20 Poverty
20 Poverty
20 Poverty
What is Poverty?
Poverty can be defined as a socio-economic phenomenon in which a section of the people of a country is
unable to fulfil the basic necessities of life, such as, food, shelter, cloth, health facilities and education. Thus,
poverty is the inability to fulfil the minimum requirements of life.
What is Absolute and Relative Poverty.
By poverty we mean two conceptual issues, namely, Relative Poverty and Absolute Poverty.
Relative Poverty is basically the comparative difference between two persons income. Thus it
actually represents the extent of inequality in the distribution of income.
On the other hand Absolute Poverty represents a situation in which a person or a family is deprived
of its minimum subsistence. Basically this is measured by a cut-off level of income, bellow which a person or
a family cannot fulfill its minimum requirements.
The main defect of the relative measurement of poverty is that it indicates the relative positions of
different segments of the population in the income strata. Even in highly developed economies, such pockets
of poverty may exist. This relative measure cannot give any idea about the mass or wide-spread poverty in an
economy.
What is Poverty Line?
Poverty line is a measure of absolute poverty. Poverty line refers to the money value o f the
minimum quantities of those goods and services which are needed for the subsistence of an individual. It
basically represents a cut-off level of income which is necessary for a family or a person to buy its minimum
subsistence. Person whose income is less than that cut off level of income is said to be living below the
poverty line. Poverty may be defined at two levels. One is at the basic minimum level and the other is at the
desirable level. In India, while defining poverty, the concept of basic minimum level has been used.
In India, it has been generally accepted from nutritional standpoint that a person should take at least 2,250
calories per day for subsistence. According to the Planning Commission of India, the cost of the minimum
quantities of goods required for subsistence is Rs 20 per capita per month at 1960-61 prices. Individuals
having consumption expenditure of less than Rs 20 per month at 1960-61 prices are considered to be poor
and are said to be below the poverty line.
In India the Planning Commission of India has estimated that in rural areas 2400 per capita
calorie intake and in urban areas 2100 per capita calorie intake is necessary for daily average work. Therefore
in India the poverty line is measured in terms of the income required to purchase food supplying that
minimum subsistence level of calorie intake. In 2004-05 the 61st round of NSS suvey fixed poverty line for
India as per capita consumption expenditure below Rs. 356.35 for rural areas and Rs. 538.60 for urban areas.
And lastly we may just mention the concept of international poverty line. In 1990, the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP) set a poverty line at one dollar (at 1985 prices) per day per person.
What is Head Count Ratio?
The most elementary, and also the most widely employed, means of assessing the extent of poverty in
any society is to obtain a simple headcount of the poor. The poor are those whose incomes fall short of a
stipulated poverty line. But this method may bring some problem for assessing the extent of poverty in the
country. For example, if in some initial time period 30 persons in a population of 100 are poor, while in a
later time period 40 persons in a population of 200 are poor, then the headcount ratio declines from 30 per
cent to 20 per cent, whereas the aggregate headcount rises from 30 persons to 40 persons. In order to avoid
such problem ‘Head Count Ratio’ is used.
In its simplest form the headcount ratio is simply the proportion of a population that exists, or lives,
below the 'poverty line’. This ratio is found by counting the number of people below the poverty line, and
then we divide it by the total population of the country or the region. Thus,
number of people below the poverty line
HCR = ,
total population of the country
But there is a severe problem with this method of measuring the extent of poverty. This method cannot
estimate the extent to which an individual’s income falls below the poverty line.
Chap 20 2 apurba sir
It was also introduced during the fifth plan. The purpose of the scheme was to provide credit facilities to
small farmers so that they can take opportunity of new agricultural strategy (Green Revolution).
3. Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers (MFAL)
This programme was also launched during the fifth plan. Its aim was to provide subsidised credit for
agriculture and subsidiary activities like poultry, fishery, dairy, etc.
4. Drought-Prone Area Programme (DPAP)
This programme was also adopted during the fifth plan. The aim of the programme was to provide job
opportunities in the drought areas.
5 Food for Work Programme (FFW)
It was launched in 1977. The programme was launched in order to create some social assets of permanent
nature in the rural areas. Workers were given foodgrains instead of money wage for their work.
6. National Rural Employment Programme (NREP)
The programme was started in October, 1980. Its main goal was to help seasonally unemployed people in the
agricultural sector. It aimed at creating community assets in order to develop rural infrastructure. This
programme was complementary to the Food For Work (FFW) programme.
7. Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP)
This programme was started in August 1983 under the sixth plan. It was launched in order to supplement the
NREP. This programme sought to generate gainful employment creating productive assets in the rural areas.
8. Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP)
This programme was also adopted in the sixth plan. Different programmes providing rural employment were
integrated together and brought under this single programme. The main objective of IRDP was to promote
self-employment of the poor providing them productive assets.
9. Training for Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM)
This scheme was adopted in 1979. As the very name of the scheme suggests, its aim was to give training to
the rural youths to enable them to become selfemployed.
10. Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY)
NREP and RLEGP were merged in the new scheme of Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY) on April 1, 1989. The
main purpose of JRY was to generate gainful employment in rural areas. It also sought to create rural
infrastructure and community assets. The scheme was launched to help people below the poverty line,
particularly people from scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.
11. Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS)
This scheme was launched in 1993 during the eighth plan. The objective of this scheme was to ensure job
opportunities of 100 days in a year to the poor unskilled workers.
12. Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojana (PMRY)
This scheme was started in 1993-94 under the eighth plan. Its main objective was to increase urban
employment opportunities.
13 Self-Employment for the Educated Urban Youth (SEEUY)
This scheme was also launched in the year 1993-94. In 1994-95 it was integrated
with PMRY. The main objective of the scheme was to provide help to the educated
urban youth to enable them to become self-employed.
14. Public Distribution System (PDS)
To help the poor section, the Government introduced the Public Distribution System (PDS). Due to political
pressure, the government adopted a universal PDS, rather than a targeted PDS focused on the poor. This
system continued up to the initial years of 1990’s. It created heavy pressure on the government exchequer as
foodgrains under PDS were distributed at subsidised rates. Hence, the system was streamlined by issuing
special cards to families below poverty line (BPL). Foodgrains are sold to these BPL families at specially
subsidized prices with effect from June 1997. This is known as Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS).
Families above poverty line (APL) get less facilities than BPL families. Overtime, the amount of foodgrains
at heavily subsidised prices to the
BPL cardholders has been increased. In addition, 25 kg of foodgrains was to be provided to the poorest of the
poor families under Antodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) at a highly subidised price.
15 Mid-day Meal (MDM)
The government has introduced mid-day meals at schools for the students at primary and secondary levels.
This has also greatly helped the poor students.
Chap 20 4 apurba sir
16. MGNREGS : In 2005, the government introduced National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme
(NREGS). Its object is to provide employment of 100 days in a year to one able member of a rural family.
This is at present the most important scheme in rural India. Later, the scheme has been renamed as Mahatma
Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS).
A CRITICAL ASSESSMENT OF POVERTY ALLEVIATION PROGRAMME
At least, after the fourth plan, the government of India has adopted so many schemes in order to
alleviate poverty. Most of them are target-oriented schemes, not long term schemes. The effect of these
schemes in poverty alleviation is more direct. Analysing National Sample Survey (NSS) data, it may be said
that during 1970s and 1980s, the incidence of poverty somewhat reduced.
Still, we must have to admit that on the whole, the anti-poverty programmes have not been successful to
eradicate poverty. There are some reasons behind this failure of poverty alleviating programmes :
(i) A major part of the benefits of various schemes did not reach the poor. In many cases, those benefits have
been appropriated by the influential persons.
(ii ) There is a lack of goodwill on the part of the political parties al so. Party interest gets priority while
distributing government assistance.
Different Measures of Poverty in India
Various studies have been made to estimate (or measure) the extent of poverty in India. Here we refer
to only official estimates, leaving aside all private estimates.
(a) The Sixth Plan. The Sixth Five-Year Plan defined minimum needs in terms of physical survival as
suggested by the Task Force on Minimum Needs, 1979. Using a minimum of calorie intake of 2,400 per
person in the rural areas and 2,100 for urban areas, respectively, the Plan reported that 51.49% of the
population lived below the poverty line in 1972-73. The Plan recorded a decline in the incidence of poverty
from 51.49% in 1972-73 to 48.13% in 1977-78.
(b) Recent Poverty Estimates. The absolute number of poor declined throughout the 1980s but it increased in
2001-02 for both rural and urban areas. So after more than fifty years of Independence almost 320 million
people, or around 36% of total population, lived below the poverty line. This indicates partial failure of
planning.
(c) The Ninth Plan and Poverty Estimates. The Ninth Five-Year Plan (1997-2002) used the concept of
poverty gap developed by World Bank to measure the severity of poverty. The Ninth Plan draws a policy
conclusion: “Over time there has been a trend towards a greater degree of clustering of tbe poor around the
poverty line leading to a situation where economic growth is likely to have a considerably larger impact on
poverty reduction than before
What is Poverty Gap
A measure for capturing the depth of poverty is the poverty gap (PG) index, which adjusts the poverty
ratio with difference between the per capita consumption of the poor and the poverty line expressed as a
percentage of the poverty line.
It is measured in the following way,
𝑃𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 − 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑃𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒
TPG = % of population below poverty line × [ ]
𝑃𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒
Economists calculate a total poverty gap (TPG) which measures the total amount of income necessary to
raise everyone who is below the poverty line to that line. The TPG—the extent to which the incomes of the
poor He below the poverty line— is found by adding up the amounts by which each poor person's income
falls below the absolute poverty line.
POVERTY IN WEST BENGAL
Not much data on poverty in West Bengal are available. At present there is not much poverty in the
urban areas of West Bengal. The main reason is that there has occurred an expansion of the informal sector.
And this sector has given jobs and income-earning opportunities to the poor people. And many of them have
earned a minimum amount of income and have virtually managed to come above the poverty line.
In addition, there has occurred a steady fall in the incidence of rural poverty in West Bengal. In fact, one
of the causes of this is migration of people from rural to urban areas.
Since 1999-2000, the decline in poverty in the state has been faster than all-India. Still, there are (as in
2004-05) 173.2 lakh below-the-poverty (BPL) population in rural West Begnal, constituting 7.8% of the rural
BPL population in the country.
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(5) Growth in infrastructural investment: Infrastructural investment includes investment for the
expansion of the transport and communications systems, electricity generation and distribution, etc. Such
infrastructural investment also creates employment opportunities and sustained income growth in the long
run.
(6) Greater emphasis on skill-formation: Instead of giving more emphasis on the quantity of
employment, the Government has recently put more importance on the quality of employment through
increasing labour productivity.
(7) Population control measures: The Government of India also put greater stress on population control
measures to solve the problem of unemployment in the long-run.
B. Short-term measures:
Different long-term measures to fight the problem of unemployment were also combined with other short-
term measures, which provided some relief, at least on a temporary basis. These short-term measures were
supposed to supplement the long-term measures for a sustained development in employment opportunities.
Some of these short-term measures were as follows:
(1) Small Farmers Development Agency (SFDA),
(2) Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP),
(3) Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP),
(4) National Rural Employment Programme (NREP),
(5) Training of Rural Youth for Self-employment (TRYSEM),
(6) Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP),
(7) Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY),
1. Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY). This scheme, restructured as the National Rural
Livelihoods Mission (NRLM) was launched from April 19, 1999 after restructuring the IRDP and allied
schemes. It is the only self-employment programme for the rural poor. It seeks to bring the self-employed
above the poverty line by providing them incomegenerating assets through institutional finance (i.e., bank
loan) and government subsidy. NRLM aims at creating gainful self-employment as also wage employment
for skilled persons with a view to reducing the incidence of unemployment and poverty.
2. The Swarnajayanti Gram Shahari Rozgar Yojana (SGSRY). The programme was launched from Dec. 1,
1997 and was revamped from April 1, 2009. It seeks to provide gainful employment to the urban unemployed
and underemployed poor, by encouraging them to set up self-employment ventures as also by providing wage
employment and utilizing their labour for construction of socially and economically useful community assets.
3. The Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojana (PMRY). The scheme was designed to provide selfemployment to
more than 1 million educated unemployed youth by setting up of 7 lakh micro-enterprises during the Eighth
Plan. The scheme was continued during the Ninth Plan.
UNEMPLOYMENT SITUATION IN WEST BENGAL
The fluctuation in employment or unemployment in West Bengal has to come to terms with the periodic
instability of the growth process. The trend in employment, in fact, is the ‘outcome’ of the changing
combinations of capital, technology and the labour market institutions. The estimated aggregate employment
in West Bengal increased gradually from 17.8 million in 1983 to 27.6 million in 2004-05. The compound
annual rate of growth (CAGR) of employment which was 3.01% during 1983 to 1993-94 declined
significantly to 0.67% during the period 1993-94 to 1999-2000. Thereafter, employment tended again to
grow at a higher rate, i.e., 1.77%, during 1999-2000 to 2004-05.
Despite urbanisation in the State, urban employment (male plus female) declined from 76 to 73 lakh
between 1999-2000 and 2004-05. More affected was the male employment, while female labour force found
increased job opportunities; In truth the growth in female employment in the urban sector is largely explained
by the opening up of opportunities for them in the manufacturing sector, in the era of globalization, while
male manufacturing workers increasingly constituting the ‘reserve army’. One could gauge the phenomenon
from the Tiljala-Topsia area in the eastern part of Kolkata.
IMPACT OF ECONOMIC REFORMS
Let us examine the performance of economic reforms.
Growth rate :
During 1980-81 to 1990-91, the growth rate of GDP (Gross Domestic Product) was 5.6 per cent per annum.
During the post-reform decade 1990-91—2000-01, GDP growth rate per annum was the same. But during the
next decade (2000-2010), average annual GDP growth rate was 6.5 per cent. It indicates that the growth
potential of India has improved as a result of reforms initiated in 1991.
Chap 20 8 apurba sir
Reduction of poverty :
Dr. Gaurab Datt has compared poverty in the pre-reform and the post-reform periods. The main conclusions
of his study are as follows :
(i) There was a marked decline in both rural and urban poverty rates during 1973-74 to 1986-87. But during
post-reforms period, there is no such comparable period.
(ii) The rate of decline in all major measures of poverty was very insignificant during the post-reform period.
(iii) For the urban sector, there was decline in poverty during 1973-74 to 1990-91. The same trend continued
in the post reform period.
(iv) Rural poverty reduction was choked off by lack of rural growth.
Employment :
During 1983-84 and 1990-91, the rate of growth of employment was 2.39 per cent. It was just equal to the
rate of growth of labour force. But during 1990-91 to 1997-98, the growth rate of employment was only l per
cent. The growth rate of employment of the organised and large corporate sector also came down from
1.73 per cent to only 0.60 per cent during these two periods. Thus, we may say that during the post-reform
period, there has been jobless growth.
Agriculture :
A major criticism of the process of economic reforms is the neglect of agriculture. During 1980-81 to 1990-
91, foodgrains production increased from 129.6 million tonnes to 176.4 million tonnes. The annual
compound growth rate was 3.1 per cent. But during 1990-91 to 2003-04, foodgrains production increased
from 176.4 million tonnes to 212.0 million tonnes. It indicates an annual average growth rate of 1.4 per cent.
This is less than the rate of growth of population. It may cost the nation very dearly in the coming decades.
The main reasons behind this poor performance of agriculture are : neglect of agriculture, fall in public
investment, ii) fall in the growth rate of irrigated area, etc.
Industrial growth :
Economic reforms were mainly intended to remove the bottlenecks which were considered as obstacles to
industrial production. To pursue this goal, industrial licensing was abolished in all but 18 industries. At
present, there are only four industries exclusively reserved for the public sector. Despite all this, during 1981-
82 to 1990-91, annual growth rate of industrial production was 7.8 per cent. During 1993-94 to 2003-04, it
came down to 6.6 per cent. In the case of consumer durables, annual growth rate of 13.9 per cent in the
eighties came down to 10.2 per cent during 1993-94 to 2003-04. Thus, industrial production during the period
of wide-ranging reforms was not up to the mark. It failed even to equal the performance of the eighties, not to
speak of improving the performance.
Give a brief description of income inequality in India.
Indian economy is marked with glaring inequality in the distribution of national income. We can
get a detail picture of such inequality from the various estimates made by different economists since 1950’s.
let us mention some of them.
According to Lydall, in India the top 10% household accounted for 34% of the countries national
income while 25% of the total population got only 34% of the NI. Ayenger and Mukherjee estimated that in
1955-56 top 10% of the population cornered 24% of NI while bottom 20% only get 7.5% of NI. In the period
1953 – 57 the estimates of RBI also reveal the same picture. Moreover RBI found that inequality is much
more severe in urban areas, than village areas.
This picture of inequality is widened more now. World Development report in 1987-88 has shown
that the top 10% posses nearly 40% of NI, while the lowest 20% of the had the 7% of the NI.
Thus form various studies mentioned above it is clear that in India equality in distribution of
income is becoming worsen day by day in spite of several measure of poverty alleviation programs.
Describe the factors responsible for increasing income inequality.
The inequality in the distribution of income has increased due to several reasons. Some of them are:-
A. Inequality in land ownership: due feudalistic pattern of land holding, there is extreme inequality in land
ownership.
B. Unemployment: According to Mahalanobis Committee unemployment and under employment is the
main factor behind growing inequality;
C. Tax Evasion: Due to heavy rate of taxation, rich people more or less practice tax evasion which in turn
leads to concentration of money in few hands.
D. Capitalism: Indian economy is a mixed economy which posses capitalistic features. Inequality in the
distribution of income is a consequence of development of such capitalistic features.
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E. Inflation: Regular inflation reduces purchasing power of the people which makes poor poorer and rich
richer.
F. Exploitation of moneylenders: exorbitant rate of interest and other malpractices of money lenders
increases inequality in India.
G. Lack of property rights. The right to property is not a fundamental right in India. As a result
concentration of property in the hand of few becomes the root of poverty.
H. Social Practices: according to A.K.Sen cast system prevailing in India also contributes in its inequality.
I. Inequality in Opportunity: lack of equal opportunity also contributes to the growth of income
inequality.
J. Regressive Tax System: Dominance of regressive Tax structure also contributes to the Income
Inequality.
Mention some of the measures adopted by the Govt. to eradicate inequality in income.
GOI has adopted several measures to reduce inequality in the distribution of income.let5 us discuss them.
Land Reform: Land reform measures had been taken in order to reduce the inequality in the
distribution of cultivatable land. Basically inequality in the land holding is the root of inequality in
income.
Growth of Cottage Industries: In order to reduce unemployment and under employment GOI has
taken the development of small industries, cottage industries on priority basis.
Allowances: Different types of transfer payments are made to the weaker section of the population.
Tax Reforms: Govt. has modified tax structure in order to stop tax evasion.
Restriction on Monopoly: in order to inhibit the growth of monopoly GOI had adopted several
measures like MRTP Act, FERA Act, etc.
Wage Act: GOI had enacted minimum wage act to stop exploitation on labourers.
Unemployment reduction: GOI had taken several measures to reduce unemployment in India.
Expansion of Public Sector: GOI had expanded Public sector to reduce inequality in capital.
Social Security: expansion of Social Security measures, such as, insurance, provident fund, indirectly
helps to reduce inequality.
Minimum Needs Programme (MNP): by providing minimum needs through this programme GOI
indirectly reduce the inequality in opportunity.
Write a note on the inequality of the land ownership.
When the ownership of large amount of land concentrates in the hand of few landlords then it
is known as the inequality in the distribution of land holding. In India it is found that most of the inhabitants
of the rural areas are either landless or small land owner owing up to 2.5 acre of land and very few families
hold large amount of land. Thus in India the distribution of operational holding is very unequal. As it is found
from West Bengal that in the year 1971-72, the 78% of rural household are either land less or small land
owner and the rest 22% is big land owner.
Now inequality in the distribution of land is closely related with the inequality in the distribution
of NI. Thus in order to remove inequality in the income it is urgent to remve inequality in the ownership
holding.
Several land reform measures are adopted to remove the inequality in the ownership holding. Let
us describe some of them.
Abolition of Intermediaries: Before independence in India three types of land system were operative,
namely, Jamindary, Mahalwari and Rayatwary. In all the three land system there were lot of intermediaries
and thus the contact between the actual tiller of the land and the Govt. was lost. Thus it became very urgent
to remove those faulty systems of British Era. Therefore, after independence, since 1954 a number of acts
were passed to reform that faulty infrastructure of agriculture. Intermediaries were paid compensation of
which a portion is in cash and the rest is in Govt. securities.
Tenancy reforms: This measure has three forms, namely, regulation of rent i.e. fixing a range of rent.
So, that no landowner can charge a rent more than this. The Planning Commission recommended that rent
should not exceed 1/4th of the gross produce and should not be less than 1/5th of the gross produce. Next is
security of tenure. So that, barring some exceptional cases the tenants cannot be evicted. The last one is
conferment of ownership rights to tenants.
Ceiling on land holdings: according to this measure beyond a certain limit, all lands of the land lords
would be taken over by the state and allotted to small farmers and landless labourers. In West Bengal this
ceiling had been fixed at 31 bighas for irrigated land and 57 bighas for unirrigated land.
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Consolidation of Land holdings: in order to reap the economies of large scale production the scattered
and fragmented holdings in India consolidation of land holding is important. Thus some states have enacted
legislation in this regard.
Organization of Cooperative farms: in order to consolidate scattered and fragmented holdings cooperative
farming was proposed to be introduced and legislations were passed in favour of that.
Describe the inequality in the distribution of capital in the private corporate sectors of India.
If the means of production is concentrated in the hands of few big industrialists, then that situation
is referred as inequality in the distribution of capital in the private corporate sector. This is also known as
monopoly concentration.
In India two types of monopoly concentration can be seen namely concentration by monopoly
firms and concentration by monopoly houses. Let us describe them.
If one or two big industrialist firm controls lion share of the market of a particular commodity.
Then such firms are known as monopoly firms and such concentration is known as concentration by
monopoly firms. As for example in India car manufacturing is fully controlled by few big firms like TATA,
Birla, Maruti, etc. basically in 1964 Monopoly Enquiry Commission had revealed that among 100 important
consumer goods there exists monopoly concentration in 65 goods.
If a large business group dominates the production of a number of important commodities, so that, in effect
they control a major portion of the production sector, then it is known as concentration by monopoly houses and such
business groups are known as monopoly house. As for example in India monopoly houses like TATA, Goenka, Birla,
Reliance, etc control the market of a large number of commodities.
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১) রশল্পাঞ্চকেি বেকািত্বঃ এই যিকনি বেকাি হে তািাই যািা কাজ কিকত ইচ্ছুক, রকন্তু কম্থসংিাকনি অভাে বহতু কম্থ হীন। সাযািণতঃ
সহিাঞ্চকেি অরযকাংশ বেকািত্ব এই জাতীে। বকান কািখানা েে হকে বগকে বয বেকািকত্বি সৃরি হে তা এই জাতীে বেকািকত্বি
উদাহিণ।
২) রশরিত বেকািত্বঃ একজন েযরি রশরিত হওো সকত্বও যরদ কম্থহীন থাককন ো তাি বযাগযতাি অনুরূে কাজ না োন তাহকে তাকক
রশরিত বেকাি েো হে। ভািকত সপ্তম্ েরিকল্পনাকাকে এই রশরিত বেকাকিি সংখযা রেে প্রাে ৪৭ েিয। েস্তুতঃ উন্নেকনি সাকথ সাকথ
বদকশ রশিা রেস্তাকিি হাি েৃরি বেকে নতুন কম্থসংিান সৃরিি হাি রেকশষ না োোে রশরিত বেকাকিি সংখযা রদন রদন োেকে।
৩) কাঠাকম্াগত ো প্রযুরিগত বেকািত্বঃ বদকশি অথথবনরতক কাঠাকম্াগত েরিেতথন ো উৎোদন েিরতি েরিেতথন ো নতুন দ্রকেযি
প্রচেন ইতযারদ কািণেশতঃ বয বেকািত্ব বদখা যাে, তাকক কাঠাকম্াগত ো প্রযুরিগত বেকািত্ব। বযম্ন ভািকত নাইেন েযাকগি প্রচেন
োোে োি রশকল্প ম্দা বদখা রদকেকে, ফকে োিকেগুরে এককি েি এক েে হকে যাওোে, বয বেকািকত্বি সৃরি হকেকে, তা হে এই
জাতীে বেকািত্ব।
৪) োরণজযচক্রজরনত বেকািত্বঃ োরণজযচকক্র ম্দাি সম্ে অথথবনরতক কাজকম্থ হ্রাস োে, ফকে অথথবনরতক ম্দাি কািকণ েহু বোক
বেকাি হকে েকে। এইজাতীে বেকািত্বকক োরণজযচক্রজরনত বেকািত্ব েকে।
Chap 20 17 apurba sir
Chap 20 18 apurba sir