of social skills.
Carter et al. (2014) suggested five intervention areas:
o Consider the utilization of typical peers as agents
1. Additional research should focus on social skills of change.
intervention that consider the functioning level of the
individual. o Increase collaborative opportunities amongst staff
and stakeholders.
2. Schools need to find ways to involve peers in
interventions and to deliver interventions at school o Increase access to resources, sufficient personnel,
settings. and materials to implement for social skills.
3. Peers and/or family members should be involved in o Incorporate the best-fit model (the consideration
interventions. of cost, efficacy, and effort when determining the
appropriate EBPs program or programs for a particular
4. More technological based interventions should be site or district).
explored, and
o Have each school site develop a monitoring system
5. Research should create more appropriate social to ensure that each student with autism on their
emotional assessments and interventions that focus campus has access to EBPs for social skills.
primarily on the needs of an adolescent with autism.
Addressing the social needs of students with autism
Silveria-Zaldivar (2019) proposed the following
in school settings is likely to yield advantages that
suggestions for school districts to build the social
exceed the students’ school environment. The
competence of students with autism by implementing
successful implementation of EBPs for social skills for
EBPs for social skills:
students with autism will undoubtedly extend benefits
o Motivate administrators and other stakeholders to the society at large.
to incorporate social skills in the school setting by
sharing with them research regarding the relevance
of the development of effective social skills.

o Increase education of evidence-based social

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Conclusion Boujut, E., Dean, A., Grouselle, A., & Cappe, E. (2016).
Comparative study of teachers in regular
This article sought to explain the constructs of social schools and teachers in specialized schools in
competence, social skills, and adaptive skills in a manner France, working with students with an autism
accessible and relatable to educators. Appropriate spectrum disorder: Stress, social support, coping
social skills are a prerequisite for social competence. strategies and burnout. Journal of Autism and
Hence, successful interventions that improve social Developmental Disorders, 46(9), 2874-2889.
skills theoretically should improve social competency doi:10.1007/s10803-016-2833-2
as well. Deficits in social skills have a profound and
lasting impact on academic achievement, school Baumeister, R., & Leary, M. (1995). The need to belong:
behavior, social and emotional well-being including Desire for interpersonal attachments as a
friendship and family relations, and adult outcomes fundamental human motivation. Psychological
for those with autism (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Kok Bulletin, 117(3), 497-529.
et al., 2013; Seppala et al., 2013). Children with ASD
have significant social skills impairments. Evidence- Berney, T. (2004). Asperger syndrome from childhood
based social skills interventions are paramount in into adulthood. Advances in Psychiatric
counteracting the negative effects of social deficits Treatment, 10, 341-351.
that are inherent in a diagnosis of autism. Social and
adaptive skills are of pivotal nature. However, social, Brown, J. A., & McIntosh, K. (2012). Training, inclusion,
and adaptive skills are teachable and learnable skills. and behaviour: Effect on student-teacher and
Children with ASD have difficulty learning these skills student-SEA relationships for autistic students
through natural social interaction without explicit with autism spectrum disorders. Exceptionality
guidance. Children with ASD require well-planned Education International, 22(2), 77-88.
and well-implemented interventions to develop
appropriate social and adaptive skills. Ultimately, the Caldarella, P. & Merrell, K. (1997): Common dimensions
development of appropriate social and adaptive skills of social skills of children and adolescents:
may be critical to the success of the individual with A taxonomy of positive behaviors. School
autism. Fortunately, there are more than two dozen Psychology Review, 26(2), 264-278.
evidence-based methods, practices, strategies, and
procedures for improving social and adaptive skills of Calder, L., Hill, V., & Pellicano, E. (2013). ‘Sometimes I
children with ASD. The challenge remains, however, want to play by myself’: Understanding what
in implementing those interventions for social skills in friendship means to children with autism in
various settings and with regularity and fidelity. mainstream primary schools. Autism, 7(3), 296–
316.
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