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CELL

• Basic structural and functional unit of the body

• It can be divided into :
▪ Plasma membrane
▪ Cytoplasm
▪ Nucleus

PLASMA MEMBRANE :
✓ Flexible outer layer
✓ Separates cell’s internal environment and outer environment
✓ Regulates flow of barriers in and out of cell
✓ Selectively permeable
✓ Helps in communication between cells and external environment
✓ According to fluid mosaic model, plasma membrane contains lipid bilayer
structure with proteins lodged in it.
✓ Consists of 3 lipid molecules :

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a) Phospholipids
b) Cholesterol
c) Glycolipids
✓ Membrane lipids contains hydrophilic(polar) and hydrophobic ends (non
polar). Phospholipid molecules are arranged with their hydrophilic end facing
outward and the hydrophobic end inwards
✓ Cholesterol are scattered within lipid bilayer
✓ Membrane proteins are divided into- extrinsic (peripheral proteins) and
intrinsic (integral ) . Intrinsic proteins are embedded within the lipid bilayer
and the extrinsic proteins are present on the surface of plasma membrane

CYTOPLASM :
• Inner region of plasma membrane
• It contains cytosol and cell organelles
A)Cytosol
✓ Fluid portion of the cytoplasm that surrounds organelles
✓ Although it varies in composition and consistency from one part of a cell to another,
cytosol is 75–90% water plus various dissolved and suspended components. Among
these are different types of ions, glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, proteins, lipids,
ATP, and waste products.
✓ Cytosol is the site of many chemical reactions required for a cell’s existence.
✓ The cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments that extends throughout the
cytosol.
✓ Functions of cytoskeleton are : (1) Serves as a scaffold that helps to determine a cell’s
shape and to organize the cellular movements
(2) Aids movement of organelles within cell, of chromosomes during cell division and
of whole cell such as phagocytes

✓ Three types of filamentous proteins present in cytoskeleton includes :

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Microfilaments:
➢ Thinnest elements of the cytoskeleton.
➢ Composed of the proteins actin and myosin and are most prevalent at the edge
of a cell
➢ Functions:
i) They help generate movement and provide mechanical support. Involved in
muscle contraction, cell division cell locomotion etc.
ii) Provide mechanical support that is responsible for the basic strength and
shapes of cells.
iii) They anchor the cytoskeleton to integral proteins in the plasma membrane.
iv) Microfilaments also provide mechanical support for cell extensions called
microvilli which are non-motile, microscopic fingerlike projections

Intermediate filaments :
➢ Thicker than microfilaments but thinner than microtubules
➢ Found in parts of cells subject to mechanical stress
➢ Help stabilize the position of organelles such as the nucleus and help attach cells to
one another.

Microtubules :
➢ Largest of the cytoskeletal components
➢ Long, unbranched hollow tubes composed mainly of the protein tubulin.
➢ The assembly of microtubules begins in an organelle called the centrosome
➢ Microtubules help determine cell shape.
➢ Helps in the movement of organelles such as secretory vesicles of
chromosomes during cell division, and of specialized cell projections, such as
cilia and flagella.

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B) Organelles :
• Present within cytosol . Each organelle has characteristic shape and function .
Consists of :
Centrosome :
➢ Located near nucleus
➢ Consists of two components: a pair of centrioles and pericentriolar material.
➢ The two centrioles are cylindrical structures composed of microtubules arranged in a
circular pattern.
➢ Pericentriolar material surrounds the centriole and it contains ring-shaped complexes
composed of the protein tubulin.
➢ Functions of centrosome :
1. The pericentriolar material of the centrosome contains tubulins that build microtubules in
non-dividing cells.
2. The pericentriolar material of the centrosome forms the mitotic spindle during cell
division.

Cilia
➢ Numerous, short, hair like projections that extend from the surface of the cell
➢ Each cilium is anchored to a basal body just below the surface of plasma membrane
➢ The coordinated movement of cilia on the surface of a cell causes the movement of
fluid/mucus along the cell’s surface.

Flagella
➢ Similar in structure to cilia but longer.
➢ Made up of protein called flagellin
➢ Flagella moves an entire cell.
➢ Functions of cilia and flagella : 1. Cilia move fluids along a cell’s surface. 2. A
flagellum moves an entire cell.

Ribosomes :
➢ Sites of protein synthesis.
➢ High content of ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
➢ Tiny , bilobed structures
➢ Consists of two subunits. The large and small subunits are made separately in the
nucleolus.
➢ Some ribosomes are attached to the outer surface of the nuclear membrane and to an
extensively folded membrane called the endoplasmic reticulum. These ribosomes
synthesize proteins destined for specific organelles, for insertion in the plasma
membrane, or for export from the cell.

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➢ Other ribosomes are “free” or unattached to other cytoplasmic structures. Free

ribosomes synthesize proteins used in the cytosol.
➢ Ribosomes are also located within mitochondria, where they synthesize mitochondrial
proteins.
➢ Functions of ribosomes:
1. Ribosomes associated with endoplasmic reticulum synthesize proteins destined for
insertion in the plasma membrane or secretion from the cell.
2. Free ribosomes synthesize proteins used in the cytosol

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

➢ Network of membranes in the form of flattened sacs or tubules .
➢ Extends from nuclear envelope to the entire cytoplasm
➢ Cells contain two distinct forms of ER, which differ in structure and function.
➢ Rough ER is continuous with the nuclear membrane and usually is folded into a series
of flattened sacs. The outer surface of rough ER is studded with ribosomes which are
the sites of protein synthesis and responsible for roughness of the membrane.
➢ Smooth ER extends from the rough ER to form a network of membrane tubules
.Smooth ER does not have ribosomes on the outer surfaces of its membrane.
➢ Functions of endoplasmic reticulum :
1. Rough ER synthesizes glycoproteins and phospholipids
2. Smooth ER :
a) Synthesizes fatty acids and steroids, such as estrogens and testosterone
b) Inactivates or detoxifies drugs and other potentially harmful substances
c) Removes the phosphate group from glucose-6-phosphate
d) Stores and releases calcium ions that trigger contraction in muscle cells

Golgi complex
➢ Consists of series of 3-20 flattened , slightly bent , double membrane sacs called
cisternae
➢ Cisternae are curved
➢ Entry or cis face is a cisterna that faces the rough ER. It accepts proteins from rough
ER.
➢ Exit or trans face is a cisterna that faces the plasma membrane. It modifies the
molecule , sorts and packs them for transporting to destination
➢ Sacs between the entry and exit faces are called medial cisternae. They form
lipoproteins , glycoproteins and glycolipids. Medial cisternae add carbohydrates to
proteins to form glycoproteins and lipids to proteins to form lipoproteins.
➢ Functions of golgi complex :
1. Modifies, sorts, packages, and transports proteins received from the rough ER.

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2. Forms secretory vesicles that discharge processed proteins via exocytosis into extracellular
fluid; forms membrane vesicles that transport new molecules to the plasma membrane; forms
transport vesicles that carry molecules to other organelles.

Lysosomes :
➢ Membrane-enclosed vesicles that form from the Golgi complex.
➢ Known as suicide bags of the cell
➢ Contains digestive and hydrolytic enzymes that can break down a wide variety of
molecules.
➢ Functions of lysosome:
1. Digest substances that enter a cell via endocytosis and transport final products of digestion
into cytosol.
2. Carry out autophagy, the digestion of worn-out organelles.
3. Implement autolysis, the digestion of an entire cell.
4. Accomplish extracellular digestion. (Occurs during fertilization. The head of a sperm cell
releases lysosomal enzymes that aid its penetration of the oocyte by dissolving its protective
coating )

Peroxisomes :
➢ Also known as microbodies
➢ Simple , spherical , membrane - bound vesicles in the cytoplasm
➢ It contain several oxidases, enzymes that can oxidize (remove hydrogen atoms from)
various organic substances.
➢ Amino acids and fatty acids are oxidized in peroxisomes as part of normal
metabolism. In addition, enzymes in peroxisomes oxidize toxic substances, such as
alcohol. Thus, peroxisomes are very abundant in the liver, where detoxification of
alcohol and other damaging substances occurs.
➢ A by-product of the oxidation reactions is hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), a toxic
compound and free radicals such as superoxide. Peroxisomes also contain the
enzyme catalase, which decomposes H2O2 and enzymes that destroy superoxide.
➢ Because production and degradation of H2O2 occur within the same organelle,
peroxisomes protect other parts of the cell from the toxic effects of H2O2.
➢ Without peroxisomes, byproducts of metabolism could accumulate inside a cell and
result in cellular death.

Proteasomes
➢ Small , barrel shaped structures consisting of four stacked rings of proteins around a
central core
➢ Contains an enzyme called protease which catalyzes the break down of larger
molecules into smaller ones . Eg. : Breakdown of proteins into peptides. Peptides are
again broken down into amino acids , which take part in the formation of new
molecules.
➢ Proteasomes are responsible for the digestion of unwanted or waste protein

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Mitochondria
➢ Tiny rod shaped bodies
➢ Known as the “powerhouses” of the cell as they generate most of the ATP
➢ Consists of an outer mitochondrial membrane and an inner mitochondrial membrane
with a small fluid-filled inter membrane space between them .
➢ The inner mitochondrial membrane contains a series of folds called cristae . It
increases the surface area of the inner membrane and facilitate in ATP production.
Also it contains enzymes that catalyze various reactions which result in ATP
production.
➢ Outer mitochondrial membrane contains trans membrane proteins called porins .
Small molecules or ions move freely across the outer mitochondrial and inter
membrane space through porins.
➢ The central fluid-filled cavity , enclosed by the inner mitochondrial membrane, is the
matrix.
➢ Can self replicate
➢ Synthesis of some of the proteins needed for mitochondrial functions occurs on the
ribosomes that are present in the mitochondrial matrix
➢ Mitochondria even have their own DNA, in the form of multiple copies of a circular
DNA
➢ Functions of mitochondria :
1) Generate ATP through reactions of aerobic cellular respiration.
2) Play an important role in apoptosis (genetically programmed death of a cell).

{In response to stimuli such as large numbers of destructive free radicals, DNA damage,
growth factor deprivation, or lack of oxygen and nutrients, certain chemicals are released
from mitochondria following the formation of a pore in the outer mitochondrial membrane.
One ofthe chemicals released into the cytosol of the cell is cytochrome c, which while inside
the mitochondria is involved in aerobic cellular respiration. In the cytosol, however,
cytochrome c and other substances initiate a cascade of activation of protein-digesting
enzymes that bringabout apoptosis.}

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Vacuoles :
➢ Membrane bound cell organelle
➢ In animal cells, vacuoles are small
➢ Helps to clear out waste products

NUCLEUS
• Spherical or oval-shaped structure .
• Most cells have a single nucleus. Mature red blood cells have none. Skeletal muscle
cells have multiple nuclei.
• Nuclear envelope : Nucleus is separated from cytoplasm by a bilayered lipid
membrane called the nuclear membrane or nuclear envelope. The outer membrane of
the nuclear envelope is continuous with rough ER and resembles it in structure.
• Nuclear pores : Openings present in the nuclear envelope. Control the movement of
substances between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. Small molecules and ions move
through the pores passively by diffusion. Most large molecules, such as RNAs and
proteins pass by means of active transport .
• Nucleolus : One or more spherical bodies present inside the nucleus function in
producing ribosomes. Each nucleolus consists of protein, DNA, and RNA. It is not
enclosed by a membrane.
• Within the nucleus , the cell’s hereditary units, called genes are present .It controls
cellular structure and direct cellular activities. Genes are arranged along chromosomes
. Each chromosome is a long molecule of DNA that is coiled together with several
proteins. The total genetic information carried in a cell or an organism is its genome.
• Functions :
✓ Helps in cell division
✓ Transfer of hereditary characteristics
✓ Synthesis of proteins & enzymes

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✓ Functions as the control center of the cell

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TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
Major transport mechanisms between cells are:
1) Diffusion –
a) Simple diffusion
b) Facilitated diffusion
2) Osmosis-
3) Active transport –
a) Primary & Secondary Active transport
4) Endocytosis
a) Receptor mediated endocytosis
b) Bulk phase endocytosis
c) Phagocytosis
5) Exocytosis
6) Transcytosis

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❖ Diffusion:
It is the transfer of substances from a higher concentration to lower concentration
It depends on :
a) Steepness of the concentration gradient: The greater the difference in concentration
between the two sides of the membrane, higher is the rate of diffusion.
Diffusion rate is directly proportional to the steepness of the conc. gradient
b) Temperature: The higher the temperature, faster is the rate of diffusion.
c) Mass of the diffusing substance: The larger the mass of the diffusing particle, the
slower its diffusion rate. Smaller molecules diffuse more rapidly than larger ones.
It is inversely proportional to diffusion rate
d) Surface area: The larger the membrane surface area available for diffusion, the faster
is the diffusion rate.
e) Diffusion distance: If the diffusion distance is shorter, the diffusion rate will be faster.
If the diffusion distance is more, the rate will be slow

A) Simple diffusion- Substances moves from higher concentration to lower. Hydrophobic

molecules move across the lipid bilayer through the process of simple diffusion.
Simple diffusion through the lipid bilayer is important in the movement of oxygen
and carbon dioxide between blood and body cells, and between blood and air within
the lungs during breathing. It also is the route for absorption of some nutrients and
excretion of some wastes by body cells.

B) Facilitated diffusion- Solutes that are too polar or highly charged to move through the
lipid bilayer by simple diffusion can cross the plasma membrane by facilitated
diffusion. In this process, an integral membrane protein assists the passage of
substance across the membrane. The integral membrane protein can be either a
membrane channel or a carrier.

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❖ Osmosis - is a type of diffusion in which there is net movement of a solvent through a

selectively permeable membrane.
Water molecules pass through a plasma membrane in two ways:
(1) Through lipid bilayer
(2) Through aquaporins (integral membrane proteins that function as water channels.)

ACTIVE TRANSPORT
It is the transport of polar or charged substances across the plasma membrane against the
concentration gradient.
It requires : (a) energy (b) Transporter
2 types : Primary active transport & Secondary active transport

A) Primary active transport

• Energy for the transport is obtained from ATP Hyrolysis
• The transporter proteins that carry out the Primary active transport are known as
pumps
• Eg: Na+/K+ ATPase pump
• Mechanism of Na+/K+ ATPase pump:

B) Secondary active transport

• In secondary active transport, the energy stored in a Na+ or H+ concentration gradient
is used to drive other substances across the membrane against their own concentration
gradients. Because a Na+ or H+ gradient is established by primary active transport,
secondary active transport indirectly uses energy obtained from the hydrolysis of
ATP.

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• In secondary active transport, a carrier protein binds to Na+/H+ or another substance

and then changes its shape so that both substances cross the membrane at the same
time.
• 2 types of transporters are present – Symporter & Antiporter
• Symporter – Carriers or transporters that transport 2 substances to same direction
across the plasma membrane. Eg: Na+/glucose symporter
• Antiporters – Carriers or transporters that move 2 move substances in opposite
directions across the plasma membrane.Eg: Na+/H+ antiporter

❖ Endocytosis
• It is carried out with the help of vesicles ( small spherical sacs)
• 3 types :
a) Receptor mediated endocytosis
b) Phagocytosis
c) Bulk phase endocytosis/ Pinocytosis
Receptor mediated endocytosis- is a highly selective type of endocytosis by which cells
take up specific ligands.
Eg: Receptor-mediated endocytosis of LDLs :
o Binding: LDL binds to LDL receptots present on the plasma membrane. The
clathrinmolecules forms a pit and the LDL-LDL respetor comples is aligned. The pit
then forms an invagination
o Vesicle formation : 2 ends of the invagination fuse together to form a vesicle.The part
of plasma membrane pinches and the vesicle enters into the cytoplasm.
o Uncoating : clathrin molecules are removed and the clathrin molecules are returned
to the plasma membrane.
o Fusion with endosome: The uncoated vesicle fuses with a vesicle known as an
endosome. Within an endosome, the LDL particles separate from their receptors.
o Recycling of receptors to plasma membrane: LDL receptor is returned to the plasma
membrane.
o Degradation in lysosomes: Endosomes fuses with lysosomes.The digesting enzymes
in lysosomes cleaves and releases cholesterol from LDL to cytoplasm.

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Phagocytosis
o It is a form of endocytosis in which the cell engulfs large solid particles, such as
worn-out cells, whole bacteria, or viruses
o Phagocytosis begins when the particle binds to a plasma membrane receptor on the
phagocyte, causing it to extend pseudopods(projections of plasma membrane and
cytoplasm). Pseudopods surround the particle outside the cell, and the membranes
fuse to form a vesicle called a phagosome, which enters the cytoplasm. The
phagosome fuses with one or more lysosomes, and lysosomal enzymes break down
the ingested material.Undigested materials in the phagosome remain indefinitely in a
vesicle called a residual body.

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Bulk phase endocytosis / Pinocytosis

o It is a form of endocytosis in which tiny droplets of extracellular fluid are taken up by
the cell.
o No receptor proteins are involved;
o Solutes dissolved in the extracellular fluid are brought into the cell. The plasma
membrane forms a vesicle containing a droplet of extracellular fluid. The vesicle
detaches off from the plasma membrane and enters the cytosol. Within the cell, the
vesicle fuses with a lysosome and the enzymes degrade the engulfed solutes. Digested
solutes are liberated out.

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❖ EXOCYTOSIS
o Exocytosis releases materials from a cell.
o It is important in two types of cells:
(1) secretory cells that liberate digestive enzymes, hormones, mucus, or other secretions
(2) nerve cells that release substances called neurotransmitters
o During exocytosis, membrane-enclosed vesicles called secretory vesicles form inside
the cell.Vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane and release contents into the
extracellular fluid.

❖ TRANSCYTOSIS
o Vesicles undergo endocytosis on one side of a cell, move across the cell, and then
undergo exocytosis on the opposite side.
o Vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane, the vesicular contents are released into the
extracellular fluid.
Eg: When a woman is pregnant, some of her antibodies cross the placenta into the fetal
circulation via transcytosis.

CELL JUNCTIONS
• Cell junctions are contact points between the plasma membranes of tissue cells.
• 5 types:
a) Tight junctions
b) Adherens junction
c) Desmosomes
d) Hemidesmosomes
e) Gap junctions
Tight junctions –
➢ Tight junctions consist of web like strands of transmembrane proteins that fuse
together the outer surfaces of adjacent plasma membranes
➢ Cells of epithelial tissues that line the stomach, intestines, and urinary bladder
have many tight junctions.
➢ They inhibit the passage of substances between cells and prevent the contents of
these organs from leaking into the blood or surrounding tissues.
➢ The proteins are claudins & occludins

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Adherens junction –
➢ Adherens junctions contain a plaque of dense layer of proteins on the inside of the
plasma membrane that attaches both to membrane proteins and to microfilaments
of the cytoskeleton.
➢ Transmembrane glycoproteins called cadherins.
➢ Cadherin of one plasma membrane attaches to the cadherin of adjacent plasma
membrane.
➢ Functions:
a) Adherens junctions help epithelial surfaces resist separation during various contractile
activities
b) Holds cells tightly together
c) Confers mechanical strength

➢ Adaptor proteins- Plakoglobin , α & β catenin

Desmosomes
➢ Like adherens junctions, desmosomes contain plaque and have transmembrane
glycoproteins (cadherins) that extend into the intercellular space between adjacent
cell membranes and attach cells to one another.

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➢ The plaque of desmosomes does not attach to microfilaments. Instead, a

desmosome plaque attaches to intermediate filaments
➢ Desmosomes prevent epidermal cells from separating under tension and cardiac
muscle cells from pulling apart during contraction.

Hemidesmosomes
➢ The transmembrane glycoproteins in hemidesmosomes are integrins.
➢ On the inside of the plasma membrane, integrins attach to intermediate filaments
(made of the protein keratin)and on the outside of the plasma membrane, the
integrins attach to the protein laminin (present in the basement membrane).
➢ Hemidesmosomes anchor cells not to each other but to the basement membrane.

Gap Junctions
➢ At gap junctions, membrane proteins called connexins form tiny fluid-filled
tunnels called connexons that connect neighboring cells .
➢ Through the connexons, ions and small molecules can diffuse from the cytosol of
one cell to another, but the passage of large molecules is prevented.

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➢ The transfer of nutrients and wastes, takes place through gap junctions in
avascular tissues such as the lens and cornea of the eye.
➢ Gap junctions also enable nerve or muscle impulses to spread rapidly.

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